FEBRUARY 20, 2023

LECTURE #4

TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION II
1
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION

TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION II 2
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION

TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION II 3
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION

TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION II 4
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION - TIPS

• Look at the expression inside the square root and identify which
substitution to use using the table.
• After integrating and expressing the final answer in terms of θ,
substitute back into the original variable using a diagram.

Examples:

TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION II 5
INTEGRATION BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS
• What is a rational function?
➢ It is a ratio of polynomials.

2 1 2 x+2 − x−1 x+5

− = =
x−1 x+2 x−1 x+2 x2 + x − 2

• What happens if we integrate this?

x+5
න dx
2
x +x−2

• If we encounter functions like this, there is a need to

simplify these by breaking them down into partial
fractions.
TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION II 6
INTEGRATION BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS
• What is a rational function?
➢ It is a ratio of polynomials.

2 1 2 x+2 − x−1 x+5

− = =
x−1 x+2 x−1 x+2 x2 + x − 2

• What happens if we integrate this?

x+5
න dx
2
x +x−2

• If we encounter functions like this, there is a need to simplify

these by breaking them down into partial fractions.
TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION II 7
INTEGRATION BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS

• Let’s consider a rational function in the form

P(x)
f(x) =
Q(x)

• Next, take a look at the degree of the functions P and Q.

➢If deg(P) < deg(Q), the rational function is proper. [partial fractions]
➢If deg(P) ≥ deg(Q), the rational function is improper. [long division]

Example:

x3 + x
න dx
x−1

TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION II 8
CASES OF PARTIAL FRACTIONS

• Case I: Distinct Linear Factors

Example:

x2 + 2x − 1
න dx
2x3 + 3x2 − 2x
dx
න , where a ≠ 0
x2 − a2

TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION II 9
CASES OF PARTIAL FRACTIONS

• Case II: Repeated Linear Factors

Example:

x4 − 2x2 + 4x + 1
න dx
x3 − x 2 − x + 1

TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION II 10
CASES OF PARTIAL FRACTIONS

• Case III: Distinct Quadratic Factors

Example:

2x2 − x + 4
න dx
x3 + 4x

TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION II 11
CASES OF PARTIAL FRACTIONS

• Case IV: Repeated Quadratic Factors

Example:

1 − x + 2x2 − x3
න dx
2
x x2 + 1

TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION II 12
MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTITUTIONS
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS OF SINE AND COSINE
• Let’s consider an integral in the form
න R(sin x, cos x) dx

➢ where R is a rational function of sin x and cos x

• Next, we can transform these functions using the Weierstrass substitution

formulas:
x 2z 1 − z2 2 dz
z = tan sin x = cos x = dx =
2 1 + z2 1 + z2 1 + z2
Example: dx Note: For derivation of the formulas, you may visit
න Weierstrass substitution formulas (planetmath.org)
1 + sin x + cos x
TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION II 13
MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTITUTIONS
ALGEBRAIC SUBSTITUTION

• For functions that contain the fractional power of the variable x, the
substitution x = zn , where n is the common denominator of the
exponents of x.
m n
n
• For functions involving ax + b , the substitution z = ax + b will
eliminate the radical.
1 dz
• If everything else doesn’t work, try substituting x = , such that dx = − .
z z2

Examples: dx x+4 dx
න x3 x2 − 9 dx
න
න න dx
x− x x x x2 + 2x − 1
TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION II 14
SEATWORK #9: MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTITUTIONS

1. න 3dx 4.
sin x + tan x 4 − y2
න dy
y
2. න 49m2 2m + 1 3 dm
5. dx
dz න
3. න x x2 + x + 1
z −3 z

TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION II 15