Dbnmefgr gk ^eng`jbry Ejunbtog` Jepbrtce`t

Tebnnrejotej Fevef O[ dy tme Bnnrejoto`a Bae`ny gk Nmbrterej Ngffeaes b`j U`oversotoes gk tme
Xmofoppo`es

DBNMEFGT GK ^ENG@JBT_
JEXBTZCE@Z 2
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4|Xbae
 ZBDFE GK NG@ZE@Z

O`trgjuntog` 5
Nmbpter 2< O`trgjuntog` tg tme Qgrfj gk Nmofjre`‟s Foterbture ;
Xre-test ;
Ng`te`t/Xrepbrbtgry Bntovotoes ;

Mostgry gk nmofjre`‟s foterbture ;

Tene`t tre`js o` nmofjre`‟s foterbture 28
Ng``ento`a febr`o`a stb`jbrjs tg Brts-Dbsej Tespg`ses tg Foterbture 24
Nfgsure Bntovotoes 2=
Evbfubtog` 48
Bssoa`ce`ts 42
Nmbpter 4< Efece`ts gk Rubfoty Nmofjre`‟s Foterbture 4:
Xre-test 4:
Jeko`otog` gk Foterbture 4:
Nmbrbnterostons gk Nmofjre`‟s Foterbture bs Ae`re 4;
Efece`ts gk Foterbture 41
Nfgsure Bntovotoes >8
Evbfubtog` >2

Bssoa`ce`t >4
Nmbpter >< Zme Brt Offustrbtog`, Ebrfy Nmofjmggj Dggis >>
Xre-Zest >>
Zme Brt gk Offustrbtog` >:
Xonture Dggis tmrguamgut Ebrfy Nmofjmggj >;
Qmbt os Xonture Dggi7 >1
Efece`ts gk Xonture Dggi >1
Zypes gk Xonture Dggis >=
Nfgsure Bntovotoes >?
Evbfubtog` >?
Bssoa`ce`ts :8
Nmbpter :< Zrbjotog`bf Foterbture, Cgjer` Foterbture, B`ocbf Kb`tbsy,
Ng`tecpgrbry Tebfoston Kontog` :2

Xre-Zest :2
Zrbjotog`bf Foterbture :4
Cgjer` Foterbture ::
Kb`tbsy/B`ocbf Kb`tbsy :?
Ng`tecpgrbry Tebfoston Kontog` 54
Nfgsure Bntovotoes 5>
Evbfubtog` 5:
Bssoa`ce`t 55
^uccbtove Bssessce`t 5;

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 NGUT^E< EF 28= Nmofjre` b`j Bjgfesne`t Foterbture

NGUT^E JE^NTOXZOG@<

Xrgvojes b survey gk tme nbteagroes b`j types gk tme wgrfj‟s foterbture kgr nmofjre` b`j
bjgfesne`ts. (EI->)

NGUT^E GUZFO@E<

B. O`trgjuntog` tg tme Qgrfj gk Nmofjre`‟s Foterbture

D. Efece`ts gk Rubfoty Nmofjre`‟s Foterbture
N. Zme Brt gk Offustrbtog`, Ebrfy Nmofjmggj Dggis

J. Zrbjotog`bf Foterbture, Cgjer` Foterbture, B`ocbf Kb`tbsy, Ng`tecpgrbry Tebfoston

E. Dogarbpmy b`j Butgdogarbpmy, O`kgrcbtog`bf Dggis
K. U`jerstb`jo`a _gu`a Bjuft Foterbture, Evbfubto`a b`j ^efento`a _gu`a Bjuft Foterbture
A. Ng``ento`a Bjgfesne`ts b`j Zmeor Foterbture
M. Expfgro`a _gu`a Bjuft Foterbture

TBZOG@BFE <

Zmos ngurse os jesoa`ej tg o`trgjune tme febr`er gk tme ocpgrtb`ne gk stujyo`a nmofjre`‟s b`j
bjgfesne`t foterbture, ots ceb`o`a b`j ots ng`nepts. Nmofjre`‟s foterbture os ocpgrtb`t denbuse ot
prgvojes stuje`ts wotm gppgrtu`otoes tg respg`j tg foterbture9 ot aoves stuje`ts bpprenobtog`

o`teffoae`ne b`j nrebtovoty9 ot `urtures argwtm b`j jevefgpce`t gk tme stuje`t‟s persg`bfoty b`j
sgnobf sioffs9 b`j ot trb`scots ocpgrtb`t foterbture b`j tmeces krgc g`e ae`erbtog` tg tme `ext.

O@^ZTUNZOG@ ZG ZME U^ET^

Zmos cgjufe os o`te`jej kgr tme sefk-pmbse febr`o`a gppgrtu`oty gk tme stuje`ts o`soje tme
nfbssrggc gr eve` wotmgut tme auojb`ne gr jorent o`struntog`s krgc tmeor tebnmer. O` ng`sost gk
rebjo`a cbterobfs b`j gtmer febr`o`a bntovotoes tmbt wgufj mefp tme febr`ers abo` tme dbson
i`gwfejae tmey `eej tg febr` bdgut tmos ngurse b`j tg u`jerstb`j tme ocpgrtb`ne gk stujyo`a
nmofjre` b`j bjgfesne`t foterbture.

:|Xbae
O`trgjuntog`

Zmos nmbpter expfgres mostgronbf, sgnobf, b`j pgfotonbf o`kfue`nes g` nmofjre`‟s foterbture, o`nfujo`a rene`t
tre`js refbtej tg joaotbf b`j tenm`gfgaonbf o`kfue`nes, sunm bs o`ngrpgrbto`a cuftopfe wbys gk
ngccu`onbto`a o` respg`se tg cuftocejob cessbaes prevbfe`t o` joaotbf kgrcbts. Nmofjre`‟s foterbture
gkkers o`soamt o`tg tme nufturbf, sgnobf, b`j pgfotonbf mostgry gk tme pfbne b`j toce bt wmonm ot wbs wrotte`.
Zme defoeks, `grcs, b`j vbfues gk tme spenokon mostgronbf toce b`j pfbne ot wbs wrotte` bre rekfentej o` tme
ng`te`t gk tme wroto`a, tme styfe, b`j ae`re gk tme wroto`a, b`j tme bujoe`ne gr cbriet kgr wmonm tme text
wbs wrotte`. Xfbno`a nmofjre`‟s foterbture wotmo` tmese ng`texts bffgws rebjers tg renga`oze b`j nrotoque
tme nufturbf cessbaes nbrroej wotmo` nmofjre`‟s dggis b`j ng`sojer tme pgte`tobf ekkent gk tmgse
cessbaes g` rebjers. Qmofe jokkere`nes o` tme nmofjre`‟s foterbture krgc tme pbst cby de rebjofy
bppbre`t, ng`tecpgrbry dggis bfsg rekfent nufturbf, sgnobf, b`j pgfotonbf wgrfjs gk tgjby, cbio`a ot
equbffy ocpgrtb`t kgr ejunbtgrs tg b`bfyze tme nufturbf cessbaes ng`tbo`ej wotmo` tmec bs weff.

Bkter jevefgpo`a b` u`jerstb`jo`a gk ng`tecpgrbry nmofjre`‟s foterbture, tmos nmbpter kgnuses g` mgw
tebnmers nb` tbie kuff bjvb`tbae gk nmofjre`‟s dggis o` tme nfbssrggc. O` pbrtonufbr, nmofjre`‟s foterbture
o`ngrpgrbto`a cuftopfe kgrcs gk ngccu`onbtog`, sunm bs bujog gr cgvece`t, nb` nrebte drgbjer
gppgrtu`otoes kgr stuje`ts tg respg`j. Zmese texts fe`j tmecsefves espenobffy weff tg brts-dbsej

respg`ses, wmonm use vosubf brt, cuson, jrbcb, gr jb`ne bntovotoes tg e`mb`ne u`jerstb`jo`a gk texts.
Aovo`a stuje`ts gppgrtu`otoes tg rebj dggis tmbt ngccu`onbte o` cuftopfe wbys, b`j tme` aovo`a
stuje`ts gppgrtu`otoes tg respg`j tg tmgse dggis uso`a cuftopfe wbys gk ngccu`onbto`a, prepbres tmec
tg ngccu`onbte ekkentovefy o` b` ever-nmb`ao`a wgrfj.

5|Xbae
 NMBXZET 2

O`trgjuntog` tg tme Qgrfj gk Nmofjre`‟s Foterbture

FEBT@O@A GDLENZO[E^

Upg` ngcpfetog` gk tmos cgjufe tme febr`ers woff de bdfe tg<

2. Jecg`strbte tmeor u`jerstb`jo`a gk tme ocpgrtb`ne gk stujyo`a nmofjre` b`j bjgfesne`t
foterbture, ots ng`nepts b`j ots ceb`o`a9
4. Jecg`strbte tmeor u`jerstb`jo`a gk tme jokkere`t ae`res tmrguam tme types gk foterbture
ng`trodutej dy wroters brgu`j tme wgrfj.
>. Josnuss tme jokkere`t efece`ts refbtej tg nmofjre` b`j ygu`a bjuft foterbture
:. Evbfubte b`j sefent bpprgprobte foterbture kgr nmofjre`
5. Jecg`strbte u`jerstb`jo`a gk mgw soa`okonb`t mucb` experoe`nes bre dest nbpturej o` vbrogus
foterbry kgrcs tmbt o`spore mucb`s tg dro`a gut tme dest o` tmec.

XTE-ZE^Z

E`u er
2. Fost jgw` iey tmece b`j ng`ner`s gk nmofjre`‟s foterbture.
b.
d.
n.
j.
e.

4. Qmbt bre tme nmbrbnterostons gk pbtter`s o` nmofjre`‟s foterbture.

k.
a.
m.
>. Aove exbcpfes gk brts-dbsej respg`ses tg nmofjre`‟s foterbture

l.

NG@ZE@Z XTEXBTBZGT_ BNZO[OZOE^

Dekgre we stbrt tmos nmbpter, fet‟s tmo`i bdgut tme kgffgwo`a questog`s
Qmbt os b aggj stgry7
Qmy rebj nmofjre`‟s nfbssons7
Qmy jg we `eej tg stujy foterbture7

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JE[EFGXCE@ZBF BNZO[OZOE^

Qmy jg we `eej tg stujy foterbture7

Foterbture os koffej wotm ojebs tmbt `eej tg de expfgrej.
Foterbture mefps us tg see gur wgrfj o` `ew wbys. Ot dro`as us tg b jeeper u`jerstb`jo`a gk foke

Qmbt os b aggj stgry7

B aggj stgry os bdgut sgcetmo`a tme bujoe`ne jenojes os o`teresto`a gr ocpgrtb`t. B arebt stgry
k o f
B aggj stgry smgufj bfter ygu o` sgce wby9 ot smgufj nmb`ae ygur tmo`io`a, ygur keefo`a, ygur
psynme, gr tme wby ygu fggi bt tmo`as. B stgry os b` bdstrbnt experoe`ne9 ot‟s rbtmer foie ve`turo`a
tmrguam b cbze. Qme` ygu ngce gut gk ot, ygu smgufj keef sfoamtfy nmb`aej (Bffe` ^by)
B aggj stgry, mgwever, jges cgre tmb` o`kgrc gr bcpfoky. Ot bjjs vbfue tg tme tgpon.

Qmy rebj nmofjre`‟s nfbssons7

^gce pegpfe costbie`fy defoeve, wrotes nmofjre`‟s butmgr Loff Xbtg` Qbfsm, ‖tmbt sgcetmo`a wrotte` kgr
nmofjre` os `enessbrofy o`kerogr, ngufj `gt de b serogus wgri gk brt.– Bs bwbrj-wo``o`a Ibtmero`e
Xetersg` braues, cb`y o`teffoae`t, weff-ceb`o`a pegpfe tmo`i tmbt –wmofe bjuft foterbture cby boc tg de
brt, tme gdlent gk nmofjre`‟s dggis os tg wmop tme fottfe rbsnbfs o`tg smbpe. –

Dut arebt nmofjre`‟s stgroes bre pgwerkuf, ocbao`btove, b`j cecgrbdfe9 tmey resg`bte wotm rebjers gk bff
baes b`j mbve b fbsto`a b`j prgkgu`j ocpbnt. Zmos sote woff exbco`e b sefentog` gk nfbsson nmofjre`‟s
`gvefs bs josto`auosmej wgris gk brt. Ot woff fggi bt wmbt cbies tmese `gvefs `gtbdfe b`j wmy tmey mbve
sunm u`oversbf bppebf.

Lgsepm Ng`rbj wrgte tmbt every wgrj o` b aggj `gvef smgufj ng`trodute tg tme wgri‟s gverbff purpgse.
B arebt `gvef kgr eotmer nmofjre` gr bjufts os foie b sycpmg`y9 ot mbs b`y sepbrbte efece`ts dut tmey bff
wgri tgaetmer tg nrebte b u`okoej ekkent.

Qmy smgufj ygu nbre bdgut nmofjre`‟s foterbture7

Ok ygu bre o` bppgsotog` gk o`kfue`ne wotm nmofjre`, de ot bs pbre`t, tebnmer, fodrbrob`, gr arb`jpbre`t, ygu
nb` cbie b jeko`otove ocpbnt g` tmeor foves dy kgstero`a b fgve gk rebjo`a. Tesebrnm mbs smgw` b

jecg`strbtej refbtog`smop detwee` rebjo`a, nga`otove jevefgpce`t, verdbf sioffs, b`j bnbjecon
bnmoevece`t. Nmofjre` wmg bre rebj tg, `gt g`fy bre cgre brtonufbte , dut b fsg mbve mo amer grjer
rebsg`o`a sioffs, b cgre ekkentove wroto`a styfe, superogr rebjo`a ngcpreme`sog`, b`j cgre bjvb`nej
nrotonbf tmo`io`a sioffs.

^tgroes tebnm nmofjre` mgw tg ngpe wotm foke‟s nmbffe`aes. Zmey prgvoje b trobf ru` gk foke‟s pgssodofotoes.
Zmey bfsg trb`scot tme bnnucufbtej wosjgc b`j vbfues gk gur nufture. Nmofjre` febr` tmrguam cgjefs
b`j merges.

Iey tmeces b`j ng`ner`s o` nmofjre`‟s foterbture

Mgce
^nmggf

Xbre`ts
1|Xbae
 ^odfo`as
Arb`jpbre`ts
Kroe`jsmop
Zgys, jgffs, pfby
Xets b`j b`ocbfs
Dortmjbys
Mgfojbys
Cbaon
Zme ocbao`btog`

Xbtter`s o` Nmofjre`‟s Foterbture

Nmofjre` tmrove g` pbtter`s tmbt prgvoje grjer b`j ceb`o`a tg tmeor foves. Bs Lg` ^tgtt pgo`ts gut, tme
dest nmofjre`‟s butmgrs nmggse jetbofs tmbt bre soa`okonb`t b`j brrb`ae tmec o`tg ceb`o`akuf pbtter`.
Xegpfe‟s foves bre foie b seroes gk rb`jgc eve`t9 b` ekkentove butmgr smgws tme ng``entog`s detwee`
eve`ts, tmeredy nrebto`a ceb`o`a b`j soa`okonb`ne.
Exbcpfes gk nmbrbnteroston pbtter`s
Mgce-bwby-mgce
Cgvece`t krgc b prgtentej e`vorg`ce`t tg b `e w, bjverse, gr nmbffe`ao`a e`vorg`ce`t
Noty-ngu`try-noty(sgcetoces reverse)

Tebf wgrfj-kb`tbsy wgrfj-rebf wgrfj

Foke-jebtm-redortm
^epbrbtog` krgc b`j reu`og` wotm pbre`ts (cb`y nfbsson bjuft `gvefs e`j wotm cbrrobae9 cb`y
nmofjre`‟s stgroes e`j wotm b reu`og` wotm pbre`ts)
Mefp gtmers fess kgrtu`bte b`j tmey woff mefp ygu
Cgvece`t krgc o``gne`ne tg experoe`ne, gkte` pbtter`ej bkter tme dodfonbf kbff
Ngco`a bae, rote gk pbssbae
Lgur`ey sycdgfozo`a jevefgpce`t
^ebsg`bf nynfe

Nmb`aes o` nmofjre`‟s foterbture

Bfone o` Qg`jerfb`j (2=;5) os usubffy ng`sojerej tme korst sunnesskuf nmofjre`‟s `gvef. Dekgre tme toce gk
ots wroto`a, nmofjre` were voewej bs bjufts-o`-trbo`o`a sg kew wgris were wrotte` spenokonbffy kgr tmec.

nmofjre`‟s butmgrs kgr tme `ext mu`jrej yebrs defoevej tmbt ot wbs juty tg prgtent tme ygu`a. Kew wroter
expgsej rebjers tg tme mbrsm kbnts gk foke. ^o`ne tme 2?18s, tme tre`j mbs dee` tgwbrjs tme jepontog` gk
b arottoer rebfosc. Nmofjre`‟s wroters mbve o`trgjunes tgpons sunm bs vogfe`ne, jebtm, jovgrne, b`j
bdb`jg`ce`t o`tg tme stgroes

Mostgry gk Nmofjre`‟s Foterbture

Zmere mbve dee` cb`y nmb`aes refbtej tg tme pudfosmo`a gk foterbture kgr nmofjre` so`ne tme deao``o`a gk
tme 21tm ne`tury wme` tme g`fy dggis pudfosmej kgr nmofjre` were snmggf dggis tg tebnm tmec tme
bfpmbdet b`j speffo`a, bs weff bs cgrbfs, cb``ers, b`j refoaog`. Bt tmbt toce, tme ng`te`t gk snmggf dggis
wbs o`kfue`nej dy Xurotb` defoeks tmbt nmofjre` were o`nfo`ej tg evof b`j `eejej tg de tbuamt cgrbfs.
Mgwever, juro`a tmos toce, nmebpfy pudfosmej dggis nbffej nmbpdggis ng`tbo`o`a pgpufbr stgroes b`j
tbfes bfsg deab` tg de prgjunej b`j sgfj. ^o`ne tmese dggis joj `gt ng`tbo` strontfy cgrbf stgroes, tmey

=|Xbae
were gkte` nrotonozej kgr jepbrto`a krgc Xurotb` defoeks (Ab`ao, 488:). Xurotb`onbf tmo`io`a eve`tubffy
abve wby tg tme E`foamte`ce`t ojebfs nmbrbnterozej dy tme pmofgsgpmy gk Lgm` Fgnie, wmonm cbriej b
smokt o` tme voew gk nmofjre` tg tmbt gk b ‖dfb`i sfbte– tmbt ngufj de wrotte` upg`. Ju ro`a tmos toce, cgrbf
tbfes b`j kbdfes were stoff pudfosmej, dut cgre foamt-mebrtej dggis kebturo`a wgrj pfby, rojjfes, rmyces,
b`j abces deab` tg bppebr o` nmofjre`‟s dggis bs weff. Nmofjre`‟s dggis bfsg dgrrgwej stgroes groao`bffy
wrotte` kgr bjufts, sunm bs Auffover‟s Zrbvefs, Ovb`mge, b`j Tgdo`sg` Nrusge.

Dekgre tme 21tm ne`tury, nmofjre` were see` bs scbff bjufts9 mgwever, juro`a tme E`foamte`ce`t b`j
Tgcb`ton perogjs, nmofjmggj wbs voewej bs b toce gk o``gne`ne tmbt wbs josto`nt krgc bjgfesne`ne
(ygu`a bjuftmggj) b`j bjuftmggj (Bvery & Io``eff, 2??5). Zmese nmb`aes o` voewpgo`ts nrebtej b `ew
cbriet kgr tme wroto`a b`j pudfosmo`a gk dggis spenokonbffy kgr nmofjre`, wmg were see` bs o``gne`t b`j
pfbykuf deo`as rbtmer tmb` co`o-bjufts. Juro`a tme 2=tm ne`tury, Lgm` @ewdery, b wroter gk nmofjre`‟s
dggis, arebtfy o`kfue`nej nmofjre`‟s foterbture dy stbrto`a tme korst pudfosmo`a mguse jejonbtej tg
nmofjre`‟s stgroes. Me pudfosmej mos gw` stgroes, bs weff bs tme wgris gk gtmer nmofjre`‟s dggi butmgrs
(Ab`ao, 488:). Zme ojeb gk b pudfosmo`a mguse lust kgr nmofjre`‟s stgroes rekfentej b smokt o` mgw sgnoety
tmguamt gk nmofjre`. Juro`a tme 2?tm ne`tury, arebter `ucders gk dggis were wrotte` kgr nmofjre`‟s pfby
b`j e`lgyce`t, o`nfujo`a tme korst ponture dggi, wmonm wbs wrotte` dy Tb`jgfpm Nbfjengtt.

Zmos ebrfy mostgry gk nmofjre`‟s foterbture offustrbtes mgw sgnoetbf nmb`aes o`kfue`nej wroters b`j dggi
pudfosmers tg nrebte b`j prgjune dggis spenokonbffy kgr nmofjre`. Bs b cbriet kgr nmofjre`‟s foterbture mbj
dengce korcfy estbdfosmej o` tme 2=tm b`j 2?tm ne`turoes, nmb`aes o` nmofjre`‟s foterbture o` tme 48tm
ne`tury were refbtej tg tme ng`te`t gk dggis. Kgr exbcpfe, tme perogj detwee` Qgrfj Qbr O b`j Qgrfj
Qbr OO smgwej b prgfokerbtog` gk dggis jeponto`a ojebfosc b`j b pog`eero`a sporot, sunm bs tme smgwnbso`a
gk scbff tgw` foke o` tme Fottfe Mguse g` tme Xrboroe seroes pudfosmej detwee` 2?>4 b`j 2?:> dy Fburb
O`abffs Qofjer (2?12). Mgwever, stgroes krgc tmos toce perogj stoff o`nfujej sgce serogus b`j rebfoston
wroto`a, sunm bs tme socpfonoty b`j jgw`-tg-ebrtm styfe gk Cbrabret Qose Drgw`‟s wgri kgr ygu`a
nmofjre`, gr tme rebfotoes b`j mbrjsmops gk foke jepontej o` stgroes foie ^trbwderry Aorf dy Fgos Fe`sio (2?:5)
tmbt smbrej tme struaafes gk b pggr, wgrio`a kbrc aorf (Mu`t, 2??5).4

Zme ecerae`ne gk cgre rebfoston stgroes prenejej tme g`set gk b cblgr smokt tgwbrj rebfosc tmbt
bnngcpb`oej tme sgnobf b`j pgfotonbf revgfutog` gk tme 2?;8s b`j 2?18s. Detwee` tme 2?>8s b`j 2?58s,
wroters denbce cgre woffo`a tg bjjress tgpons refbtej tg sgnoetbf ossues b`j mbrjsmops, sunm bs struaafes
bssgnobtej wotm pgverty9 mgwever, o` tme 2?;8s b`j 2?18s, b kfggj gk nmofjre`‟s dggis eceraej
ne`tero`a g` rebfosc. Butmgrs sunm bs Deverfy Nfebrfy, Lujy Dfuce b`j Xbuf \o`jef wrgte bdgut argwo`a
up, jebtm, gdesoty, b`j gtmer ossues, wmonm cbriej b smokt o` tme dgu`jbroes gk wmbt wbs bnneptbdfe, b`j
braubdfy, eve` `enessbry kgr nmofjre` tg u`jerstb`j. Zmese ebrfoer butmgrs pbvej tme wby kgr tme wroto`a
gk C. E. Ierr, Ny`tmob [goat, b`j Tgdert Ngrcoer, wmg wrgte bdgut mgcefess`ess, rbne, b`j sexubfoty.
Zme rebfosc gk nmofjre`‟s foterbture o` tme 2?;8s b`j 2?18s represe`tej b rbjonbf smokt bt tmbt toce,
socofbr tg cb`y gk tme gtmer smokts tmrguamgut mostgry refbtej tg mostgronbf, pgfotonbf, b`j sgnoetbf
o`kfue`nes.

?|Xbae
Tene`t Zre`js o` Nmofjre`‟s Foterbture

Tene`t jenbjes mbve drguamt bjjotog`bf nmb`aes o` tme pudfosmo`a gk nmofjre`‟s foterbture. Zme cbriet
kgr nmofjre`‟s foterbture mbs dee` o`kfue`nej dy jecb`j krgc pbre`ts, nmofjre` wotm o`nrebsej duyo`a
pgwer, b`j b prgfokerbtog` gk serobf wroto`a tg dggst sbfes. O` bjjotog`, tmere mbve dee` nmb`aes o` tme
ng`te`t gk nmofjre`‟s dggis refbtej tg ae`jer, joversoty, b`j sgnobf nfbss (Nmo`a, 48859 E`afembrjt, 2??29
Ab`ao, 488:9 Mu`t, 2??59 Fbrroni, 2?;59 Zbxef, 2??19 \opes, 4882). Qmofe ebnm gk tmese brebs os b
wgrtmwmofe tgpon gk stujy g` ots gw`, tmos nmbpter jges `gt kgnus g` tmec deyg`j renga`ozo`a tmeor
o`kfue`ne gverbff.

Qmofe tme ocpbnt g` nmofjre`‟s foterbture jue tg nufturbf o`kfue`nes mbs dee` bppbre`t tmrguamgut tme
jenbjes, nurre`t tre`js ne`ter cgstfy g` joaotbf b`j tenm`gfgaonbf bjvb`nes o` gur sgnoety.
Zenm`gfgaonbf bjvb`nes mbve exertej muae ekkents g` pro`to`a b`j pudfosmo`a nbpbdofotoes. Deyg`j
pro`to`a nbpbdofotoes, butmgrs b`j offustrbtgrs bre wroto`a tg cbo`tbo` tme btte`tog` gk nmofjre`
bnnustgcej tg tme kbst-pbnej se`sgry o`put gk joaotbf resgurnes, sunm bs ngcputer b`j vojeg abces,
scbrtpmg`es, b`j tbdfet bpps. Xudfosmo`a ngcpb`oes mbve bttecptej tg prgjune pro`t texts tmbt cocon
gr resecdfe joaotbf texts o` wgrjo`a, styfe, type gk ocbaes, gr kgrcbt. ^gce pro`t texts eve` dgrrgw
ng`nepts bdgut pbae jesoa` krgc joaotbf texts.

Expgsure tg joaotbf b`j tenm`gfgaonbf resgurnes b`j afgdbf bnness tg o`kgrcbtog` mbve nmb`aej tme
dgu`jbroes, tgpons, b`j perspentoves represe`tej o` dggis kgr nmofjre` (Jresb`a, 2???, 488>). Zmese
nmb`aes o` pro`t texts o`nfuje tme use gk `g`-fo`ebr pfgts tmbt bre grab`ozej `gt dy b typonbf deao``o`a,
cojjfe, b`j e`j, dut teff tme stgry gut gk grjer b`j/gr febj rebjers o` cuftopfe jorentog`s tmrguam tme
text (e.a., Zme E`j, dy Jbvoj FbTgnmeffe, 4881).

Bs B`stey b`j Duff (488;) expfbo`ej, ng`tecpgrbry dggis bre prgjunts gk nmb`ao`a toces tmbt requore
`ew u`jerstb`jo`as bdgut text b`j bre weff suotej kgr tebnmo`a b`j prepbro`a stuje`ts tg
de cuftofoterbte o`jovojubfs. Cuftofoterbte o`jovojubfs bre sgnobffy respg`sodfe, o`kgrcej notoze`s wmg bre
kfexodfe b`j strbteaon bs tmey e`abae o` foterbny prbntones wotm b vbroety gk text types o` b joverse wgrfj
(B`stey & Duff, 488;).

Zenm`gfgaonbf resgurnes mbve nmb`aej tme wby o`kgrcbtog` os ngccu`onbtej, b`j tebnmers cust
prepbre stuje`ts tg u`jerstb`j o`kgrcbtog` krgc bff types gk texts, o`nfujo`a joaotbf texts. Qmofe tmos nb`
de kbnofotbtej uso`a joaotbf tenm`gfgay, sgce snmggfs, nfbssrggcs, gr mgces mbve focotej bnness tg
tenm`gfgay. Kgrtu`btefy, cb`y kfexodfe foterbny sioffs nb` de jevefgpej tmrguam tme use gk pro`t dggis
tmbt mbve tme nmbrbnterostons jesnrodej bdgve, sunm bs coconio`a joaotbf texts o` styfe b`j kgrcbtto`a,
nmb`ao`a grab`ozbtog`bf pbtter`s, expfgro`a o`terbntove kgrcbts, b`j represe`to`a cessbaes o` b vbroety
gk wbys. Zme bvbofbdofoty gk pro`t dggis tmbt nb` tebnm stuje`ts `enessbry joaotbf sioffs cby `brrgw b abp
tmbt ngufj de perpetubtej dy tme jospbroty detwee` e`vorg`ce`ts ronm wotm tenm`gfgay b`j tmgse tmbt
bre fbnio`a o` tenm`gfgay.

Nmb`aes o` ng`tecpgrbry nmofjre`‟s dggis bre `gt g`fy refbtej tg joaotbf b`j tenm`gfgaonbf o`kfue`nes
dut bfsg tme o`kfue`ne gk b nufturbf cgvece`t gk tme fbte 48tm ne`tury i`gw` bs pgstcgjer`osc.

28 | X b a e
Xgstcgjer`osc os fbraefy b rebntog` tg tme bssucej nertbo`ty gk snoe`tokon, gr gdlentove, ekkgrts tg expfbo`
rebfoty. O` esse`ne, ot stecs krgc b renga`otog` tmbt rebfoty os `gt socpfy corrgrej o` mucb`
u`jerstb`jo`a gk ot, dut rbtmer, os ng`struntej bs tme co`j troes tg u`jerstb`j ots gw` pbrtonufbr b`j
persg`bf rebfoty. Kgr tmos rebsg`, pgstcgjer`osc os moamfy sieptonbf gk expfb`btog`s wmonm nfboc tg de
vbfoj kgr bff argups, nuftures, trbjotog`s, gr rbnes, b`j o`stebj kgnuses g` tme refbtove trutms gk ebnm
persg`. O` tme pgstcgjer` u`jerstb`jo`a, o`terpretbtog` os everytmo`a9 rebfoty g`fy ngces o`tg deo`a

tmrguam gur o`terpretbtog`s gk wmbt tme wgrfj ceb`s tg us o`jovojubffy.

@gto`a tme nmb`aes o` nmofjre`‟s foterbture refbtej tg joaotbf b`j pgstcgjer` o`kfue`nes, tebnmers bre
tbsiej wotm jeterco`o`a mgw b`j wme` texts smgufj de usej o` tgjby‟s nfbssrggcs. O` rene`t stujoes,
wme` tebnmers usej texts wotm pgstcgjer` nmbrbnterostons, ot wbs josngverej tmbt tme stuje`ts
jevefgpej tmeor bdofoty tg o`terpret vosubf ocbaes, tmeor joaotbf foterbny sioffs, b`j tmeor bdofoty tg tmo`i
nrotonbffy (Xb`tbfeg, 488:). Ebnm gk tmese sioffs os ocpgrtb`t tg prepbre stuje`ts kgr kuture e`ngu`ters
wotm dgtm pro`t b`j joaotbf texts. ^tuje`ts cby de o`terestej o` joaotbf texts b`j gtmer vbroetoes gk text
types, dut tmey cby `gt mbve b kuff rb`ae gk bdofotoes tg o`terpret bff tme cessbaes ng`tbo`ej o` tmese
texts. Dy o`nfujo`a ng`tecpgrbry dggis o` tme nurronufuc, tebnmers nb` detter prepbre stuje`ts kgr b
woje rb`ae gk experoe`nes o` tme wgrfj.

Cuftocgjbf Zexts o` Nmofjre`‟s Foterbture

Ot os ebsy tg e`vosog` b nfbssrggc tmbt refoes g` tme use gk b pro`t textdggi b`j resgurnes tmbt procbrofy
use pro`tej wgrjs b`j vosubf ocbaes tg represe`t ceb`o`a. Mgwever, pro`t resgurnes bre nmb`ao`a o`
wbys tmbt bre rekfentove gk tme cuftopfe wbys, gr cgjes, tmbt bre usej tg ngccu`onbte wotmo` joaotbf
ng`texts. Zme cgjes gk ngccu`onbtog` e`ngcpbss bff kgrcs gk expressog`, o`nfujo`a ‖[osubf Ceb`o`as
(ocbaes, pbae fbyguts, snree` kgrcbts)9 Bujog Ceb`o`as (cuson, sgu`j ekkents)9 Aesturbf Ceb`o`as
(dgjy fb`aubae, se`subfoty)9 ^pbtobf Ceb`o`as (tme ceb`o`as gk e`vorg`ce`tbf spbnes, brnmotenturbf
spbnes)9 b`j Cuftocgjbf Ceb`o`as– (@ew Fg`jg` Argup, 2??;, p. =8). Zmguam nmofjre`‟s foterbture,
espenobffy ponture dggis, refy cbo`fy g` pro`t b`j vosubf cgjes (o.e., wgrjs ngcdo`ej wotm pontures),
tmere bre argwo`a `ucders gk nmofjre`‟s dggis tmbt nrebtovefy o`ngrpgrbte bujog, aesturbf, b`j spbtobf
cgjes bs weff. Cuftocgjbf texts bre nbpbdfe gk jrbwo`a g` stuje`ts‟ stre`atms b`j prepbro`a tmec kgr b
cuftocgjbf sgnoety wmere o`jovojubfs ngccu`onbte tmrguam bujog, aesturbf, vosubf, spbtobf, b`j pro`t
resgurnes, bs weff bs vbrogus ngcdo`btog`s gk tmese cgjes.

Ebnm cgje mbs ots gw` nbpbnoty tg ngccu`onbte, gr pgte`tobf tg cbie ceb`o`a, wmonm os nbffej b`
bkkgrjb`ne (Iress & Lewott, 488>9 Iress & [b` Feeuwe`, 4882). Dbsonbffy, tmos ceb`s tmbt ebnm cgje
ngccu`onbtes tme sbce ojeb o` b jokkere`t wby tmb` b`y gtmer cgje. Zme ojeb tmbt cgjes mbve
jokkere`t bkkgrjb`nes, gr pgte`tobf tg cbie ceb`o`a, suaaests tmbt sgce cgjes gk ngccu`onbtog` bre
detter suotej kgr sgce tbsis tmb` gtmers. Qme` cgjes bre o`tearbtej, tmeor ngcdo`btog` bfsg
ng`trodutes tg b` gverbff ceb`o`a tmbt ngufj `gt de bnmoevej dy tme use gk b`y g`e cgje g` ots gw`.
Eve` wotmo` b cgje, tme cbterobfs usej gr tme kgrcbt gk tme ngccu`onbtej cessbae nb` ng`trodute
jokkere`tfy tg tme u`jerstb`jo`a gk tme cessbae. Kgr exbcpfe, b wrotte` cessbae nbrroes jokkere`t
ceb`o`a ok ot os wrotte` o` sb`j versus nbrvej o` stg`e (Iress & [b` Feeuwe`, 4882).

22 | X b a e
Zme ceb`o`a-cbio`a pgte`tobf gk b cgje bfsg jepe`js g` mgw b sgnoety gr argup gk o`jovojubfs vbfues
tmbt pbrtonufbr cgje gr mgw tmbt cgje os usej wotmo` tmbt sgnoety o` jokkere`t sotubtog`s b`j ng`texts
(Iress & Lewott, 488>). Bs o`jovojubfs u`jerstb`j tme pgte`tobf usekuf`ess gk b cgje gk ngccu`onbtog`
wotmo` tme ng`text gk tmeor nufture, tmey nb` nmggse tme cgjes tmbt cgst bpprgprobtefy express tmeor
cessbae. Zmo`io`a dbni tg tme exbcpfe gk tme nbt stgry, `gt g`fy jges b pbrtonufbr cgje ngccu`onbte
tme stgry jokkere`tfy, tme nmgone gk b cgje cby de bpprgprobte o` sgce nornucstb`nes dut `gt o` gtmers.

Kgr exbcpfe, ot wgufj de cgre bpprgprobte kgr b scbff nmofj tg bnt gut tme stgry wmofe cgvo`a brgu`j
tme rggc b`j cegwo`a tmb` b ngffeae prgkessgr tebnmo`a b` E`afosm nfbss!

Ng``ento`a Febr`o`a ^tb`jbrjs tg Brts-Dbsej Tespg`ses tg Foterbture

Nmofjre`‟s foterbture nb` de usej dy tebnmers bs o`struntog`bf cbterobfs tg ceet b vbroety gk ejunbtog`bf
agbfs b`j gdlentoves. Uso`a nmofjre`‟s foterbture tmbt o`nfujes cuftopfe cgjes gk ngccu`onbtog` gkkers
cgre gppgrtu`otoes tg o`vote stuje`ts tg respg`j uso`a brts-dbsej kgrcs, sunm bs vosubf brt, jrbcb,
cuson, b`j jb`ne. ^tuje`ts cby de cgre e`ngurbaej tg respg`j tg foterbture ok tebnmers use cgre
kbcofobr tercs, sunm bs cuson, brt gr jrbwo`a, bnto`a gr jrbcb, b`j jb`ne gr cgvece`t rbtmer tmb`
josnusso`a cgjes, foie aesturbf, spbtobf, gr bujog, bs tercs. Brts-dbsej respg`ses bffgw stuje`ts tg use
bff tmeor se`ses bs tmey cbie ceb`o`a. Bs b` exbcpfe, b` brts-dbsej respg`se coamt de g`e o` wmonm

stuje`ts bnt gut wmbt tmey tmo`i coamt mbppe` o` b stgry, nrebte b rmytmcon pbtter` gr tu`e tg sycdgfoze
ebnm nmbrbnter o` b dggi, gr cgve tme sbce wby bs tmey defoeve nmbrbnters keft gr bntej o` aove`
sotubtog`s tg mefp b`bfyze b nmbrbnter‟s ecgtog`s b`j cgtovbtog`s. Cuftocgjbf dggis bre `gt requorej
tggfs kgr brts-dbsej respg`ses o` tmbt tebnmers nb` e`ngurbae gr nrebte brts-dbsej respg`se bntovotoes
kgr b`y dggi, dut wme` b text bfrebjy utofozes bujog, aesture, cgvece`t, gr spbne o` nrebtove wbys, ot
nb` gkker stuje`ts b cgjef b`j set tme stbae kgr e`abao`a o` brts-dbsej respg`ses.

Zbdfe 2. Foterbture Tespg`se Bntovotoes Xurpgses b`j ^tb`jbrjs

Zebnmers‟ Xurpgses kgr Foterbture Tespg`se

^tb`jbrjs
Bntovotoes

Abuae stuje`ts‟ ngcpreme`sog` gk tme foterbture

Aove stuje`ts b nmb`ne tg bsi questog`s, Iey Ojebs b`j Jetbofs. Bsio`a b`j
mefp stuje`ts wgri gut b`ytmo`a tmbt os ng`kuso`a, gr b`swero`a questog`s o` io`jerabrte`
bjvb`ne stuje`ts‟ u`jerstb`jo`a gk tme foterbture wmonm jevefgps o`tg uso`a jetbofs tg
cbie o`kere`nes bt 5tm arbje
^ee ok stuje`ts bre bdfe tg ngccu`onbte tmeor
ojebs tg gtmers

Iey Ojebs b`j Jetbofs. Teteffo`a o`

Cbie sure stuje`ts u`jerstb`j doaaer ojebs o` tme
Io`jerabrte` wmonm febjs tg
foterbture
jeterco`o`a tmeces b`j succbrozo`a

24 | X b a e
 ^ee ok stuje`ts nb` renga`oze pfgt jetbofs b`j eve`ts
tmbt bkkent tme prgaressog` gk tme stgry

Mefp stuje`ts see roamt/wrg`a, sunnesskuf Iey Ojebs b`j Jetbofs. Oje`tokyo`a,
sgfutog`s tg prgdfecs, jokkere`t perspentoves, jesnrodo`a, b`j uftocbtefy ngcpbro`a
ng`seque`nes, gr pgsotove gutngces tg bntog`s b`j ng`trbsto`a nmbrbnters, setto`as
b`j eve`ts
Mefp stuje`ts dengce cgre ecpbtmon bs tmey
u`jerstb`j jokkere`t nmbrbnters‟ ecgtog`s
b`j bntog`s

Ngcpreme`sog` b`j Ngffbdgrbtog`.

^ee mgw jokkere`t stuje`ts o`terpret tme sbce stgry, Xbrtonopbte b`j e`abae o` ngffbdgrbtove
b`j fet tmec see b`j vbfue tmgse jokkere`nes josnussog`s bdgut arbje fevef texts b`j
tgpons

Mefp stuje`ts cbie ng``entog`s tg nurronufuc

tgpons, tmeor gw` foves, tme wgrfj, gtmer texts

( ) o .
^ee ok stuje`ts refbte ojebs o` tme stgry tg gtmer Tenga`oze b`j cbie ng``entog`s krgc
tgpons tmey mbve febr`ej o` nfbss foterbture tg gtmer texts, ojebs, b`j
nufturbf perspentoves
Mefp stuje`ts prepbre kgr tmo`as tmbt tmey mbve `gt
experoe`nej tmecsefves

^efk-sefento`a texts dbsej g` persg`bf

^ee ok stuje`ts e`lgyej tme stgroes
prekere`nes

Zebnmers‟ Xurpgses b`j Fo`is tg Ngccg` Ngre ^tbte ^tb`jbrjs kgr E`afosm Fb`aubae Brts &
Foterbny o` Mostgry/^gnobf ^tujoes, ^noe`ne, b`j Zenm`onbf ^udlents (NN^^9 @btog`bf Agver`grs
Bssgnobtog` & Ngu`nof gk Nmoek ^tbte ^nmggf Gkkoners, 4828) b`j tme @_^ X-24 Ngccg` Ngre
Febr`o`a ^tb`jbrjs (@_^ Jepbrtce`t gk Ejunbtog`, 4822).

Zbdfe 2. Foterbture Tespg`se Bntovotoes Xurpgses b`j ^tb`jbrjs

^oeaef (488;) expfbo`ej mgw trb`sfbto`a o`kgrcbtog` krgc g`e cgje gk ngccu`onbtog` o`tg b jokkere`t
cgje, nbffej trb`scejobtog`, ae`erbtes `ew u`jerstb`jo`as gk tme o`kgrcbtog`. ^o`ne ebnm cgje mbs b
jokkere`t pgte`tobf tg ngccu`onbte, trb`scejobtog` kurtmers stuje`ts‟ ceb`o`a cbio`a denbuse ot
requores tmec tg tmo`i bdgut ng`te`t o` jokkere`t wbys b`j os b nfebr de`ekot gk brts-dbsej respg`ses. O`

bjjotog`, wme` tebnmers ae`erbtej tmeor fosts gk tme purpgses kgr respg`jo`a tg foterbture, tmere were b
2> | X b a e
scbff `ucder tmey fostej tmbt joj `gt cbtnm wotm tme stb`jbrjs, o`nfujo`a prgcgto`a nrebtovoty, bffgwo`a
stuje`ts tg tmo`i gut gk tme dgx b`j expfgre tmeor gw` tmo`io`a, kgstero`a ecpbtmy, b`j aovo`a stuje`ts
b nmb`ne tg de bntovefy e`abaej b`j abo` gw`ersmop gk febr`o`a. Zmese purpgses kgr foterbture respg`se
were ocpgrtb`t tg tebnmers wotm respent tg cbo`tbo`o`a b pgsotove b`j prgjuntove febr`o`a e`vorg`ce`t.
Brts-dbsej respg`ses gkker ronm gppgrtu`otoes tg kufkoff cb`y purpgses sunm bs tmgse o`nfujej o` Zbdfe 2,
wmofe e`mb`no`a u`jerstb`jo`a gk foterbture b`j nrebto`a fokefg`a febr`ers.

Zme jesoa` gk brts-dbsej respg`ses ages deyg`j tmo`io`a gk b ko`bf prgjunt sunm bs b nute nrbkt tg se`j
mgce, tg o`stebj, tmo`io`a bdgut tme bntovoty bs pbrt gk b prgness tmbt woff bffgw stuje`ts tg e`abae wotm
tme ng`te`t b`j foterbture. Denbuse brts-dbsej respg`ses tg nmofjre`‟s foterbture bre ne`trbf tg bnmoevo`a
tebnmers‟ purpgses b`j bfoa` wotm stbte stb`jbrjs, tme ko`bf sentog` gk tmos nmbpter woff kebture weff-
jesoa`ej brts-dbsej bntovotoes tmbt nb` mefp stuje`ts trb`scejobte detwee` cgjes b`j tmo`i bdgut
cbio`a ceb`o`a o` `ew wbys.

Exbcpfes gk Brts-Dbsej Tespg`ses

Zme vosubf b`j perkgrco`a brts respg`ses tg nmofjre`‟s foterbture kebturej o` tmos sentog` bre gkkerej bs
suaaestog`s b`j tg o`spore `ew ojebs. Ebnm dggi b`j ebnm nfbss gkker u`oque gppgrtu`otoes tg nrebte b`j
o``gvbte. Bs ygu ng`sojer tme use gk brts-dbsej respg`ses o` ygur gw` nfbssrggc, e`vosog` ebnm
suaaestog` tbio`a pfbne wotm stuje`ts b`j tebnmers expfgro`a b`j experoe`no`a tme text b`j tme bntovoty
tgaetmer. ^tuje`ts bre `gt prgkessog`bf bntgrs, cusonob`s, brtosts, gr jb`ners, b`j yet tmey bre kuffy
nbpbdfe gk vosubf b`j perkgrco`a brts respg`ses. Foiewose, tebnmers jg `gt `eej tg de prgkessog`bf
brtosts gr jb`ners eotmer tg ekkentovefy use brts-dbsej respg`ses wotm stuje`ts. Bs pgo`tej gut dy
Deramgkk (2??=), tmese respg`ses bre `gt bdgut tebnmo`a tme josnopfo`es gk brt gr cuson o` tme fb`aubae
brts nfbssrggc dut bffgwo`a febr`ers tg use tmeor i`gwfejae krgc tmese josnopfo`es tg febr` o` tme
fb`aubae brts nfbssrggc. Zmese wbys gk tmo`io`a b`j expressog` bre kbcofobr tg ygu`a nmofjre`, sme
expfbo`s. ‖Krgc ebrfy nmofjmggj g`, nmofjre` cbie se`se gk tme wgrfj tmrguam jrbcbton pfby, jrbwo`a,
jb`no`a, so`ao`a b`j gtmer ngccu`onbtove kgrcs– (p. 542). Zebnmers nb` kgster b` e`vorg`ce`t wmere
tmese wbys gk tmo`io`a ng`to`ue tg de vbfuej bs stuje`ts expfgre tme wgrfj o` wbys tmbt bre kbcofobr.
Ebnm exbcpfe o` tme kgffgwo`a sentog` bfsg o`nfujes b fo`i tg tme stb`jbrj(s) tmbt tme bntovoty bjjresses
bs b reco`jer tmbt gkkero`a brts-dbsej respg`ses bnngcpfosmes ocpgrtb`t nurronufbr agbfs.

Cuson

Cuson respg`ses expfgre mgw bff efece`ts gk cuson b`j bujog, o`nfujo`a o`jovojubf sgu`js, potnm (moam gr
fgw), jy`bcons (fguj b`j sgkt), rmytmc, b`j tecpg (speej) ngccu`onbte wotm foste`ers.

^gu`j trb`sfbtog`

Zme text gk Zmos Lbzz Cb` dy Ibre` Ermbrjt (488;) kgffgws tme kbcofobr tu`e gk ‖Zmos Gfj Cb`,– dut tme
verse g` ebnm pbae o`trgjunes b jokkere`t lbzz perkgrcer. Bs pbrt gk tme verse, tmere os b stro`a gk sgu`j
wgrjs tmbt mefps rebjers mebr tme sgu`j gk tme o`struce`t perkgrcej dy tmbt lbzz pfbyer. Zmere os bfsg
b` exte`jej sgu`j wgrj pmrbse o`ngrpgrbtej o`tg tme offustrbtog`. Kgr tmos fessg`, rebj tmrguam tme
dggi bs b nfbss rebj bfguj. Zme` rerebj tme dggi b`j o`vote stuje`ts tg so`a bfg`a wotm tme rebjo`a uso`a
2: | X b a e
tme tu`e tg ‖Zmos Gfj Cb`.– Ko`bffy, use cbterobfs bvbofbdfe o` tme nfbssrggc tg trb`sfbte tme stro`a gk
sgu`j wgrjs dbni o`tg sgu`j (mb`js b`j keet, pe`nofs, wbter dgttfes, dggis, etn.). E`ngurbae stuje`ts tg
de nrebtove bs tmey ko`j cbterobfs tg cbie tme sgu`j. G`ne b sgu`j mbs dee` nmgse` kgr ebnm sg`a
verse, rerebj b`j so`a tme sg`a g`e cgre toce. O`stebj gk spebio`a tme sgu`j wgrjs, repfbne tmec wotm
tme nmgse` sgu`j tg trb`sfbte tme sgu`j wgrjs tg bntubf sgu`js (Tgdertsg`, 488=).

Mebr ygur foke

Qmbt Nmbrfoe Mebrj dy Cgrjonbo Aersteo` (4884) os b ponture dggi dogarbpmy gk tme foke gk ngcpgser
Nmbrfes Oves, wmg os i`gw` bs b ngcpgser wmgse cuson wbs gkte` cosu`jerstggj gr reabrjej bs jokkonuft
tg foste` tg (renbff tmbt tmos dggi wbs josnussej prevogusfy o` rekere`ne tg bujog cgjes). Nmbrfes Oves
mebrj bff tme sgu`js o` mos foke bs cuson, b`j mos ngcpgsotog`s bre ceb`t tg pgrtrby tmos, mgwever
jossg`b`t gr nbngpmg`gus (o.e., josbareebdfe9 `gt mbrcg`ogus) mos ngcpgsotog`s e`jej up deo`a. Kgr
exbcpfe, g`e gk mos cgre kbcgus poenes os b represe`tbtog` gk twg jokkere`t cbrnmo`a db`js pfbyo`a twg
jokkere`t poenes o` jokkere`t ieys, cbrnmo`a krgc gppgsote jorentog`s, nrgsso`a o` krg`t gk tme foste`er,
b`j tme` cgvo`a bwby. O` tmos ponture dggi dogarbpmy, sgu`j wgrjs bre usej bs pbrt gk tme offustrbtog`s
o` jokkere`t ngfgrs b`j kg`ts `ext tg tme gdlent, persg`, gr b`ocbf krgc wmonm tme sgu`j groao`btes. Zme
pbaes bre kuff gk sgu`js b`j ngfgrs, smgwo`a tme sgu`js tmbt percebtej Nmbrfes Oves‟ foke. Korst, smbre

tme dggi wotm stuje`ts, auojo`a tmec bs tmey o`terpret tme cessbaes ngccu`onbtej tmrguam cuftopfe
cgjes. Zme`, o`vote stuje`ts tg wrote b`j offustrbte b sne`e krgc tmeor foke uso`a tme sbce styfe. Koaure 4
smgws mgw b nfbss gk stuje`ts represe`tej sgu`js o` b` offustrbtog` jrbw` krgc b persg`bf cecgor
wroto`a poene tmey were wgrio`a g`. O` tmos nfbssrggc, wme` tme tebnmer tme` bsiej stuje`ts tg ag dbni
b`j revose tmeor cecgor, tme expfgrbtog` o`tg tme sgu`j b`j vosubf represe`tbtog` gk tmeor stgry bffgwej
tmec tg bjj cunm cgre rgdust se`sgry jetbof o`tg tmeor revosog`s (Tgdertsg`, 488=).

Koaure 4. ^tuje`t exbcpfe gk tme offustrbtog` styfe o` Qmbt Nmbrfoe Mebrj dy Cgrjonbo Aersteo`.
25 | X b a e
Jrbcb

Jrbcb respg`ses bffgw stuje`ts tg expfgre mgw efece`ts sunm bs dgjy fb`aubae, pgsture, aesture,
vgone, b`j o`kfentog` ng`trodute tg expresso`a b`j u`jerstb`jo`a ceb`o`a.

Ngfgr b`j ecgtog`s

Zme kgffgwo`a bntovoty bffgws stuje`ts tg expfgre tme refbtog`smop detwee` ngfgr b`j ecgtog`s b`j
o`vgfves twg nmofjre`‟s foterbture dggis< Cy Cb`y Ngfgrej Jbys dy Jr. ^euss (2??;), b`j Zme Qby O
Keef dy Lb`b` Nbo` (4888). Dgtm gk tmese dggis refbte ecgtog`s b`j cggjs tg jokkere`t ngfgrs. ^tbrt tme
fessg` dy rebjo`a ebnm gk tme dggis o` b fbrae argup kgrcbt. Kgr tme recbo`jer gk tme fessg`, bsi
stuje`ts tg wgri wotmo` scbff argups. Xrgvoje ebnm argup wotm pfe`ty gk jokkere`t ngfgrej poenes gk
pbper. Zg stbrt, bsi g`e persg` o` tme argup tg bnt gut b` ecgtog` kgr tme gtmer cecders, nmbrbje styfe.
Gtmer cecders gk tme argup woff tme` nmggse b poene gk pbper o` b ngfgr tmey tmo`i represe`ts tme
bntej-gut ecgtog`. Zme argup cecders woff tme` smbre tme ecgtog` tmey defoevej wbs deo`a bntej gut,
bs weff bs wmy tmey nmgse tmbt pbrtonufbr ngfgr tg represe`t ot, b`j tme bntgr nb` smbre ok tme argup
cecders auessej tme ecgtog` tmey were pgrtrbyo`a. Tepebt tme steps o` tmos bntovoty sg tmbt ebnm
persg` o` tme argup mbs b` gppgrtu`oty tg bnt gut b` ecgtog` gr cggj. _gu`aer nmofjre` stoff expfgro`a
wbys tg `bce tmeor ecgtog`s nb` use tmos bntovoty tg kurtmer jevefgp tmeor u`jerstb`jo`a gk ecgtog`s.
Gfjer nmofjre` wgrio`a g` o`ngrpgrbto`a cgre jesnroptove wgrjs b`j expfbo`o`a b`j pgrtrbyo`a ecgtog`s
o` tmeor wroto`a nb` use tmos bntovoty tg bjj kurtmer joce`sog`s tg mgw tmey b`j gtmers tmo`i bdgut
ecgtog`s b`j cggjs. Zmos bntovoty nb` de espenobffy e`foamte`o`a, so`ne stuje`ts cby rebfoze tmbt tmguam
tmey tmo`i tmey bre smgwo`a g`e ecgtog`, gtmers cby perneove ot jokkere`tfy.

^gu`j b`j bntog` stgry

Zme kgffgwo`a bntovoty o`votes stuje`ts tg tmo`i bdgut tme bttrodutes gk spenokon nmbrbnters o` b text. Zme
ojeb wbs bjbptej krgc b suaaestog` dy Aefo`ebu (4824) tg nrebte ‖groao`bf sgu`j stgroes– dy
jeterco`o`a sgu`js tg cbtnm weff-jeko`ej nmbrbnters (p. ;1). Zme kgffgwo`a bntovoty exte`js tmbt ojeb dy
bsio`a stuje`ts tg nrebte b sgu`j bs weff bs b` bntog` kgr ebnm nmbrbnter o` b dggi. Qmofe tmos bntovoty
ngufj de bppfoej tg cb`y jokkere`t texts, Zme dgy wmg nroej `o`lb dy Bfex Fbtocer (4822) os gkkerej bs b
suaaestog` tg febr` mgw tme prgness wgris. Zme dggi mbs b woje vbroety gk joverse nmbrbnters, o`nfujo`a
b Cgc, Jbj, Arbcpb, `o`lb, bstrg`but, aob`t squoj, porbte, nrgngjofe b`j cg`iey. Korst, rebj tme
dggi, Zme dgy wmg nroej `o`lb, bfguj. Zme`, drebi tme nfbss o`tg scbff argups b`j mbve tme stuje`ts
jenoje g` b sgu`j b`j b` bnngcpb`yo`a bntog` kgr ebnm nmbrbnter. Ebnm argup woff tme` prbntone rebjo`a
tmrguam tme dggi< every toce b nmbrbnter os ce`tog`ej (gr smgw` o` b ponture) tmey perkgrc tme bntog`
b`j cbie tme sgu`j kgr tmbt nmbrbnter. Bkter ebnm argup prbntones, tmey woff perkgrc tmeor bntog` b`j
sgu`j stgroes kgr tme nfbss wmofe tme tebnmer rebjs tme stgry bfguj. Zme prgness gk sefento`a b sgu`j b`j
bntog` tmbt cbtnmes b nmbrbnter woff jeepe` josnussog` gk tme nmbrbnters, b`j perkgrco`a tme stgry kgr
tme nfbss woff exte`j tmbt josnussog` tg tme fbraer argup. Kgr gfjer stuje`ts, tmos os b aggj dggi tg
o`trgjune tmos bntovoty, dut tme` tme prgness nb` de bppfoej tg dggis wmere tme nmbrbnters mbve cgre
jevefgpce`t.

2; | X b a e
Jb`ne b`j cgvece`t

Jb`ne b`j cgvece`t respg`ses expfgre mgw dgtm jb`ne gr dgjy cgvece`t nb` express cessbaes b`j
ngccu`onbte wotm gtmers.

Qbfi foie b/b`…

Every toce stuje`ts `eej tg cgve brgu`j tme rggc, cbie tme cgst gk tmese trb`sotog`s dy tur`o`a tmec
o`tg b respg`se bntovoty kgnuso`a g` jb`ne b`j cgvece`t. Kgr exbcpfe, bs stuje`ts cgve tg aet o` fo`e
gr tg smokt bntovotoes o` tme rggc, ng``ent tg b nmbrbnter o` b nfbss rebj-bfguj dy bsio`a stuje`ts tg cgve
bs ok tmey bre keefo`a g`e gr cgre gk tme ecgtog`s tmbt nmbrbnter mbj experoe`nej. Zmos woff mefp
stuje`ts oje`toky wotm b`j u`jerstb`j tme bntog`s gk tme nmbrbnters.

Ko`j ygur styfe (jb`ne b`j cuson respg`se)

Gkte` o` nmofjre`‟s foterbture, ngccg` tmeces gr stgryfo`es bre repebtej. ^tbrt tmos fessg` dy nrebto`a b
stgry cbp (QEZB Xudfon Drgbjnbsto`a, 4825)‚b arbpmon grab`ozer tmbt gutfo`es tme efece`ts gk stgry,
sunm bs setto`a, nmbrbnters, pfgts b`j eve`ts, prgdfecs b`j sgfutog`s‚kgr tme kgffgwo`a tmree stgroes<
2) Zme Zwefve Jb`no`a Xro`nesses, b nfbsson kbory tbfe wotm cb`y bjbptbtog`s (tmguam tme offustrbtog`s o`

Cbrob``b Cbyer‟s *2?=?+ b`j Tutm ^b`jersg`‟s *2??8+ versog`s bre pbrtonufbrfy debutokuf), 4) Zme Dbr`
Jb`ne dy Doff Cbrto` Lr. b`j Lgm` Brnmbcdbuft (2?=;) , b`j >) Drgtmers gk tme I`oamt dy Jeddoe Bffe`
(4882). Ebnm dggi kgffgws b socofbr stgry fo`e dut mbs ots gw` styfe, tg`e, b`j setto`a. Bsi stuje`ts tg
expfgre tme offustrbtog`s, tme fb`aubae use, b`j tme jesoa` gk tme dggis bs tmey ngcpbre b`j ng`trbst
tme tmree stgroes. Bjj b kurtmer joce`sog` tg tme stgroes dy pboro`a tmec wotm cusonbf sbcpfes
represe`to`a tme tmree styfes jospfbyej o` tme dggis (b nfbssonbf poene, sunm bs Dbnm‟s ‖Co`uet o` A–9 b`
Bceronb` kgfi sg`a, sunm bs ‖Zuriey o` tme ^trbw–9 b`j b nurre`t, pgpufbr, mop mgp sefentog`.) Qotm
cuson sefentej, fet stuje`ts jb`ne tg tme styfes o` tme dggis. Josnuss gr ko`j exbcpfes gk ngstuces,
prgps, gr cusonbf o`struce`ts tg expfgre tme efece`ts gk tg`e, styfe b`j setto`a o` ebnm stgry. Zme
jenosog` cbio`a prgness bs stuje`ts nmggse tme cuson, o`struce`ts, gr jb`ne cgves tmbt ng``ent wotm
tme jokkere`t styfes represe`tej o` tme dggis bntovefy e`abaes stuje`ts o` tme prgness gk trb`scejobtog`,
jesnrodej ebrfoer bs b prgness gk trb`sfbto`a o`kgrcbtog` krgc g`e cgje tg b`gtmer b`j tmus nrebto`a
`ew u`jerstb`jo`as.

[osubf brt

[osubf brts respg`ses expfgre mgw ngfgr, fo`es, smbpes, jrbwo`a, pbo`to`a, b`j bff gtmer efece`ts gk brt
ngccu`onbte cessbaes tg tme voewer.

Cbie b cbtnm

Offustrbtgrs bre brtosts, b`j tmeor wgri os dbsej g` trbjotog`s b`j styfes o` brt. ^mbre offustrbtog`s krgc b
nmofjre`‟s ponture dggi b`j ngcpbre tmec tg b cbtnmo`a brt styfe. Kgr ex bcpfe, pbor tme offustrbtog`s o`
Cbrob``b Cbyer‟s (2?=?) Zwefve Jb`no`a Xro`nesses wotm Leb`-Mg`gre‟ Krbag`brj‟s Zme ^wo`a (stuje`ts
cby bfsg de very exnotej tg renga`oze tmos pbrtonufbr pbo`to`a krgc Jos`ey‟s Krgze`). Ngcpbre Xonbssg‟s

21 | X b a e
nudosc brtwgri wotm tme offustrbtog`s o` J. D. Lgm`sg`‟s (4884) Me`ry Duofjs b Nbdo` gr tme wgri gk
nmofjre`‟s dggi butmgr Jbvoj Qoes`er wotm surrebfosc wgris gk ^bfvbjgr Jbfo gr [fbjocor Iusm. Exte`j
tme bntovoty dy bsio`a stuje`ts ag g` b` ‖brt mu`t– b`j cbie cbtnmes detwee` ponture dggi offustrbtog`s
b`j poenes gk brtwgri. Kgr b nmbffe`ae, bsi stuje`ts tg nrebte tmeor gw` offustrbtog`s. Zmguam sgce gk
tme styfes cby seec jetbofej b`j jokkonuft kgr nmofjre` tg repfonbte, tmey cby stoff nmggse g`e gk tme
mbrjer styfes tg expfgre tme prgness. Gr suaaest tmey wgri wotm b` ebsoer styfe, sunm bs `bçve brtwgri,

nmbrbnterozej dy b nmofjfoie `bture b`j represe`tej o` ponture dggis sunm bs Zme Dggismgp Jga dy
Ny`tmob Tyfb`t (2??;) gr Lgsepm Mbj b Fottfe Gverngbt dy ^occs Zbdbni (2???). ^tuje`ts nb` nrebte
offustrbtog`s tg ag wotm b stgry tmey bre wroto`a gr refbtej tg b` eve`t o` tmeor foke. Bkter cbtnmo`a brt b`j
offustrbtog`s gr offustrbto`a uso`a b nertbo` styfe, mbve b josnussog` wotm stuje`ts bdgut wmy b styfe coamt
de usej wotm b nertbo` dggi. Joj tme styfe mefp teff tme stgry gr set tme cggj7 Qme` tmey usej tme styfe
tmecsefves, mgw joj ot bkkent tme gverbff cessbae tmey were ngccu`onbto`a7

Xo`mgfe voew

Offustrbtgrs bre dengco`a cunm cgre o``gvbtove o` tme nrebtog` gk wgrjfess ponture dggis. Zme wgrjfess
ponture dggi Kfbsmfoamt dy Fozo Dgyj (482:) gkkers cb`y gppgrtu`otoes kgr josngvery. Zme offustrbtog`s
smgw tme nmbrbnter exoto`a b te`t o` tme wggjs bt `oamt. Cgst gk tme pbae os dfbni wotm arey fo`e jrbwo`as
tg smgw tme joc dbniargu`j. Zme nmbrbnter os mgfjo`a b kfbsmfoamt b`j tmere os b droamt spgt gk tme
offustrbtog` g` ebnm pbae o` tme pbtm gk tme kfbsmfoamt. ^cbff mgfes bre nut gut gk ebnm pbae aovo`a b
afocpse gk wmbt os tg ngce gr permbps sgcetmo`a cossej g` tme pbae dekgre, kurtmer jrbwo`a vosubf
btte`tog` tg jetbofs o` tme dggi. ^o`ne expfgro`a jbri spbnes cby `gt de ng`junove tg b nfbssrggc gr
snmggf e`vorg`ce`t, tebnmers nb` exte`j tme rebjo`a gk tmos dggi dy uso`a tme ojeb gk tme nut guts. Mbve
stuje`ts voew tme nfbssrggc, gtmer brebs o` tme snmggf, gr gutjggr brebs gk tme snmggf argu`js tmrguam
b mgfe nut o` b poene gk pbper. Mbve tmec sietnm tme `ew tmo`as tg wmonm tmos po`mgfe voew gk tme wgrfj
jrew tmeor btte`tog`. Qmbt jg tmey see jokkere`tfy wotm jokkere`t smbpej mgfes7 Jg tmey see tmo`as tmey
joj `gt `gtone wotmgut tme po`mgfe voew7 Zmos brtoston respg`se mefps stuje`ts u`jerstb`j tme ekkent b`j
tmece gk tme dggi b`j bfsg mefps aove tmec b jokkere`t perspentove g` tmeor e`vorg`ce`t.

NFG^UTE BNZO[ZOE^

^uccbry

Zmos nmbpter deab` dy estbdfosmo`a tme mostgronbf, sgnobf, b`j pgfotonbf o`kfue`nes g` nmofjre`‟s foterbture
deao``o`a o` tme 21tm ne`tury b`j febjo`a tg ng`tecpgrbry o`kfue`nes, o`nfujo`a joaotbf b`j
tenm`gfgaonbf bjvb`nes, pgstcgjer`osc, b`j tme prevbfe`ne gk cuftopfe cgjes gk ngccu`onbto`a. Zme
josnussog` tme` tur`ej tg mgw tebnmers nb` utofoze cuftocgjbf texts o` nfbssrggcs tg tebnm tme sioffs
gutfo`ej o` stbte stb`jbrjs b`j bfoa`ej wotm tebnmers‟ purpgses. Brts-dbsej respg`ses uso`a trbjotog`bf
b`j cuftocgjbf texts were jesnrodej bs b wby kgr tebnmers tg suppgrt bff stuje`ts tg kufkoff purpgses kgr
respg`jo`a tg foterbture, o`nfujo`a tmgse tmbt cby `gt mbve jorent ngrrefbtog`s tg tme stb`jbrjs dut bre
stoff `enessbry kgr estbdfosmo`a b pgsotove nfbssrggc febr`o`a e`vorg`ce`t. Exbcpfes gk jrbcb, cuson,
jb`ne b`j cgvece`t, b`j vosubf brts respg`se bntovotoes were prese`tej tg spenokonbffy smgw mgw

ng`tecpgrbry foterbture, o`nfujo`a cuftocgjbf foterbture, nb` de usej o` nfbssrggc setto`as. Zebnmers
2= | X b a e
bre e`ngurbaej tg expfgre cuftocgjbf nmofjre`‟s foterbture b`j jesoa` ceb`o`akuf brts-dbsej respg`se
bntovotoes tmbt woff e`mb`ne tme febr`o`a gk every nmofj o` tmeor nfbssrggc.

^_@ZME^O^ / AE@ETBFO\BZOG@

Qe stujy foterbture denbuse ot os koffej wotm ojebs tmbt `eejej tg de expfgre b`j foterbture mefps
us tg see tme `ew wbys. Ot dro`as us tg b jeeper u`jerstb`jo`a gk foke.

Mgw jges nmofjre`‟s foterbture stbrtej7 Dekgre tme 21tm ne`tury, nmofjre` were see` bs scbff
bjufts9 mgwever, juro`a tme E`foamte`ce`t b`j Tgcb`ton perogjs, nmofjmggj wbs voewej bs b
toce gk o``gne`ne tmbt wbs josto`nt krgc bjgfesne`ne (ygu`a bjuftmggj) b`j bjuftmggj (Bvery
& Io``eff, 2??5). Zmese nmb`aes o` voewpgo`ts nrebtej b `ew cbriet kgr tme wroto`a b`j
pudfosmo`a gk dggis spenokonbffy kgr nmofjre`, wmg were see` bs o``gne`t b`j pfbykuf deo`as
rbtmer tmb` co`o-bjufts. Juro`a tme 2=tm ne`tury, Lgm` @ewdery, b wroter gk nmofjre`‟s dggis,
arebtfy o`kfue`nej nmofjre`‟s foterbture dy stbrto`a tme korst pudfosmo`a mguse jejonbtej tg
nmofjre`‟s stgroes. Me pudfosmej mos gw` stgroes, bs weff bs tme wgris gk gtmer nmofjre`‟s dggi
butmgrs (Ab`ao, 488:). Zme ojeb gk b pudfosmo`a mguse lust kgr nmofjre`‟s stgroes rekfentej b smokt
o` mgw sgnoety tmguamt gk nmofjre`. Juro`a tme 2?tm ne`tury, arebter `ucders gk dggis were
wrotte` kgr nmofjre`‟s pfby b`j e`lgyce`t, o`nfujo`a tme korst ponture dggi, wmonm wbs wrotte` dy

Tb`jgfpm Nbfjengtt.
.
Tene`t jenbjes mbve drguamt bjjotog`bf nmb`aes o` tme pudfosmo`a gk nmofjre`‟s foterbture. Zme
cbriet kgr nmofjre`‟s foterbture mbs dee` o`kfue`nej dy jecb`j krgc pbre`ts, nmofjre` wotm
o`nrebsej duyo`a pgwer, b`j b prgfokerbtog` gk serobf wroto`a tg dggst sbfes. O` bjjotog`, tmere
mbve dee` nmb`aes o` tme ng`te`t gk nmofjre`‟s dggis refbtej tg ae`jer, joversoty, b`j sgnobf
nfbss (Nmo`a, 48859 E`afembrjt, 2??29 Ab`ao, 488:9 Mu`t, 2??59 Fbrroni, 2?;59 Zbxef, 2??19 \opes,
4882). Qmofe ebnm gk tmese brebs os b wgrtmwmofe tgpon gk stujy g` ots gw`, tmos nmbpter jges `gt
kgnus g` tmec deyg`j renga`ozo`a tmeor o`kfue`ne gverbff.
Qmofe tme ocpbnt g` nmofjre`‟s foterbture jue tg nufturbf o`kfue`nes mbs dee` bppbre`t
tmrguamgut tme jenbjes, nurre`t tre`js ne`ter cgstfy g` joaotbf b`j tenm`gfgaonbf bjvb`nes o`
gur sgnoety. Zenm`gfgaonbf bjvb`nes mbve exertej muae ekkents g` pro`to`a b`j pudfosmo`a

nbpbdofotoes.
btte`tog` gk Deyg`j
nmofjre` pro`to`a nbpbdofotoes,
bnnustgcej butmgrs b`j
tg tme kbst-pbnej offustrbtgrs
se`sgry o`put bre wroto`a
gk joaotbf tgucbo`tbo`
resg rnes, sunmtme
bs
ngcputer b`j vojeg abces, scbrtpmg`es, b`j tbdfet bpps. Xudfosmo`a ngcpb`oes mbve
bttecptej tg prgjune pro`t texts tmbt cocon gr resecdfe joaotbf texts o` wgrjo`a, styfe, type gk
ocbaes, gr kgrcbt. ^gce pro`t texts eve` dgrrgw ng`nepts bdgut pbae jesoa` krgc joaotbf texts.
Expgsure tg joaotbf b`j tenm`gfgaonbf resgurnes b`j afgdbf bnness tg o`kgrcbtog` mbve nmb`aej
tme dgu`jbroes, tgpons, b`j perspentoves represe`tej o` dggis kgr nmofjre` (Jresb`a, 2???,
488>). Zmese nmb`aes o` pro`t texts o`nfuje tme use gk `g`-fo`ebr pfgts tmbt bre grab`ozej `gt dy
b typonbf deao``o`a, cojjfe, b`j e`j, dut teff tme stgry gut gk grjer b`j/gr febj rebjers o`
cuftopfe jorentog`s tmrguam tme text (e.a., Zme E`j, dy Jbvoj FbTgnmeffe, 4881).

2? | X b a e
E[BFUBZOG@

Ruestog`s b`j Bntovotoes

2. Ko`j b dggi (cbyde g`e ygu rebj bs b nmofj) tmbt represe`ts tme toce gr pfbne o` mostgry o` wmonm
ot wbs wrotte`. Ko`j b ng`tecpgrbry dggi wmonm represe`ts tme nurre`t toce b`j pfbne o` mostgry.
Ocbao`e ygu bre fggio`a bt eotmer dggi bs b` gutsojer tg tmbt toce b`j pfbne. Qmbt sgnobf,
nufturbf, gr pgfotonbf cessbaes, eotmer purpgsekuf gr o`bjverte`t, bre rekfentej o` tmbt poene gk
foterbture7
4. Drgwse tme nmofjre`‟s dggis bt tme fgnbf fodrbry gr g`-fo`e fodrbry b`j nrotonbffy b`bfyze tme
cessbaes tg ko`j dggis tmbt represe`t b `ew perspentove gr vgone tmbt os `gt usubffy mebrj, sunm
bs b stgry tgfj krgc tme perspentove gk b nmbrbnter krgc b joverse pgpufbtog` gr b u`oque
represe`tbtog` gk ae`jer rgfes. Qmbt sgnobf, nufturbf, gr pgfotonbf cessbaes bre rekfentej o` tmbt
poene gk foterbture7
>. ^efent texts b`j nrebte brts-dbsej respg`se bntovotoes o` ebnm breb (jrbcb, cuson, jb`ne, b`j
vosubf brt) jesoa`ej tg e`mb`ne u`jerstb`jo`a gk tme texts. ^mbre ygur ojeb wotm twg gtmer
nfbsscbtes b`j jeterco`e tme stbte stb`jbrjs tmbt ng``ent tg tme brts-dbsej respg`se bntovotoes
ebnm persg` jesoa`ej.

Xgst test
E`ucerbte tme otecs bsis o` ebnm questog`s.
2. Fost jgw` iey tmece b`j ng`ner`s gk nmofjre`‟s foterbture.
b.
d.
n.
j.
e.

4. Qmbt bre tme nmbrbnterostons gk pbtter`s o` nmofjre`‟s foterbture.

k.
a.
m.

>. Aove exbcpfes gk brts-dbsej respg`ses tg nmofjre`‟s foterbture

l.

48 | X b a e
B^^OA@CE@Z / BATEECE@Z

Jg tme kgffgwo`a tbsi tg de wrotte` gr pro`tej g` b nfeb` smeet gk pbper.

2. Qrote b smgrt essby g` wmy tme tebnmo`a gk nmofjre`‟s foterbture os ocpgrtb`t.
4. Qrote bdgut ygur kbvgrote nmofjre`‟s foterbture.

TEKETE@NE^

B`stey, C., & Duff, A. (488;). Zebnmo`a b`j febr`o`a cuftofoterbnoes< Nmb`ao`a toces, nmb`ao`a foterbnoes.
@ewbri, JE< O`ter`btog`bf Tebjo`a Bssgnobtog`, O`n. b`j tme Bustrbfob` Foterbny Ejunbtgrs‟ Bssgnobtog`.

Bvery, A., & Io``eff, C. (2??5). Cgrbfoty b`j fevoty (21=8-2=48). O` X. Mu`t (Ej.), Nmofjre`‟s foterbture< B`
offustrbtej mostgry (pp. :;-1;). @ew _gri, @_< Gxkgrj U`oversoty Xress.

Deramgkk, D. (2??=). O`quory bdgut febr`o`a b`j febr`ers< Cuftopfe soa` systecs b`j rebjo`a. Zme Tebjo`a
Zebnmer, 52, 548-54>.

Nmo`a, ^. M. J. (4885). Cuftonufturbf nmofjre`‟s foterbture bs b` o`struce`t gk pgwer. Fb`aubae Brts,

=>(4), 24=-2>;.

Jresb`a, E. (2???). Tbjonbf nmb`ae< Dggis kgr ygutm o` b joaotbf bae. @ew _gri, @_< M.Q. Qofsg`
Ngcpb`y.

Jresb`a, E. (488>). Ng`trgversobf dggis b`j ng`tecpgrbry nmofjre`. Lgur`bf gk Nmofjre`‟s Foterbture,
4?(2), 48->2.
42 | X b a e
Eos`er, E. (2??2). Tetmo`io`a foterbny. Ejunbtog`bf Mgrozg`s, ;?, 248-24=.

E`aefmbrjt, Z. (2??2, Lu`e). Tebjo`a cby de mbrckuf tg ygur iojs< O` tme `bjorfb`j gk tgjby‟s nmofjre`‟s
dggis. Mbrper‟s Cbabzo`e, 4=4, 55-;4.

Ab`ao, L. C. (488:). E`ngu`tero`a nmofjre`‟s foterbture< B` brts bpprgbnm. Upper ^bjjfe Tover, @L< Xebrsg`
Ejunbtog`, O`n.

Aefo`ebu, T. X. (4824). O`tearbto`a tme brts bnrgss tme efece`tbry snmggf nurronufuc. Defcg`t, NB<
Qbjswgrtm/Zmgcsg` Febr`o`a.

Mu`t, X. (Ej.). (2??5). Nmofjre`‟s foterbture< B` offustrbtej mostgry. @ew _gri, @_< Gxkgrj U`oversoty Xress.

Iress, A. (4888). Cuftocgjbfoty. O` D. Ngpe & C. Ibfb`tzos (Ejs.), Cuftofoterbnoes< Foterbny febr`o`a b`j
tme jesoa` gk sgnobf kutures (pp. 2=4-484). @ew _gri, @_< Tgutfejae.

Iress, A., & Lewott, N. (Ejs.). (488>). Cuftocgjbf foterbny. @ew _gri, @_< Xeter Fb`a Xudfosmo`a, O`n.

Iress, A., & [b` Feeuwe`, Z. (4882). Cuftocgjbf josngurse< Zme cgjes b`j cejob gk ng`tecpgrbry
nurronufuc. @ew _gri, @_< Gxkgrj U`oversoty Xress.

Fbrroni, @. (2?;5, ^eptecder 22). Zme bff-wmote wgrfj gk nmofjre`‟s dggis. ^bturjby Tevoew, ;>-;5, =:-=5.

Fecie, L. F. (2??8). Zbfio`a snoe`ne. @grwggj, @L< Bdfex Xudfosmo`a Ngrpgrbtog`.

@btog`bf Agver`grs Bssgnobtog` Ne`ter kgr Dest Xrbntones & Ngu`nof gk Nmoek ^tbte ^nmggf Gkkoners.
(4828). Ngccg` Ngre ^tbte ^tb`jbrjs kgr E`afosm Fb`aubae Brts & Foterbny o` Mostgry/^gnobf ^tujoes,
^noe`ne, b`j Zenm`onbf ^udlents. Qbsmo`atg`, JN< Butmgr. Tetroevej
krgc mttp<//www.ngrestb`jbrjs.gra/EFB-Foterbny/

@ew Fg`jg` Argup. (2??;). B pejbagay gk cuftofoterbnoes< Jesoa`o`a sgnobf kutures. Mbrvbrj Ejunbtog`bf
Tevoew, ;;, ;8„?4. Tetroevej
krgc mttp<//vbssbrfoterbny.pdwgris.ngc/k/Xejbagay+gk+CuftofoterbnoesW@ew+Fg`jg`+Argup.pjk

@ew _gri ^tbte Jepbrtce`t gk Ejunbtog` (4822). @ew _gri ^tbte X-24 Ngccg` ngre febr`o`a
stb`jbrjs kgr E`afosm fb`aubae brts b`j foterbny. Tetroevej
krgc mttp<//www.p24.`ysej.agv/nobo/ngccg`WngreWstb`jbrjs/pjkjgns/p24Wngccg`WngreWfebr`o`
aWstb`jbrjsWefb.pjk

Xb`tbfeg, ^. (488:). Zme fg`a, fg`a wby< _gu`a nmofjre` expfgre tme kbdufb b`j syuzmet
gk ^mgrtnut. Nmofjre`‟s Foterbture o` Ejunbtog`, >5, 2-2?. jgo<28.284>/D<NFOJ.888882==?1.1:?:=.4b

Tgdertsg`, L. C. (488=) Kgurtm- b`j koktm-arbje nfbssrggc nbse stujy gk respg`se tg cuftocgjbf
represe`tbtog`s o` nmofjre`‟s ponture dggis. (U`pudfosmej jgntgrbf jossertbtog`). ^yrbnuse U`oversoty,
^yrbnuse, @ew _gri.

44 | X b a e
^erbko`o, K. (4885). [gones o` tme pbri, vgones o` tme nfbssrggc< Tebjers respg`jo`a tg pgstcgjer`
ponture dggis. Tebjo`a Tesebrnm b`j O`struntog`, ::(>), :1-;:. jgo<28.28=8/2?>==81858?55=:>2

^oeaef, C. (488;). Terebjo`a tme soa`s< Cuftocgjbf trb`skgrcbtog`s o` tme koefj gk foterbny
ejunbtog`. Fb`aubae Brts, =:, ;5-11.

Zbxef, L. (2??1). Cuftonufturbf foterbture b`j pgfotons gk rebntog`. Zebnmer‟s Ngffeae Tengrj, ?=, :21-::=.

Qertmeoc, C. (`.j.). Kbotm b`j rebsg`< Xgstcgjer`osc. Tetroevej

krgc mttp<//www.pds.gra/kbotmb`jrebsg`/ae`afgss/pgstc-dgjy.mtcf

QEZB Xudfon Drgbjnbsto`a (4825). ^tgry cbps. Tetroevej krgc mttp<//www.rebjo`argniets.gra/

\opes, L. (4882). ^tonis b`j stg`es< Zme trgudfesgce sunness gk nmofjre`‟s foterbture krgc ^fgve`fy Xeter tg
Mbrry Xgtter. @ew _gri, @_< Tgutfejae.

Nmofjre`‟s Foterbture Tekere`nes

Bffe`, J. (4882). Drgtmers gk tme i`oamt. @ew _gri, @_< Xukko`.

Dgyj, F. (482:). Kfbsmfoamt. ^b` Krb`nosng, NB< Nmrg`onfe Dggis, FFN.

Drgw`, C. Q. (488;). Aggj`oamt cgg`. @ew _gri, @_< MbrperNgffo`s Nmofjre`‟s Dggis.

Drgw`, C. Q. (488;). Tu`bwby du``y. @ew _gri, @_< MbrperNgffo`s Nmofjre`‟s Dggis.

Drgw`, C.Q. (2??>). Zme fottfe osfb`j. @ew _gri, @_< Jrbag`kfy Dggis.

Nbo`, L. (4888). Zme wby O keef. ^ebttfe, QB< Xbre`to`a Xress.

Jr. ^euss (2??;). Cy cb`y ngfgrej jbys. @ew _gri, @_< I`gpk Dggis kgr _gu`a Tebjers.

Ermbrjt, I. (488;). Zmos lbzzcb`. @ew _gri, @_< Mbrngurt, O`n.

Abffbz, N., & Broscb`, C. (488>). Zme wgfk wmg fgvej cuson. Cb`ibtg, C@< Nrebtove Ejotog`s.

Aersteo`, C. (4884). Qmbt Nmbrfoe mebrj. @ew _gri, @_< Kbrrbr, ^trbus b`j Aorgux.

Lgm`sg`, J. D. (4884). Me`ry duofjs b nbdo`. @ew _gri, @_< Mguamtg` Cokkfo` Ngcpb`y.

Fbjob, C. B. X. (4828). Tejosngvero`a Nmofjre`‟s Foterbture,

4> | X b a e
 NMBXZET 4

Efece`ts gk ubfot Nmofjre`‟s Foterbture

FEBT@O@A GDLENZO[E^

Upg` ngcpfetog` gk tmos cgjufe tme febr`ers woff de bdfe tg<

2. Jecg`strbte tmeor u`jerstb`jo`a gk tme ocpgrtb`ne gk stujyo`a nmofjre` b`j bjgfesne`t
foterbture, ots ng`nepts b`j ots ceb`o`a9
4. Jecg`strbte tmeor u`jerstb`jo`a gk tme jokkere`t ae`res tmrguam tme types gk foterbture
ng`trodutej dy wroters brgu`j tme wgrfj.
>. Josnuss tme jokkere`t efece`ts refbtej tg nmofjre` b`j ygu`a bjuft foterbture

XTE-ZE^Z

B`swer tme kgffgwo`a otecs dy sefento`a tme ngrrent b`swer tg ebnm questog`.
2. Ot os jeko`ej bs wroto`as tmbt mbve exneffe`ne gk kgrc gr expressog`, wmonm express ojebs gk b
percb`e`t gr u`oversbf o`terest.
4. Zme koaure wmg gppgses tme prgtbag`ost b`j nrebtes tme ng`kfont.
>. Zme koaure wmgse persg`bfoty trbots bre tme gppgsote gk cbo` nmbrbnters.
:. Zmey mbve cgre kuffy jevefgpej persg`bfotoes.
5. Tekers tg tme toce, tme aegarbpmonbf fgnbtog`, b`j tme ae`erbf e`vorg`ce`t b`j nornucstb`nes
tmbt prevbof o` b `brrbtove.
;. ^etto`a os kuffy jesnrodej o` dgtm toce b`j pfbne, usubffy kgu`j o` mostgronbf kontog`.
1. ^etto`a os vbaue b`j ae`erbf, wmonm me fps tg ng`vey b u`oversbf, tocefess tbfe.
=. B seroes gk o`terng``entej eve`ts o` wmonm every gnnurre`ne mbs b spenokon purpgse.
?. Ot os tme cbo`, u`jerfyo`a ojeb gk b poene gk foterbture.
28. Ot rekers tg tme butmgr‟s cggj b`j cb``er gk expressog` o` b wgri gk foterbture.

Zg`e Zmece Dbni jrgp

setto`a
r Kgof nmbrbnter
^etto`a O`tearbf setto`a
Xrgtbag`ost

NG@ZE@Z XTEXBTBZGT_ BNZO[OZOE^

Jeko`otog` gk Foterbture
Foterbture os jeko`ej bs wroto`as tmbt mbve exneffe`ne gk kgrc gr expressog`, wmonm express ojebs gk b
percb`e`t gr u`oversbf o`terest. Foterbture os `gt wrotte` tg aove tme rebjer kbnts. Ot os `gt b repgrt dut
b` gppgrtu`oty kgr sgnobf prbntone (Lg`es). Ot e`bdfes tme rebjer tg exbco`e tmguamt b`j bntog`
ngcpbssog`btefy. Zme rebjer nb` oje`toky wotm b nmbrbnter b`j mos stgry bffgwo`a moc tg see foke tmrguam
tme eyes gk tme nmbrbnter, b`j smbre tme butmgr‟s o`soamt (Teej).

4: | X b a e
Zme uftocbte agbf gk foterbture os tg u`jerstb`j gtmers b`j gursefves. Ot prgvojes tme rebjer wotm nfues tg
foke otsefk. Zme spebier os tme butmgr o` josauose ng`trgffo`a wmbt me wb`ts tme rebjer tg see b`j wme`
b`j mgw me wb`ts tme rebjer tg see ot. Ot os tme lgd gk tme rebjer tg bsi wmy. Zmos os pbrt gk tme prbntone
gk fovo`a „ seeo`a wmetmer gtmers `gtone wmbt b`gtmer `gtones b`j nb` cbie tme sbce o`terpretbtog`s
wmofe rebnmo`a tme sbce ng`nfusog`s. Foterbture gkkers tmos prbntone o` u`jerstb`jo`a b`j prgvojes b
detter gppgrtu`oty o` fovo`a (Teej).

Qe ae`erbffy reker tg tme tmo`as tmbt cbie up b wgri gk foterbture, ots ngcpg`e`t pbrts, bs efece`ts.
Zmos fost ng`tbo`s sunm tmo`as bs
Xfgt
Nmbrbnter
^etto`a
Zmece
Xgo`t gk voew
Zg de b nroton gk foterbture, tmbt os tg de g`e wmg tbfis bdgut wmbt foterbture jges b`j ceb`s, w e `eej b
ngccg` vgnbdufbry. Kgr tmos rebsg`, we stujy b fost gk foterbry tercs.

Foterbry Ae`re
B ae`re os b type. Zme dbson types gk foterbture bre kontog`, `g`kontog`, pgetry b`j jrbcb. Dut wotmo` tmgse
tmere bre sud-types<
Kontog`< `gvef, smgrt stgry
@g`kontog`< essby, ejotgrobf, `ews stgry, kebture stgry,
Xgetry< verse, `brrbtove pgetry, epon pgetry, kree verse, b`j cb`y cgre
Jrbcb< nfbssonbf, trbaejy, ngcejy
O` bjjotog` tg tme ae`re bdgve, we woff ng`sojer b`ytmo`a wrotte` b`j pudfosmej tg de foterbture. ^g b
wed pbae os foterbture. B [NT cb`ubf os foterbture. B` bj o` b cbabzo`e os b type gk foterbture.

Qroto`a mbs vbrogus purpgses. Kgur cbo` purpgse gk wroto`a bre tg

O`kgrc
Xersubje
E`tertbo`
Jesnrode
Zmese purpgses bre ae`erbffy o`tearbtej. O` gtmer wgrjs, b smgrt stgry nb` bnmoeve bff kgur purpgses. O`
kbnt, ot cby de b pggr smgrt stgry ok ot jges`‟t. B [NT cb`ubf os `gt bs exte`sove o` ots purpgse. B [NT
cb`ubf os tmere tg o`kgrc, tg teff tme [NT user mgw tg gperbte tme cbnmo`e. Ot cby bfsg jesnrode sgce
bspents gk tme cbnmo`e gr gperbtog`, dut prgdbdfy jges`‟t persubje, b`j cgst foiefy jges`‟t e`tertbo`.
Dut kontog`, jrbcb, b`j pgetry nb` jg cunm cgre tmb` wmbt‟s fostej bdgve. Qme` ot‟s rebffy aggj,
foterbture nb` tebnm us wmbt ot ceb`s tg de mucb`, tg smgw us wmere we defg`a o` gur toce b`j o` bff
toce. Ot nb` smgw us mgw tg fove roamtfy b`j fgve weff, b`j ot nb` smgw us mgw tg de tme dest we nb` de.
Qe febr` kgrc stgroes. Ebrfy refoaog`s usej stgroes tg tebnm tmeor trutms b`j fbws. Zmo`i gk tme pbrbdfes o`
tme Dodfe. Zmese bre stgroes tg tebnm pegpfe bdgut Nmrostob`oty. B`noe`t pegpfes usej stgroes gr cytms tg
try tg expfbo` tme cysteroes gk `bture b`j eve` tg jeko`e tmeor gw` groao` b`j bkterfoke.
Zgjby, gur pbre`ts rebj us stgroes w me` we bre nmofjre`. Zmese stgroes bre procbrofy usej tg tebnm us
bdgut foke b`j tme wgrfj brgu`j us, tg mefp us u`jerstb`j gur ce`tog`ej b`j tg i`gw bdgut mucb`
refbtog`smops.

45 | X b a e
Qme` we deao` tg nmggse gur gw` stgroes, we gkte` nmggse types gk stgroes tmbt bppebf tg gur
prekere`nes b`j o`terests. ^gce gk us foie cystery stgroes gr mgrrgr stgroes, wmofe gtmers foie spgrts gr
b`ocbf stgroes, b`j stoff gtmers foie stgroes bdgut pegpfe b`j kbcofoes. Zmere bre cb`y nmgones kgr us.
O` snmggf, tebnmers wb`t us tg rebj dggis tmbt bre ocpgrtb`t tg gur u`jerstb`jo`a gk nufture b`j
mostgry. ^tgroes tmbt bre ngccg` tg b argup gk pegpfe mefp u`ote tmec. Kgr exbcpfe, cgst pegpfe woff
mbve rebj Tgceg b`j Lufoet dy tme toce tmey bre bjufts. Qme` rekere`nes bre cbje tg tmbt pfby, pegpfe
wmg mbve rebj ot os ng``entej o` tme argup wmg ‖aet ot,– wmofe tmgse wmg mbve`‟t bre g` tme gutsoje.
Ngccg` stgroes bre g`e wby tmbt pegpfe o` b sgnoety bre dg`jej tgaetmer. Zmere bre nertbo` dggis tmbt
bre ng`sojerej mostgronbffy, sgnobffy gr nufturbffy ocpgrtb`t.
Zebnmers bfsg wb`t us tg rebj dggis tmbt stretnm gur co`js b`j aet us tg tmo`i bdgut ocpgrtb`t gr
o`teresto`a ojebs.
Zebnmers bfsg wb`t us tg rebj denbuse tmey i`gw tmbt rebjo`a mefps o` cb`y wbys<
Qe febr` `ew wgrjs wme` we rebj
Qe dengce detter wroters
Qe febr` cgre bdgut tme wgrfj
Qe febr` cgre bdgut gursefves
Qmbtever ae`re gk foterbture we nmggse tg e`lgy g` gur gw`, ot‟s ocpgrtb`t tg nmggse sgcetmo`a b`j tg
ng`to`ue tg rebj fg`a bkter we‟ve fekt snmggf. Ot‟s g`e gk tme dest wbys tmere os tg ng`to`ue tg expb`j gur
co`js.

B jeko`otog` gk Nmofjre`‟s Foterbture

‖Foterbture os tme ocbao`btove smbpo`a gk foke b`j tmguamt o`tg tme kgrcs b`j struntures gk fb`aubae.–
Zme prgvo`ne gk foterbture os tme mucb` ng`jotog`, foke wotm bff ots keefo`as, tmguamts b`j o`soamts.

Nmbrbnterostons gk Nmofjre`‟s Foterbture bs Ae`re

Krgc Xerry @gjefcb`, tme Xfebsures gk Nmofjre`‟s Foterbture, 2st ej. Fg`acb`, 2??4
2. Ot os socpfe b`j strboamtkgrwbrj.
Zmos jges `gt ceb` tmbt vgnbdufbry `eejs tg de gverfy socpfoston gr tmbt styfe smgufj de nmgppy
gr kfbt(bs tgg cb`y dggis kgr nmofjre`)
4. Kgnuses g` bntog`.
^udtfe psynmgfgaonbf eve`t bre gkte` ocpfoej tmrguam `brrbtog` b`j ngcce`t g` bntog`s.
>. Os bdgut nmofjmggj.
:. Expresses b nmofj‟s pgo`t gk voew
5. Ot gptocoston.
‖Mgpe os b votbf joce`sog` gk b nmofjre`‟s dggi.– (^brbm ^cejcb`)
;. Ze`js tgwbrj kb`tbsy.
Kb`tbsy gkte` ocpfoes b sycdgfon jekob`ne gk gur i`gwfejae gr rebfoty, b`j represe`ts tme
pgte`tobf tmbt foes defgw tme surkbne o` ebnm gk us.
1. Os b kgrc gk pbstgrbf ojyff.
Zme pbstgrbf ojyff nefedrbte tme lgys b`j o``gne`ne gk rurbf foke, nfgse tg `bture b`j o` tme
ngcpb`y gk kroe`js.
=. [oews b` u`-ojyffon wgrfj kgr tme voew pgo`t gk o``gne`ne.
Cgre ngcpfex b`j o`teresto`a dggis rekfent bcdovbfe`ne bdgut jesore tg mbve tme ngckgrts gk
mgce b`j tme exnoto`a jb`aers gk bjve`ture, jesore tg de o``gne`t b`j experoe`nes, jesore tg
argw up dut `gt argw up, etn.
?. Os jojbnton.

4; | X b a e
 Zrbjotog`bffy, nmofjre`‟s foterbture mbs dee` bs bttecpto`a tg ejunbte nmofjre`. B u`oversbf tmece
os tebnmo`a nmofjre` tmbt jespote ots dgrejgc, mgce bre detter pfbne tg de tmb` tme jb`aergus
wgrfj gutsoje.
28. Ze`js tg de repetotogus.
Tepebto`a tbsi os b dbson cetmgj gk ejunbtog`.
Tepetotog` os b ngccg` trbot gk grbf foterbture.
Tepetotog`s wotm vbrobtog`s g wgrjs, pmrbses, sotubtog`s, b`j `brrbtove pbtter`s bre ngccg` o`
nmofjre`‟s foterbture.
22. Ze`js tg dbfb`ne tme ojyffon b`j tme jojbnton.

^gce dggis bre bfcgst ngcpfetefy jojbnton (tebnmo`a tmec mgw tg dengce foie cbture bjufts b`j jebf
wotm tme bjuft wgrfj) gr ojyffon (rekfento`a b jesore tg retbo` tme o``gne`ne gk nmofjmggj), dut cgst dggis
ngcdo`e tme twg bpprgbnmes, b`j jebf wotm gppgso`a ojebs, sunm bs mgce vs. bwby, ngccu`bf ng`ner`
vs. sefk-ng`ner`, aggj vs. evof.

JE[EFGXCE@ZBF BNZO[OZOE^

ZME EFECE@Z^ GK FOZETBZUTE

Nmbrbnters
2. Zypes gk Nmbrbnters<
Xrgtbag`ost (merg)< tme ne`trbf koaure wotm wmgc we usubffy sycpbtmoze gr oje`toky.
B`tbag`ost (voffbo`)< tme koaure wmg gppgses tme prgtbag`ost b`j nrebtes tme ng`kfont.
Kgof Nmbrbnter< tme koaure wmgse persg`bfoty trbots bre tme gppgsote gk cbo` nmbrbnters. Zmos
os suppgrto`a nmbrbnter b`j usubffy cbje tg smo`e tme prgtbag`ost.
4. Zme wbys nmbrbnters bre pgrtrbyej<
Kfbt nmbrbnters (stgni, stbton nmbrbnters gr steregtypes)< tmey mbve `g jeptm b`j `g nmb`ae9
we g`fy see g`e soje gr bspent gk tmec. Cgst suppgrto`a nmbrbnters bre pgrtrbyej o` tmos
wby, kgr exbcpfe, b stront tebnmer, b mefpkuf pgfonecb`, b`j b` evof stepcgtmer.
Tgu`j nmbrbnter (jy`bcon nmbrbnter)< tmey mbve cgre kuffy jevefgpej persg`bfotoes. Qe
expent tme prgtbag`ost b`j b`tbag`ost tg de rgu`jej o`jovojubfs wmg express b rb`ae gk
ecgtog` b`j nmb`ae tmrguamgut tme `brrbtove, usubffy tgwbrj arebter cbturoty.
>. Zme wbys nmbrbnters bre revebfej<
Qmbt tme `brrbtgr sbys bdgut tme nmbrbnter.
Qmbt tme gtmer nmbrbnter sby bdgut tme nmbrbnter
Qmbt tme nmbrbnter sbys bdgut mocsefk gr mersefk
Qmbt tme nmbrbnter bntubffy jges

^etto`a
Zme setto`a rekers tg tme toce, tme aegarbpmonbf fgnbtog`, b`j tme ae`erbf e`vorg`ce`t b`j
nornucstb`nes tmbt prevbof o` b `brrbtove. Zme setto`a mefps tg estbdfosm tme cggj gk b stgry.
Zwg types gk setto`a
2. O`tearbf setto`a< tme setto`a os kuffy jesnrodej o` dgtm toce b`j pfbne, usubffy kgu`j o` mostgronbf
kontog`.
4. Dbnijrgp setto`a< tme setto`a os vbaue b`j ae`erbf, wmonm mefps tg ng`vey b u`oversbf, tocefess
tbfe. Zmos type gk setto`a os gkte` kgu`j o` kgfitbfes b`j socpfy sets tme stbae b`j tme cggj. Kgr

41 | X b a e
 exbcpfe, ‖fg`a bag o` b ngttbae o` tme jeep wggjs– b`j ‖g`ne upg` b toce tmere wbs b arebt
fb`j tmbt msj b` Ecpergr.–

@brrbtove Xgo`t gk [oew

O`ter`bf `brrbtgr< (korst persg` `brrbtgr< tme `brrbtgr uses ‖O– tg reker tg mocsefk/mersefk< tme
`brrbtgr os b nmbrbnter o` tme stgry, dut `gt `enessbrofy, tme prgtbag`ost. Zmos `brrbtove pgo`t gk
voew bffgws kgr b very persg`bf tgunm o` tme stgry teffo`a.
Gc`osnoe`t `brrbtgr (cuftopfe pgo`ts gk voew< tme `brrbtgr os ‖bff-i`gwo`a–) tme `brrbtgr os `gt b
nmbrbnter o` tme stgry dut i`gws everytmo`a bdgut tme stgry. Zme gc`osnoe`t `brrbtgr nb` smgw
tme tmguamts b`j experoe`nes gk b`y nmbrbnter o` tme stgry. Ot percots tme wroter tme drgbjest
sngpe.
Focotej `brrbtgr (exter`bf sudlentove `brrbtgr9 tme >rj persg` pgo`t gk voew)< tme `brrbtgr os `gt
b nmbrbnter o` tme stgry dut fggi bt tmo`as g`fy tmrguam tme eyes gk b so`afe nmbrbnter. Zmos type
gk `brrbtove percots tme `brrbtgr tg quonify duofj b nfgse dg`j detwee` tme prgtbag`ost b`j tme
rebjer, wotmgut deo`a ng`ko`ej dy tme prgtbag`ost‟s ejunbtog`bf gr fb`aubae restrontog`s.

Xfgt
Zme pfgt gk b stgry os b seroes gk o`terng``entej eve`ts o` wmonm every gnnurre`ne mbs b spenokon purpgse.
B pfgt os bff bdgut estbdfosmo`a ng``entog`s, suaaesto`a nbuses, b`j smgwo`a refbtog`smops.
Kgur type gk pfgt strunture<
B jrbcbton gr prgaressove pfgt< tmos os b nmrg`gfgaonbf strunture wmonm korst estbdfosmes tme setto`a
b`j ng`kfont, tme` kgffgws tme roso`a bntog` tmrguam tg b nfocbx (tme pebi gk tme bntog` b`j tur`o`a
pgo`t), b`j ng`nfujes wotm b je`guece`t (b wrbppo`a up gk fggse e`js).

nfocbx

roso` bntog` je`guece`t

setto`a ng`kfont e`j

B` eposgjon pfgt< tmos os bfsg b nmrg`gfgaonbf strunture, dut ot ng`sosts gk b seroes gk fggsefy refbtej
o`noje`ts, usubffy gk nmbpter fe`atm, toej tgaetmer dy b ngccg` tmece b`j/gr nmbrbnters. Eposgjon
pfgts wgris dest wme` tme wroter wosmes tg expfgre tme persg`bfotoes gk tme nmbrbnters, tme `bture gk
tmeor exoste`ne, b`j tme kfbvgr gk b` erb.

Nfocbx 2 Nfocbx 4 Nfocbx >

etn.
roso`a roso`a roso`a
bntog` bntog` bntog`

e`jo`a 2 e`jo`a 4 e`jo`a >

Nmbpter 2 Nmbpter 4 Nmbpter >

B pbrbffef pfgt< tme wroter webves twg gr cgre jrbcbton pfgts tmbt bre usubffy fo`iej dy b ngccg`
nmbrbnter b`j b socofbr tmece.

4= | X b a e
 B kfbsmdbni< tmos strunture ng`veys o`kgrcbtog` bdgut eve`ts tmbt gnnurrej ebrfoer. Ot percots
butmgrs tg deao` tme stgry o` tme cojst gk tme bntog` dut fbter koff o` tme dbniargu`j kgr kuff
u`jerstb`jo`a gk tme prese`t eve`ts. Kfbsmdbnis nb` gnnur cgre tmb` g`ne b`j o` jokkere`t pbrts gk
b stgry.

nfocbx

e`j

expgsotog`

ng`kfont

Nmbpter 2 Nmbpter 4 Nmbpter > Nmbpter : Nmbpter 5 etn. Nmbpter 24 Jen. Jen.
Bpr. 482? Lb`. 482? Ked. 482? Cbr. 482? Cby. 482? @gv. 482? 4848 482?

Ng`kfont
2. Ngccg` types gk ng`kfonts<
Zme prgtbag`ost babo`st b`gtmer
Zme prgtbag`ost babo`st sgnoety
Zme prgtbag`ost babo`st `bture
Zme prgtbag`ost babo`st sefk
4. B so`afe stgry cby ng`tbo` cgre tmb` g`e type gk ng`kfont, bftmguam g`e gkte` prejgco`btes.
Zme ng`kfont prgvojes tme exnotece`t b`j cbies pgssodfe tme argwtm b`j jevefgpce`t gk tme
prgtbag`ost‟s nmbrbnter.

Zmece
2. Zme tmece os tme cbo`, u`jerfyo`a ojeb gk b poene gk foterbture. Ot os wgve` sudtfy o`tg tme kbdron
gk tme stgry rbtmer tmb` deo`a fenturej gr prebnmej dy tme butmgr.
4. Bcg`a tme kreque`tfy kgu`j tmecbton ossues o` nmofjre`‟s foterbture bre tme prgdfecs gk argwo`a
u` b`j cbturo`a, sunm bs bjlustce`t tg sgnoety, fgve b`j kroe`jsmop, bnmoevo`a g`e‟s oje`toty,
b`j ko`jo`a g`e‟s pfbne o` tme wgrfj.

^tyfe
2. Qgrj nmgone
4. ^e`te`ne fe`atm b`j ng`struntog`
^mgrt se`te`nes dest ng`vey suspe`se, te`sog`, b`j swokt bntog`.
Fg`aer se`te`nes wgri dest wme` expfb`btog`s b`j jesnroptog`s bre `eejej.
Xrgse mbs rmytmc lust bs pgetry jges. Ots rmytmc nb` prgjunej dy tme luxtbpgsotog`s gk
sgu`js, tme use gk repetotog` wotm b sfoamt vbrobtog` gk pbtter`s, b`j tme vbroej fe`atm gk
se`te`nes.

4? | X b a e
 >. Expgsotog`< tme `brrbtgr‟s pbssbaes tmbt prgvoje dbniargu`j o`kgrcbtog` b`j/gr o`trgjune
nmbrbnters tg mefp rebjers u`jerstb`j tme eve`ts gk b stgry. Nmofjre` preker b dbfb`ne detwee`
expgsotog` b`j jobfgaue.
:. Jobfgaue< tme wgrjs spgie` dy tme nmbrbnters, usubffy tg ebnm gtmer, `gt tg tme rebjer. Nmofjre`
espenobffy e`lgy jobfgaue bs b rebfoston b`j ng`vo`no`a wby gk jeko`o`a nmbrbnter.

Zg`e
Zg`e rekers tg tme butmgr‟s cggj b`j cb``er gk expressog` o` b wgri gk foterbture. Zme tg`e nb` de
serogus, jojbnton, mucgrgus, sbtoronbf, nbuston/sbrnbston, pbssog`bte, se`sotove, se`toce`tbf, zebfgus,
o`jokkere`t, pgoa`b`t, wbrc, baotbte b`j sg g`.
Mucgr<
O`ng`aruoty os tme kgu`jbtog` gk mucgr. Qe fbuam bt tme te`sog` resufto`a krgc sgcetmo`a gut gk tme
grjo`bry. Mucgr os efusove. Mucgr te`js tg de bae spenokon. Mucgr nb` de eotmer sycpbtmeton gr
ae`otove. G`e prerequosote os tmbt tme vontoc cust seec tg jeserve tme kbte gr tme mbrc cust `gt de
nrotonbf.
Ze` types gk mucgr cgst ngccg` o` nmofjre`‟s dggis (Ibppbs, 2?;1)<
Exbaaerbtog`
O`ng`aruoty
^urprose
^fbpstoni
Bdsurjoty
^otubtog`bf mucgr
Tojonufe/sbtore
Jekob`ne
[ogfe`ne
[erdbf mucgr< wgrj pfby, `bce-nbffo`a, lgies b`j pu`s, cbfbprgposcs (tme u`o`te`tog`bf cosuse
gk fb`aubae), gr tme coso`terpretbtog` gk fb`aubae.
Xbrgjy<
B pbrgjy os b foterbry ocotbtog` gk b`gtmer poene gk foterbture, usubffy uso`a exbaaerbtog` kgr ngcon
purpgse.
B pbrgjy ocpfoes b jearee gk sgpmostonbtog` tmbt jeng`strunts tme groao`bf stgry b`j jeponts tme
nmbrbnters krgc b jokkere`t perspentove.
Xbrgjoes nb` jecg`strbte tme votbfoty gk foterbture b`j nb` suaaest `ew wbys gk o`terpreto`a gfj tbfes.
Ng`jesne`jo`a tg`es<
Ng`jesne`jo`a tg`es bre o`bpprgprobte kgr nmofjre`‟s stgroes, pfbno`a tme bjuft `brrbtgr o` b superogr
pgsotog`.
Kgr exbcpfes, b cgrbfozo`a, jojbnton, se`toce`tbf, gr ny`onbf tg`e os `gt bpprenobtej o` nmofjre`‟s
foterbture `gwbjbys.

NFG^UTE BNZO[ZOE^
2. Expfbo` mgw tme jokkere`t efece`ts gk b stgry ng`trodute tg b aggj stgry.
4. Josnuss tme nmbrbnterostons gk nmofjre`‟s foterbture dy aovo`a offustrbtog`s.
>. Xrese`t tme jeko`otog` gk tme nmofjre`s foterbture bs weff bs ots efece`ts dy wby gk b sg`a, b rbp
gr bnrgstons.

>8 | X b a e
^_@ZME^O^ / AE@ETBFO\BZOG@

Foterbture os jeko`ej bs wroto`as tmbt mbve exneffe`ne gk kgrc gr expressog`, wmonm express ojebs gk b
percb`e`t gr u`oversbf o`terest.
Zme uftocbte agbf gk foterbture os tg u`jerstb`j gtmers b`j gursefves. Ot prgvojes tme rebjer wotm nfues tg
foke otsefk.
Efece`ts gk foterbture
Qe ae`erbffy reker tg tme tmo`as tmbt cbie up b wgri gk foterbture, ots ngcpg`e`t pbrts, bs efece`ts.
^unm tmo`as bs Xfgt, Nmbrbnter, ^etto`a, Zmece b`j Xgo`t gk voew
B ae`re os b type. Zme dbson types gk foterbture bre kontog`, `g`kontog`, pgetry b`j jrbcb. Dut wotmo` tmgse
tmere bre sud-types<
Kontog`< `gvef, smgrt stgry
@g`kontog`< essby, ejotgrobf, `ews stgry, kebture stgry,
Xgetry< verse, `brrbtove pgetry, epon pgetry, kree verse, b`j cb`y cgre
Jrbcb< nfbssonbf, trbaejy, ngcejy
O` bjjotog` tg tme ae`re bdgve, we woff ng`sojer b`ytmo`a wrotte` b`j pudfosmej tg de foterbture. ^g b
wed pbae os foterbture. B [NT cb`ubf os foterbture. B` bj o` b cbabzo`e os b type gk foterbture.

E[BFUBZOG@
XG^Z ZE^Z

Xrgvoje tme ng`nept/ojeb gr wgrj tmbt deo`a jesnrode<

2. Ot rekers tg tme butmgr‟s cggj b`j cb``er gk expressog` o` b wgri gk foterbture.
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
4. Zme koaure wmg gppgses tme prgtbag`ost b`j nrebtes tme ng`kfont. WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
>. Zme koaure wmgse persg`bfoty trbots bre tme gppgsote gk cbo` nmbrbnters.
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
:. Zmey mbve cgre kuffy jevefgpej persg`bfotoes.
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
5. Tekers tg tme toce, tme aegarbpmonbf fgnbtog`, b`j tme ae`erbf e`vorg`ce`t b`j nornucstb`nes
tmbt prevbof o` b `brrbtove. WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
>2 | X b a e
 ;. ^etto`a os vbaue b`j ae`erbf, wmonm me fps tg ng`vey b u`oversbf, tocefess tbfe.
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
1. B seroes gk o`terng``entej eve`ts o` wmonm every gnnurre`ne mbs b spenokon purpgse.
WWWWWWWWWWWWWW
=. Ot os tme cbo`, u`jerfyo`a ojeb gk b poene gk foterbture.
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW

?. Ot rekers tg tme butmgr‟s cggj b`j cb``er gk expressog` o` b wgri gk foterbture.

28. Ot os jeko`ej bs wroto`as tmbt mbve exneffe`ne gk kgrc gr expressog`, wmonm express ojebs gk b
percb`e`t gr u`oversbf o`terest. WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW

B^^OA@CE@Z / BATEECE@Z

2. ^efent g`e gk ygur kbvgrote stgry b`j oje`toky tme efece`ts gk tme stgry. Use arbpmonbf
represe`tbtog` gr cbtrox o` prese`to`a ygur b`swer.

4. Drgwse b` stgry krgc tme o`ter`et gr dggis b`j nfbssoky tmec bnngrjo`a tg tmeor ae`res. Xrgvoje
smgrt prevoew gr succbry gk tme sefentej stgry. Use cbtrox o` prese`to`a ygur b`swers.

TEKETE@NE
Fbjob, C.B.X. (482:) Tejosngvero`a Nmofjre`‟s Foterbture
>4 | X b a e
 NMBXZET >

Zme Brt gk Offustrbtog`, Ebrfy Nmofjmggj Dggis

FEBT@O@A GDLENZO[E^

Upg` ngcpfetog` gk tmos cgjufe tme febr`ers woff de bdfe tg<

2. Jecg`strbte tmeor u`jerstb`jo`a gk tme ocpgrtb`ne gk Brts Offustrbtog`s o` nmofjre`‟s foterbture
4. Jecg`strbte tmeor u`jerstb`jo`a g` tme ocpbnt gk ponture dggis tg ygu`a febr`ers.
>. Josnuss tme efece`ts, jokkere`t type b`j nmbrbnterostons gk ponture dggis

XTE-ZE^Z

Tebj ebnm otec nbrekuffy b`j try tg b`swer gr prgvoje tme ng`nept gr tmo`a deo`a jesnrodej gr bsiej.
2. Ot e`mb`nes text dy prgvojo`a b vosubf represe`tbtog` gk tme sudlent cbtter.
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
4. Ot prgvojes b nmofjre`‟s vosubf experoe`ne, wmere tme stgry jevefgps b`j os suppgrtej dy ronm

>. Zmey e`lgy dggis tmbt mbve droamt ngfgrs b`j doa pontures. WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
:. Zmey deao` tg see tmbt tme pro`t mgfjs ceb`o`a b`j tmey nb` quonify dengce bjept bt pro`t
ng`nepts sunm bs mgfjo`a tme dggi prgperfy, tur`o`a tme pbaes, b`j eve` trbnio`a tme pro`t bs
tmey ‖rebj.– WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
5. Nmofjre` nb` bntovefy pbrtonopbte o` rebj-bfgujs dy bsio`a b`j b`swero`a questog`s bdgut tme
text b`j reteffo`a stgroes. WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
;. Zypes gk ponture dggis wmonm o`nfuje dgbrj dggis, puff-tbd dggis, kfbp dggis, pgp-up dggis,
nfgtm dggis, b`j pfbston dggis. WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
1. Zypes gk ponture dggis tmbt kgster vosubf foterbny b`j fb`aubae jevefgpce`t o` nmofjre`.
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
=. B type gk ponture dggi o` wmonm b text os bdse`t gr co`ocbf, sg nmofjre` nb` bppfy ceb`o`a tg tme
stgry. WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
?. Zmese bre rebfoston stgroes tmbt mbve b`ocbf gr o`b`ocbte gdlents bs tme cbo` nmbrbnter.
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
28. O` tmos ae`re b kusog` gk rebfoty b`j ocbao`btog` wotm jrebcfoie ocbaery meoamte`s tme
experoe`ne gk tme ygu`a rebjer. WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW

NG@ZE@Z XTEXBTBZGT_ BNZO[OZOE^

>> | X b a e
Offustrbtog` os g`e gk tme cgst versbtofe brt kgrcs o` tgjby‟s vosubf nufture. ^gcemgw ot mbs bfwbys
nrgssej dgu`jbroes detwee` ko`e brt b`j jrbwo`a o`tg b ‖arey– breb, b`j mbs ng`soste`tfy prgvgiej
jedbte, dut mgw jg we ngckgrtbdfy jeko`e ot7

Zme ‖fbdef– offustrbtog`/offustrbtgr os bcdoaugus. Zme jeko`otog` gk tme kgrc os bcgrpmgus b`j o`jeko`ote,
ng`stb`tfy nmbffe`ao`a `gtog`s b`j perneptog`s gk ng`tecpgrbry ocbae cbio`a. Foie pmgtgarbpmy b`j
pro`tcbio`a, offustrbtog` mbs gkte` dee` questog`ej dy ots o`te`t ‚ ok ot‟s ngccernobf, os ot brt7 Zme
b`swer tg tmbt os gdvogus9 sgce gk tgjby‟s arebtest brtwgris mbve dee` ngccossog`ej, kgr
exbcpfe, B`aef gk tme @grtm dy B`tg`y Agrcfey gr Cbrn Ruo``‟s snufpture gk Bfosg` Fbpper b`j Cbrog
Zesto`g‟s kfbwfess ocbaes gk Ibte Cgss.

Bs b ae`re, offustrbtog` mbs dee` dgr` gut gk cb`y tmo`as, argw` drgbjer o` ots ng`text tmrguam `ew
cejob b`j tenm`gfgay, b`j tmos mbs soa`okoej tmbt offustrbtog` `gw smbres b vbfoj pfbtkgrc wotm ko`e brt.
Zgjby‟s offustrbtgrs ag deyg`j nbronbture b`j vosubf represe`tbtog` tg gdservbtog`bf stbtece`ts bdgut
nurre`t tre`js b`j pgpufbr nufture. Ng`tecpgrbry offustrbtog` os b `ew cgvece`t wotm offustrbtgrs
jrbwo`a o`kfue`nes krgc arbkkoto, kbsmog`, ngcputer abces b`j b`ocbtog`. Zmere bre kewer dgu`jbroes
b`j cgre krontog`.

JE[EFGXCE@ZBF BNZO[OZOE^

ZME BTZ GK OFFU^ZTBZOG@

@gt very fg`a bag b` brtost wmg wbs b` offustrbtgr wbs`'t tbie` very serogusfy dy tme pu`jots gk ko`e brt.
Zmgse jbys, tmb`ikuffy, bre ag`e. Ot os mbrj tg defoeve, fggio`a bt tme offustrbtog` bdgve, tmbt @.N. Qyetm
struaafej kgr brtoston renga`otog` deyg`j tme weff i`gw` pbaes gk nmofjre` foterbture. "-jespote
wgrfjwoje bnnfboc, me lujaej mocsefk b kbofure, defoevo`a tmbt offustrbtog` wbs gk `g ocpgrtb`ne."
Offustrbtog` e`mb`nes text dy prgvojo`a b vosubf represe`tbtog` gk tme sudlent cbtter. Zme offustrbtog` cby
de o`te`jej tg socpfoky ngcpfonbtej ng`nepts gr gdlents tmbt bre jokkonuft tg jesnrode textubffy.

Zme Qby Zmo`as Qgri os g`e gk gur bff-toce kbvgrote dggis kgr iojs b`j bjufts. Mere we nb` tbie bpbrt
b`j put tgaetmer tme ngcpfonbtej ojebs gk cbnmo`ery b`j systecs. Jbvoj Cbnbufby aoves jobarbcs b
wmgfe `ew foke o` mos cb`y dggis.

>: | X b a e
Gur korst o`terbntog` tg Offustrbtog` os gkte` o` nmofjre`'s foterbture b`j "ponture dggis". Qmbt os ygur
kbvgrote nmofjre`'s dggi offustrbtgr7 Mere os b sbcpfe.

^gce pfbnes tg see groao`bf offustrbtog`s bre<

Drb`jywo`e Cuseuc o` Nmbjs Kgrj, XB
@btog`bf Cuseuc gk Bceronb` Offustrbtog` o` @ewpgrt, TO
^gnoety gk Offustrbtgrs o` @ew _gri Noty.
Gk ngurse, offustrbtog` os `gt g`fy o`soje gk dggis dut dggi ngvers, pgsters, zo`es, b`j wedsotes. Zme @ew
_grier Cbabzo`e os tme brnmetype gk offustrbtog` bs ngcce`tbry g` eve`ts gk tme jby.

Cb`y brtosts mbve gkte` wgriej bs prgkessog`bf offustrbtgrs o` grjer tg suppgrt tmeor nbreers bs brtosts.
B`j, cb`y sunm brtosts mbve o`ngrpgrbtej tme tenm`oques gk offustrbtog` o`tg tmeor brtoston prbntones, gr
eve`‚b`j tmos os cgre ngccg` juro`a tme seng`j mbfk gk tme 48tm ne`tury‚mbj tmeor offustrbtog`
ng`sojerej ko`e brt b`j exmodotej wotmo` ko`e brt o`stotutog`s. Tene`t exbcpfes o`nfuje tme wgri gk T.
Nrucd, Brt ^poeaefcb`, b`j ^buf ^teo`dera. G`e gk tme 48tm ne`tury's cgst kbcgus brtosts, B`jy

>5 | X b a e
 Qbrmgf, deab` mos nbreer bs b refbtovefy sunnesskuf kbsmog` offustrbtgr dekgre
jevefgpo`a tme brtoston prbntone me mbs dengce i`gw` kgr.

Xonture Dggis tmrguamgut Ebrfy Nmofjmggj

Xonture dggis prgvoje nmofjre` b vosubf experoe`ne, wmere tme stgry jevefgps b`j
os suppgrtej dy ronm offustrbtog`s. Zmey bre b wg`jerkuf tggf tg ae`erbte
exnotece`t bdgut dggis b`j rebjo`a b`j tg prgvoje tme gppgrtu`otoes kgr
josnussog`s bdgut tme stgry b`j tme offustrbtog`s. Zme evoje`ne os strg`a o`
smgwo`a tmbt ronm fb`aubae b`j foterbny experoe`nes ebrfy g` bre refbtej tg fbter
febr`o`a. Tebjo`a (b`j re-rebjo`a) ponture dggis ng`trodute tg tmese ocpgrtb`t ebrfy experoe`nes.

O`kb`ts
O`kb`ts b`j tgjjfers e`lgy dggis tmbt mbve droamt ngfgrs b`j doa pontures. Ng`sojer gkkero`a sturjy
dggis tmbt nb` de mb`jfej dy tmeor scbff mb`js, dut jg`‟t cbie gtmer dggis gkk-focots. Eve` ygu`a
tgjjfers nb` febr` prgper dggi mb`jfo`a b`j nbro`a kgr dggis. O`nfuje dggis tmbt e`ngurbae bntove
pbrtonopbtog` krgc tme ygu`a nmofj sunm bs ‖tgunm b`j keef– dggis b`j fokt -tme-kfbp dggis. De sure tg
rebj dggis wotm fbrae pontures tg tbfi bdgut b`j dggis tmbt mbve rmyco`a b`j repetotog`. Cbie tme
experoe`ne wbrc b`j o`voto`a dy mgfjo`a tme nmofj g` ygur fbp b`j fggio`a bt tme dggi tgaetmer. Bffgw
tme nmofj tg mb`jfe tme dggi b`j tg mefp tur` pbaes. De ngckgrtbdfe o` re-rebjo`a dggis b`j bfsg o`
veero`a krgc tme pro`tej wgrjs. E`abae o` ng`versbtog` bdgut tme dggi dy teffo`a tme nmofj cgre bdgut
t
pfebsurbdfe experoe`ne b`j tmbt dggis bre lust bs o`teresto`a bs tgys. Zmerekgre, de sure tg mbve b
cuftotuje gk dggis bvbofbdfe kgr tmec tg expfgre o`jepe`je`tfy bs weff.

Xresnmggfers
Xresnmggfers bntovefy ng`strunt foterbny i`gwfejae tmrguam texts sunm bs ponture dggis. Zmey deao` tg
see tmbt tme pro`t mgfjs ceb`o`a b`j tmey nb` quonify dengce bjept bt pro`t ng`nepts sunm bs mgfjo`a
tme dggi prgperfy, tur`o`a tme pbaes, b`j eve` trbnio`a tme pro`t bs tmey ‖rebj.– Nmofjre` tmos bae nb`
bfsg deao` tg e`abae o` ceb`o`akuf ng`versbtog`s bdgut ponture dggis. Kgr o`stb`ne, nmofjre` nb` cbie
persg`bf ng``entog`s tg b stgry gr tbfi bdgut tmeor kbvgrote pbrt b`j wmy tmey foie gr jg`‟t foie b
pbrtonufbr stgry gr nmbrbnter.

Io`jerabrte` b`j Arbje 2

Tebjo`a ponture dggis bfguj bt tmos bae gkkers nmofjre` tme gppgrtu`oty tg e`lgy foterbture b`j see vbfue
b`j debuty o` rebjo`a. Nmofjre` nb` bntovefy pbrtonopbte o` rebj-bfgujs dy bsio`a b`j b`swero`a
questog`s bdgut tme text b`j reteffo`a stgroes. Ngcpbro`a b`j ng`trbsto`a stgroes os bfsg b arebt use gk
ponture dggis bt tmos bae fevef. Nmofjre` nb` cbie ng``entog`s detwee` socofbr stgroes, socofbr
nmbrbnters, b`j socofbr ae`res gr butmgrs. Bjjotog`bffy, ponture dggis nb` de usej bs cgjefs kgr
ae`erbto`a wroto`a krgc ygu`a nmofjre`, sunm bs texts wotm b pbtter` gr b nucufbtove stgryfo`e.

Arbjes 4 b`j >

Xonture dggis gkker b arebt gppgrtu`oty kgr nfgse rebjo`a. Zmos os wmere tme text os rebj b`j re-rebj
severbf toces tg ng`sojer tme butmgr‟s purpgse, tme strunture, b`j tme kfgw gk tme text. Tebjo`a ponture
dggis bfguj nb` prgvoje tme cgjefo`a b`j snbkkgfjo`a gk tmos nfgse rebjo`a. Nmofjre` nb` rengu`t tme
stgroes tg jeterco`e tmeor ne`trbf cessbae, fessg`, gr cgrbf. Xonture dggis nb` de usej tg stujy

>; | X b a e
nmbrbnters, b`j mgw tmeor cgtovbtog`s b`j keefo`as ng`trodute tg tme stgry. Zmey bfsg prgvoje smgrter
text tg prbntone ngcpbro`a b`j ng`trbsto`a tmeces, pfgts, b`j nmbrbnters bnrgss stgroes.
Deyg`j Arbje >
^gcetoces we tmo`i tmbt bs nmofjre` aet gfjer b`j deao` rebjo`a g` tmeor gw` tmbt tmere os fottfe rebsg`
tg rebj pontures dggis wotm tmec. @gt sg. Deyg`j tme ebrfy yebrs, ponture dggis bre arebt vemonfes tg
tebnm foterbry efece`ts. Foterbry jevones sunm bs ocbaery, vgone, tmece, sbtore, b`j persg`okonbtog` nb`
de oje`tokoej b`j josnussej uso`a nbrekuffy sefentej ponture dggis. Zmese nb` de vbfubdfe
u`jerstb`jo`as kgr gfjer nmofjre` tg tme` bppfy tg rebjo`a nmbpter dggis, b`j bfsg tg bppfy tg tmeor gw`
`brrbtove wroto`a.

„ ^mb``g` Tofey-Byers, Bssostb`t Tesebrnm Xrgkessgr, @OEET

Qmbt os Xonture Dggi7

B u`oversbf jeko`otog` gk b ponture dggi os mbrj tg po` jgw`, dut g`e tmo`a experts baree g` os tmbt tme
o`terpfby gk `brrbtove b`j offustrbtog` os ku`jbce`tbf tg tme dggi bs b wmgfe. Xonture dggis, ponture
stgrydggis, b`j offustrbtej dggis bre socofbr o` tmbt offustrbtog`s pfby b` o`tearbf rgfe o` ebnm kgrcbt.
Zmese tercs bre gkte` usej o`ternmb`aebdfy. Zme jokkere`ne detwee` tme tmree os tme jearee tg wmonm
offustrbtog`s pfby b rgfe.

O` b ponture stgrydggi, tme pontures cerefy ngcpfece`t tme stgry, gkte` corrgro`a tme pfgt.

O` b` offustrbtej dggi os b kusog` gk wgrjs b`j pontures. Gutstb`jo`a ponture dggis sebcfessfy cefj dgtm
ngcpg`e`ts tgaetmer, kgrco`a b ronm b`j rewbrjo`a rebjo`a experoe`ne. Qmofe tme offustrbtog`s bre tme
ngre gk tme dggi, tme text os stoff esse`tobf. Bkter bff, ot o`sporej tme pontures.

‖B ponture dggi kgr nmofjre` bs josto`auosmej krgc gtmer dggis wotm offustrbtog`s os g`e tmbt esse`tobffy
prgvojes tme nmofj wotm b vosubf experoe`ne. B ponture dggi mbs b ngffentove u`oty gk stgry-fo`e, tmece, gr
ng`nept, jevefgpej tmrguam tme seroes gk pontures gk wmonm tme dggi os ngcprosej.–

Efece`ts gk b Xonture Dggi

Xonture dggis bre b kgrcbt(kgrc/jesoa`) b`j `g b ae`re(ng`te`t), tmguam cb`y pegpfe sgcetoces use
tme terc ‖ae`re– tg jesnrode ponture dggis bs b wmgfe. Xonturo`a dggis jges `gt reker tg ponture dggis
bs b ae`re denbuse ot os tme kgrcbt tmbt os tme pmysonbf bspents, gk ponture dggis tmbt cbie tmec josto`nt
wotmo` tme koefj gk nmofjre`‟s foterbture.

>4 pbaes os stb`jbrj (tmguam totfes nb` de 4: -:= pbaes)

Offustrbtog`s jgco`bte text
Offustrbtog`s o`tearbte wotm tme `brrbtove tg dro`a stgry tg b sbtoskyo`a ng`nfusog`.
Qgrj ngu`t os ae`erbffy fess tmb` 588 wgrjs. Bftmguam ponture dggis nb` mbve gver 4888 wgrjs
gr mbve `g`e bt bff, bs os tme nbse wotm wgrjfess ponture dggis.

Zypes gk Xonture Dggis

>1 | X b a e
 2. ZG_ DGGI^ o`nfuje dgbrj dggis, puff-tbd dggis, kfbp dggis, pgp-up dggis, nfgtm dggis, b`j
pfbston dggis (dbtmtud dggis). Zggi dggis nb` de socpfe gr very ngcpfex. Zmey bre b wg`jerkuf
o`trgjuntog` tg nmofjre`‟s foterbture…b`j quote ku` tg o`ngrpgrbte o`tg stgry toce.
4. NG@NEXZ DGGI^ kgster vosubf foterbny b`j fb`aubae jevefgpce`t o` nmofjre`. Ng`nept dggis
o`trgjune nmofjre` tg smbpes, ngfgrs, tme bfpmbdet, ngu`to`a, b`j cgre jokkonuft ng`nepts, sunm bs
pro`nopfes gk arbccbr b`j toce.

>. BFXMBDEZ DGGI^ o`trgjune nmofjre` tg tme BDNs b`j NGU@ZO@A DGGI^ o`trgjune `ucders

:. QGTJFE^^ DGGI^ bre exneffe`t tggfs tg mefp nmofjre` jevefgp fb`aubae b`j `brrbtove sioffs. O`
wgrjfess dggis text os bdse`t gr co`ocbf, sg nmofjre` bppfy ceb`o`a tg tme stgry. Zme cbrvef gk
wgrjfess/`ebrfy wgrjfess dggis gkker os tme gppgrtu`oty tg reteff tme stgry gver b`j gver.

Ae`re gk Xonture Dggis

Ae`re os b terc usej o` foterbture tg jesoa`bte b type-kgr exbcpfe< cystery, bjve`ture, rgcb`ne,
snoe`ne kontog`, mostgry, trbjotog`bf foterbture, o`kgrcbtog`bf, b`j b`tmrgpgcgrpmon (b`ocbf) stgroes.
U`foie `gvefs, pontures dggis mbve kewer ae`res. Qmofe tmey exost, ot os jokkonuft tg ko`j cystery gr snoe`ne
kontog` ponture dggis.

Zme pro`nopbf ae`res kgr cgst ponture dggis bre<

2. B@ZMTGXGCGTXMON (B@OCBF) ^ZGTOE^ bre rebfoston stgroes tmbt mbve b`ocbf gr o`b`ocbte
gdlents bs tme cbo` nmbrbnter. B`ocbfs/gdlents tbfi, wbfi, jress, b`j gtmerwose dembve foie
mucb`s. Zmere os usubffy fottfe gr `g cbaon denbuse tme b`ocbfs gr gdlents mbve mucb`
nmbrbnterostons tmbt re`jer tmec nbpbdfe gk extrbgrjo`bry kebts. ^etto`as nb` de ocbao`bry gr
ng`tecpgrbry.
4. TEBFO^ZON ^ZGTOE^ kebture sycpbtmeton nmbrbnters tmbt nmofjre` oje`toky b`j ecpbtmoze wotm.
Kgr tme fbst twg jenbjes gr sg butmgrs mbve expfgrej tocefy sgcder tgpons o` ponture dggis,
sunm bs nb`ner, jebtm, mgcgsexubfoty, bjgptog` b`j BOJ^‚tg `bce b kew. Tebfoston dggis nb`
mbve b ng`tecpgrbry gr mostgronbf setto`a.
>. CBAON TEBFO^C os b kusog` gk rebfoty b`j ocbao`btog` wotm jrebcfoie ocbaery tmbt meoamte`s
tme experoe`ne. Grjo`bry bntovotoes bre o`kusej wotm b se`se gk wg`jer b`j prgcose‚b`ytmo`a os
pgssodfe< b dgy nb` tbie b purpfe nrbyg` b`j nrebte b kbdufgus jrebc wgrfj, b dgbrj abce nb`
ngce tg foke, gr b dgbt nb` trb`spgrt b krustrbtej nmofj tg b fb`j wmere Qofj Zmo`as rufe. Zmese
tbies nb` mbve b ng`tecpgrbry gr b` ocbao`bry setto`a.
:. ZTBJOZOG@BF FOZETBZUTE o`nfujes tbff tbfes, kbory tbfes, kgfitbfes, tronister tbfes, cytms,
feae`js, `ggjfemebj tbfes, lbibtb tbfes, debst tbfes, nrebtog` stgroes, pgurqguo tbfes, cgtmer
aggse, b`j kbdfes. Zrbjotog`bf foterbture kebtures stgryteffo`a pbtter`s ronm fb`aubae, b`j
efece`ts gk kb`tbsy. Zrbjotog`bf foterbture nb` de set o` dgtm ocbao`bry b`j ng`tecpgrbry
setto`as.
5. O@KGTCBZOG@BF (`g`kontog`) ponture dggis bre b` bfter`btove tg e`nynfgpejobs b`j gtmer
rekere`ne sgurnes. Offustrbtog`s b`j/gr pmgtgarbpms bre droamt b`j ngfgrkuf. Bnnurbny b`j
tocefo`ess gk totfes os ocpgrtb`t. Fggi kgr sgurne `gtes, dodfogarbpmoes, o`jexes, b`j tbdfe gk
ng`te`ts‚tme cbri gk exneptog`bf `g`kontog`. Rubfoty o`kgrcbtog`bf dggis bre ebsy tg rebj b`j
efoco`bte tmrebt tg ygu`a rebjers.

^gurne< Xonturo`a Dggis< b wedsote bdgut ponture dggis dy Je`ose L. Cbtufib

>= | X b a e
NFG^UTE BNZO[ZOE^

JO^NU^^OG@ XGO@Z^< Qrote ygur b`swers g` b nfeb` smeet gk pbper b`j bttbnm g` tmos pbae.
2. Qmy ponture dggis bttrbntove tg nmofjre`7 O` wmbt wby jg pontures mefp o` tme u`jerstb`jo`a gk
tme stgroes7
4. Nrebte gr prgvoje sgce exbcpfes gk ponture dggis o` nfbss b`j josnuss tme efece`ts prese`t o`
tmbt ponture dggi.

^_@ZME^O^ / AE@ETBFO\BZOG@

Offustrbtog` e`mb`nes text dy prgvojo`a b vosubf represe`tbtog` gk tme sudlent cbtter. Zme
offustrbtog` cby de o`te`jej tg socpfoky ngcpfonbtej ng`nepts gr gdlents tmbt bre jokkonuft tg
jesnrode textubffy. Xonture dggis, ponture stgrydggis, b`j offustrbtej dggis bre socofbr o` tmbt
offustrbtog`s pfby b` o`tearbf rgfe o` ebnm kgrcbt.

Qmbt os b ponture dggi b`j mgw ot mefps tme ygu`a febr`ers tg febr` foterbny tmrguam foterbtures.
B ponture dggi kgr nmofjre` bs josto`auosmej krgc gtmer dggis wotm offustrbtog`s os g`e tmbt
esse`tobffy prgvojes tme nmofj wotm b vosubf experoe`ne. B ponture dggi mbs b ngffentove u`oty gk
stgry-fo`e, tmece, gr ng`nept, jevefgpej tmrguam tme seroes gk pontures gk wmonm tme dggi os
ngcprosej. Xonture dggis bre b kgrcbt(kgrc/jesoa`) b`j `g b ae`re(ng`te`t), tmguam cb`y
pegpfe sgcetoces use tme terc ‖ae`re– tg jesnrode ponture dggis bs b wmgfe. Xonturo`a dggis
jges `gt reker tg ponture dggis bs b ae`re denbuse ot os tme kgrcbt tmbt os tme pmysonbf bspents, gk
ponture dggis tmbt cbie tmec josto`nt wotmo` tme koefj gk nmofjre`‟s foterbture.

E[BFUBZOG@

XG^Z ZE^Z
Tebj ebnm otec nbrekuffy b`j try tg b`swer gr prgvoje tme ng`nept gr tmo`a deo`a jesnrodej gr bsiej.
2. Ot e`mb`nes text dy prgvojo`a b vosubf represe`tbtog` gk tme sudlent cbtter.
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
4. Ot prgvojes b nmofjre`‟s vosubf experoe`ne, wmere tme stgry jevefgps b`j os suppgrtej dy ronm
offustrbtog`s. WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
>. Zmey e`lgy dggis tmbt mbve droamt ngfgrs b`j doa pontures. WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
>? | X b a e
 :. Zmey deao` tg see tmbt tme pro`t mgfjs ceb`o`a b`j tmey nb` quonify dengce bjept bt pro`t
ng`nepts sunm bs mgfjo`a tme dggi prgperfy, tur`o`a tme pbaes, b`j eve` trbnio`a tme pro`t bs
tmey ‖rebj.– WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
5. Nmofjre` nb` bntovefy pbrtonopbte o` rebj-bfgujs dy bsio`a b`j b`swero`a questog`s bdgut tme
text b`j reteffo`a stgroes. WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
;. Zypes gk ponture dggis wmonm o`nfuje dgbrj dggis, puff-tbd dggis, kfbp dggis, pgp-up dggis,
nfgtm dggis, b`j pfbston dggis. WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
1. Zypes gk ponture dggis tmbt kgster vosubf foterbny b`j fb`aubae jevefgpce`t o` nmofjre`.
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
=. B type gk ponture dggi o` wmonm b text os bdse`t gr co`ocbf, sg nmofjre` nb` bppfy ceb`o`a tg tme
stgry. WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
?. Zmese bre rebfoston stgroes tmbt mbve b`ocbf gr o`b`ocbte gdlents bs tme cbo` nmbrbnter.
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
28. O` tmos ae`re b kusog` gk rebfoty b`j ocbao`btog` wotm jrebcfoie ocbaery meoamte`s tme
experoe`ne gk tme ygu`a rebjer. WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW

B^^OA@CE@Z / BATEECE@Z

Nmggse b socpfe stgry b`j cbie b ponture dggi gut gk ot gr ygu ngufj ngce up wotm b stgry gk ygur gw`
b`j prese`t ot tmrguam b ponture dggi, de rebjy tg prese`t ot o` nfbss.

BZZBNM _GUT QGTI G@ ZMO^ XBAE.

TEKETE@NE^

mttps<//bestmetonbcbabzo`e.ngc/jeko`o`a-tme-brt-gk-offustrbtog`/
mttp<//offustrbtog`brt.dfgaspgt.ngc/4822/28/gfj-questog`-ko`bffy-b`swerej.mtcf
mttps<//`ewdurypgrtbrt.squbrespbne.ngc/dfga/482=/>/1/tme-brt-gk-offustrbtog`
mttp<//`oeer.gra/482>/22/41/ponture-dggis-tmrguamgut-ebrfy-nmofjmggj

:8 | X b a e
 NMBXZET :

Zrbjotog`bf Foterbture, Cgjer` Foterbture, B`ocbf Kb`tbsy, Ng`tecpgrbry Tebfoston Kontog`

FEBT@O@A GDLENZO[E^

Upg` ngcpfetog` gk tmos cgjufe tme febr`ers woff de bdfe tg<

2. Jecg`strbte tmeor u`jerstb`jo`a gk tme ocpgrtb`ne gk stujyo`a nmofjre` b`j bjgfesne`t
foterbture, ots ng`nepts b`j ots ceb`o`a9
4. Jecg`strbte tmeor u`jerstb`jo`a gk tme jokkere`t ae`res tmrguam tme types gk foterbture
ng`trodutej dy wroters brgu`j tme wgrfj.
>. Josnuss tme jokkere`t efece`ts refbtej tg nmofjre` b`j ygu`a bjuft foterbture
:. Evbfubte b`j sefent bpprgprobte foterbture kgr nmofjre`
5. Jecg`strbte u`jerstb`jo`a gk mgw soa`okonb`t mucb` experoe`nes bre dest nbpturej o` vbrogus
foterbry kgrcs tmbt o`spore mucb`s tg dro`a gut tme dest o` tmec.

XTE-ZE^Z

Tebj ebnm otecs nbrekuffy b`j b`swer tme questog`s gr prgvoje o`kgrcbtog` tmbt os bsi gr deo`a jesnrode,
2. Ot o`nfujes bff tme cytms, feae`js, epons b`j kgfitbfes pbssej jgw` dy wgrj gk cgutm tmrguam
ae`erbtog`s. WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
4. Zme nmbrbnters bre cbo`fy agjs b`j agjjesses, wotm gnnbsog`bf ce`tog` gk mucb`s, b`j tme
setto`a os moam bdgve ebrtm o` tme mgce gk tme agjs.WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
>. Zmese bre fg`a stgroes gk mucb` bjve`ture b`j mergosc rengu`tej o` cb`y eposgjes, gkte` o`
verse. WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
:. Zmese bre stgroes dbsej g` eotmer rebf gr suppgsejfy rebf o`jovojubfs gr tmeor cbrvefgus jeejs.
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
5. Zmese bre moamfy exbaaerbtej bnngu`ts gk tme expfgots gk persg`s, dgtm rebf b`j ocbao`ej, sg
tmey cby de ng`sojerej b sudnbteagry gk feae`js, tmguam wotm cunm cgre rene`t groao`.
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
;. Zmese bre socpfe stgroes tmbt o`ngrpgrbte nmbrbnters (typonbffy b`ocbfs) wmgse bntog`s tebnm b
cgrbf fessg` gr u`oversbf trutm.WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
1. Ot os b`y stgry gk tme ocpgssodfe, dut ot os prese`tej bs ok tmey were
pgssodfe.WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
=. Zmey bre stgroes o` wmonm b`ocbfs dembve bs mucb` deo`as o` tmbt wby tmey experoe`ne
ecgtog`s, tbfis, b`j mbve tme bdofoty tg rebsg`.WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
?. Ot bttecpts tg pgrtrby tme wgrfj bs ot os. Ot ng`tbo`s `g kb`tbsy, `g super`bturbf efece`ts, b`j ot
usubffy jeponts grjo`bry pegpfe ago`a bdgut tme duso`ess gk jbofy fovo`a, wotm bff ots lgys, sgrrgw,
sunnesses, b`j kbofures.WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
28. Zme quest cby de pursuot kgr b fgkty purpgse, sunm bs lustone gr fgve, gr kgr b ronm rewbrj, sunm bs
b cbaonbf pgwer gr b mojje` trebsure.WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW

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NG@ZE@Z XTEXBTBZGT_ BNZO[OZOE^

"Zrbjotog`bf foterbture e`ngcpbsses dggis re`jerej krgc grbf trbjotog`--stgroes tmbt mbve dee` pbssej
jgw` kgr baes (Ioeker, 4881)--b`j bs b resuft bre ngccg`fy smbrej tmrguamgut tme wgrfj. Zmos foterbture
o`nfujes kgfitbfes, cytms, kbdfes, b`j feae`js."

Dbrg`e, J. C. (4822). Nmofjre`'s Foterbture o` tme Nfbssrggc< E`abao`a Fokefg`a Tebjers. Auofkgrj Xress.

"Kgfitbfes jokker krgc tme stgroes gk tgjby o` tmbt kgfitbfes bre cgre o`terestej o` preservo`a trbjotog`
rbtmer tmb` nrebto`a ot. Qmerebs tme cgjer` stgryteffer vbfues groao`bfoty gk pfgt, tme kgfifgrost vbfues
ng``ento`a mos bujoe`ne wotm pbst b`j prese`t nufture (Zmgcpsg` :). Qotm bff jue reju`jb`ny, kgfitbfes
nbpture tbfes gk tme kgfi. Zmey bre fovo`a mostgroes gk tme pegpfe gk b pbrtonufbr toce b`j pfbne. Zmey smej
foamt g` tme vbfues, bsporbtog`s, kebrs b`j jrebcs gk b pbrtonufbr nufture. Zmey ejunbte, o`spore b`j
e`tertbo`."

Dgyj, J. Uso`a Kgfitbfes tg Nrebte (Eve` Cgre) Jrbcb o` tme Cojjfe ^nmggf Nfbssrggc.

JE[EFGXCE@ZBF BNZO[OZOE^

Qmbt os kgfi foterbture7

Kgfi foterbture o`nfujes bff tme cytms, feae`js, epons b`j kgfitbfes pbssej jgw` dy wgrj gk cgutm
tmrguam ae`erbtog`s. Zme butmgrs gk trbjotog`bf foterbture bre usubffy u`i`gw` gr u`oje`tokobdfe.
Zmese stgroes mbve e`jurej denbuse tmey bre e`tertbo`o`a, tmey ecdgjy tme nufture‟s defoek systec,
b`j tmey ng`tbo` ku`jbce`tbf mucb` trutms dy wmonm pegpfe mbve fovej kgr ne`turoes. I`gwo`a tme
nmbrbnters b`j sotubtog`s gk kgfi foterbture os pbrt gk deo`a nufturbffy foterbte.

Zrbjotog`bf foterbture, reabrjfess gk ots pfbne gk groao`, seecs nfebrfy tg mbve brose` tg ceet b vbroety gk
mucb` `eejs<
2. Zme `eej tg expfbo` tme ,cysteroes gk tme `bturbf wgrfj
4. Zme `eej tg brtonufbte gur kebrs b`j jrebcs

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>. Zme `eej tg ocpgse grjer g` tme bppbre`t rb`jgc, eve` nmbgton, `bture gk foke.
:. Zme `eej tg e`tertbo` gursefves b`j ebnm gtmer.

Zme drevoty, occejobte bntog`, ebsofy u`jerstb`jbdfe nmbrbnters, renurro`a kebtures, kb`tbston
efece`ts, b`j mbppy e`jo`as pbrtonufbrfy bppebf tg nmofjre` detwee` tme baes gk > tg =.
Zrbjotog`bf foterbture nb` mefp nmofjre` deao` tg jevefgp b se`se gk cgrbfoty. Ot mefps nmofjre` tg sgrt
gut aggj b`j evof o` tme wgrfj b`j tg oje`toky wotm tme aggj.

Nmbrbnterostons gk Zrbjotog`bf Foterbture gk Kgfi Foterbture

Kgfitbfes ecpfgy nertbo` nmbrbnterostons gr ng`ve`tog`s ngccg` tg vortubffy bff tbfes. Zme cgst
kbcofobr o`vgfve tme setto`a, nmbrbnter, pfgt, tmece b`j ng`kfont, b`j styfe.
B. ^etto`a „ cgst kgfitbfe setto`as recgve tme tbfe krgc tme rebf wgrfj, tbio`a us tg b toce b`j
pfbne wmere b`ocbfs tbfi, wotnmes b`j wozbrj rgbc, b`j cbaon speffs bre ngccg`pfbne. Zme
setto`as bre usubffy u`ocpgrtb`t b`j jesrnodej b`j rekerrej tg o` vbaue tercs (e.a., ‖Fg`a bag
o` b kbr bwby fb`j…– b`j ‖G`ne upg` b toce o` b jbri kgrest…–)
D. Nmbrbnter „ tme nmbrbnter o` kgfi foterbture bre usubffy kfbt, socpfe b`j strboamtkgrwbrj. tmey bre
typonbffy eotmer ngcpfetefy aggj gr e`torefy evof b`j ebsy tg oje`toky. Zme nmbrbnters bre usubffy
steregtyponbf, kgr exbcpfe, woniej stepcgtmers, webi-woffej kbtmers, lebfgus sodfo`as, kbotmkuf
kroe`js.
N. Xfgt „ pfgts bre ae`erbffy smgrter b`j socpfer tmb` o` gtmer ae`res gk foterbture. Zme bntog` os
ng`ne`trbtej, `g fe`atmy expfb`btog`s b`j jesnroptog`s. Ng`kfonts bre quonify estbdfosmej b`j
eve`ts cgve swoktfy tg tmeor ng`nfusog`. Zme bntog` `ever sfgws jgw`. E`jo`as bre bfcgst
bfwbys mbppy (‖Zmey fovej mbppofy ever bkter–)
J. Zmece b`j ng`kfont „ tmece o` kgfi foterbture bre usubffy quote socpfe, dut serogus b`j pgwerkuf.
Kgfitbfe tmeces espguse tme vortues gk ngcpbssog`, ae`ergsoty, b`j mucofoty gver tme vones gk
areej, sefkosm`ess, b`j exnessove proje.
E. ^tyfe „ tme fb`aubae os typonbffy eng`gconbf, wotm b co`ocbf bcgu`t gk jesnroptog` b`j b mebvy
refob`ne g` kgrcufbon pbtter`s. e.a., ng`ve`tog`bf gpe`o`as b`j nfgso`as. Kgfitbfe gkte` use b
tenm`oque „ styfozej o`te`sokonbtog`, wmonm gnnurs wme`, wotm ebnm repetotog`, b` efece`t os
kurtmer exbaaerbtej gr o`te`sokoej. Zmos mbs tme ekkent gk o`nrebso`a tme jrbcb.

Zypes gk Zrbjotog`bf Foterbture

2. C_ZM^ „ bre stgroes tmbt rengu`t b`j expfbo` tme groao`s gk tme wgrfj b`j tme pme`gce`b gk
`bture. Zme nmbrbnters bre cbo`fy agjs b`j agjjesses, wotm gnnbsog`bf ce`tog` gk mucb`s, b`j
tme setto`a os moam bdgve ebrtm o` tme mgce gk tme agjs.
4. EXON^ „ bre fg`a stgroes gk mucb` bjve`ture b`j mergosc rengu`tej o` cb`y eposgjes, gkte` o`
verse. Epons bre argu`jej o` cytmgfgay, b`j tmeor nmbrbnters nb` de dgtm mucb` b`j jovo`e.
Mgwever, tme merg os bfwbys mucb` (e.a., ‖Ofobj–, ‖Gjyssey–, ‖Degwufk– b`j ‖Zme ^g`a gk
Tgfb`j–). Zme setto`a os ebrtmfy dut `gt bfwbys rebfoston.
G`fo`e texts<
Dufko`nm‟s Cytmgfgay(dy Zmgcbs Dufko`nm) „ Zme Bae gk Kbdfes gr ^tgroes gk Agjs b`j Merges,
sunm bs tme Agfje` Kfeene, Zme Bjve`tures gk Ufysses, b`j Zme Bjve`tures gk Be`ebs.
>. FEAE@J^ „ bre stgroes dbsej g` eotmer rebf gr suppgsejfy rebf o`jovojubfs gr tmeor cbrvefgus
jeejs. Feae`jbry nmbrbnters sunm bs Io`a Brtmur b`j Tgdo` Mggj bre b tb`tbfozo`a cox gk rebfosc
b`j kb`tbsy.

:> | X b a e
 :. ZBFF ZBFE^ „ bre moamfy exbaaerbtej bnngu`ts gk tme expfgots gk persg`s, dgtm rebf b`j
ocbao`ej, sg tmey cby de ng`sojerej b sudnbteagry gk feae`js, tmguam wotm cunm cgre rene`t
groao`. Zbff tbfes usubffy jeky fgaon b`j bre usubffy wotmgut cgrbf fessg`s.
G`fo`e exbcpfes<
Feae`js,
Feae`js b`j ^baes
Bceronb` Kgfifgre „ feae`js
Bceronb` Kgfifgre „ Zbff Zbfes
Io`a Brtmur b`j mos I`oamts
Io`a Brtmur kgr iojs (b`ocbtog`)
B`ocbtej Zbff Zbfes
5. KBDFE^ „ bre socpfe stgroes tmbt o`ngrpgrbte nmbrbnters (typonbffy b`ocbfs) wmgse bntog`s tebnm b
cgrbf fessg` gr u`oversbf trutm. Gkte` tme cgrbf os stbtej bt tme e`j gk tme stgry.
G`fo`e exbcpfes<
Zme g`fo`e ngffentog` gk Besgp‟s Kbdfes
Besgp‟s Kbdfes bt dy Agsm.ngc
Besgp‟s Kbdfes g` tme Agfje` ^nbfes
Besgp‟s Kbdfes< Zrbjotog`bf b`j Cgjer`

Qmbt Os Cgjer` Foterbture7

Cgjer` foterbture os wrotte` o` tme ng`tecpgrbry perogj. Qme` cgjer` foterbture deab` os mbrj tg
jeko`e b`j vbroes krgc ngu`try tg ngu`try, dut ot ngvers bt febst tme 48tm b`j 42st ne`turoes. Foterbture
ngvers bff wrotte` wgris o`nfujo`a fetters b`j lgur`bfs, dut os dest i`gw` kgr `gvefs, pgetry b`j `g`-
kontog` brtonfes bs kgu`j o` cbabzo`es b`j `ewspbpers. Ot smgufj `gt de ng`kusej wotm cgjer`ost
foterbture, eve` tmguam tme twg argups bre ng`tecpgrbry.

XTOCBT_ QTOZET^ GK ZME CGJET@ XETOGJ

E`afosm
Aercb` Kre`nm Tussob`
Drotbo` U`otej ^tbtes

pgetry Xusmio` Qgrjswgrtm Qmotcb`

Agetme Muag
@gvef Zgfstgy Jonie`s Zwbo`

Tgcb`tonosc Agetme, Muag

jrbcb
cgjer`osc Odse`

Ae`erbf Kebtures
Krgc tme jbw` gk novofozbtog` up tg tme cgjer` perogj (nb. 2=88-prese`t), pgetry b`j verse jrbcb (bs
gppgsej tg prgse jrbcb) were ae`erbffy kbvgurej bs tme cgst prgkgu`j ceb`s gk teffo`a b stgry.

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Deao``o`a o` tme `o`etee`tm ne`tury, mgwever, jrbcb mbs dee` ngcpgsej nmoekfy o` prgse, b`j
tme `gvef mbs reoa`ej bs tme procbry foterbry kgrc.

Cgjer`osc nb. 2=58-prese`t

Zme terc "cgjer`", o` tme ng`text gk mostgry b`j brt mostgry, mbs tmree ngccg` ceb`o`as. O` josnussog`

,
cejoevbf, b`j cgjer`) gr tme perogj nb. 2=88-prese`t (wme` tme jovosog`s bre b`noe`t, cejoevbf, ebrfy
cgjer`, b`j cgjer`). O` josnussog` gk brt mostgry, ot usubffy ceb`s tme perogj juro`a wmonm "cgjer`
brt" mbs dee` prgjunej< nb. 2=58-prese`t.

CGJET@ FOZETBZUTE

Drb`nm procbry butmgrs

prgse Kfbudert, Zgfstgy

rebfosc

jrbcb Odse`

rbjonbfosc
prgse Xrgust, Ibkib, Lgyne
pgetry Dbujefbore, Tofie, Efogt

Cgjer` brt (bib "cgjer`ost brt") socpfy je`gtes `ew, `g`-trbjotog`bf brt. Cgjer` brtosts, wmg
jefoderbtefy sguamt tg drebi wotm trbjotog`bf styfes, o``gvbtej b woje rb`ae gk `ew bestmetons. Cgjer`
foterbture nb` de drgbjfy jovojej o`tg twg bpprgbnmes, rebfosc b`j rbjonbfosc, dgtm gk wmonm nb` de
trbnej dbni tg nb. 2=58.

r o e o o e
strboamtkgrwbrj, jetbofej cb``er (lust bs b wgri gk vosubf brt, o` grjer tg de rebfoston, cust de
strboamtkgrwbrj b`j jetbofej). Eve`ts bre `gt ojebfozej, kb`tbston, gr exnessovefy ocprgdbdfe9 foke b`j
sgnoety bre socpfy prese`tej bs tmey bre, pgsotove b`j `eabtove qubfotoes bfoie. Zme kgu`jo`a gk rebfost
foterbture os ae`erbffy nrejotej tg Kre`nm butmgr Austbve Kfbudert, wmgse cbsterpoene Cbjbce
Dgvbry rengu`ts tme b`auosmej dgrejgc gk b rurbf jgntgr's woke.

@gte tmbt tme terc "rebfost butmgr" os typonbffy reservej kgr wroters jevgtej tg stront rebfosc, sunm bs
Kfbudert (tme kgrecgst rebfost butmgr o` Kre`nm) b`j Zgfstgy (tme kgrecgst o` Tussob`). Zme foterbry
nbteagry gk "rebfosc", mgwever, os gkte` stretnmej tg o`nfuje fess severefy rebfoston butmgrs wmg
`g`etmefess o`ngrpgrbtej cunm rebfosc o`tg tmeor wgris. Zmos refbxej jeko`otog` wgufj o`nfuje sunm
butmgrs bs Jonie`s, Zwbo`, b`j Muag.

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Tebfost jrbcb wbs pog`eerej dy @grweaob` Me`roi Odse`, kgu`jer b`j arebtest koaure gk cgjer`ost
jrbcb. O`jeej, ^nb`jo`bvob wbs g`e gk tme twg febjo`a reaog`s gk cgjer` jrbcb, aovo`a rose tg dgtm
Odse` (@grwby's kgrecgst butmgr) b`j Buaust ^tro`jdera (^weje`'s kgrecgst butmgr). Zme gtmer febjo`a
reaog` wbs Tussob, wmgse cgst reverej jrbcbtost os B`tg` Nmeimgv. O` mos fbter wgris, Odse` (bs weff bs
^tro`jdera) smoktej tgwbrj rbjonbfosc, cbio`a moc socuftb`egusfy tme kgrecgst pog`eer gk rbjonbf
jrbcb.

Zme procbry cgjer`ost pfbywroamts o` E`afosm bre Aegrae Der`brj ^mbw (UI) b`j Euae`e G'@eoff (U^).

Tbjonbf foterbture kebtures b woje rb`ae gk u`trbjotog`bf tenm`oques, gkte` o`sporej dy cgvece`ts o`
vosubf brt. Ocpressog`ost wroto`a, kgr o`stb`ne, ngccu`onbtes wotm kfeeto`a suaaestog` rbtmer tmb` nfebr,
jorent `brrbtove, wmofe sycdgfost foterbture kgnuses mebvofy g` sycdgfon ocbaes. ^urrebfost foterbture
bppebfs tg tme sudng`snogus wotm kb`tbston, jrebcfoie qubfotoes, wmofe expressog`ost wroto`a drbze`fy
oa`gres exter`bf bppebrb`nes, o`stebj jorentfy expgso`a o``er, psynmgfgaonbf rebfotoes.

Teabrjfess gk wmonm "-ost" fbdefs coamt bppfy tg b pbrtonufbr wgri, mgwever, bff rbjonbf foterbture os u`otej
dy tme relentog` gk trbjotog`bf restrontog`s (tg vbryo`a jearees). Tufes gk speffo`a b`j arbccbr coamt de
oa`grej, gr ng`ve`tog`bf fo`ebr `brrbtove sudvertej. O` pgetry, restrontog`s gk cetre b`j rmyce bre
gkte` fggse`ej, b`j eve` recgvej bftgaetmer (resufto`a o` kree verse). O` jrbcb, ng`ve`tog`s bre
rguto`efy smbtterej wotm reabrj tg bnto`a otsefk b`j tmebtre's buxofobry efece`ts (e.a. stbao`a, foamto`a,
ngstuces).

G`e espenobffy pgpufbr o``gvbtog` gk rbjonbf foterbture os strebc gk ng`snogus`ess, wmonm bttecpts tg set
jgw` tme ng`stb`t kfgw gk tmguamt experoe`nej dy tme co`j. Zmos tenm`oque os cgst kbcgusfy ecpfgyej
o` tme `gvef Ufysses, cbsterpoene gk Orosm butmgr Lbces Lgyne, gkte` ng`sojerej tme arebtest gk bff rbjonbf
prgse wroters. Zme kgrecgst rbjonbf prgse butmgr o` Kre`nm os Cbrnef Xrgust9 o` Aercb`, Krb`z Ibkib.

O` tme koefj gk rbjonbf pgetry, tme cgst re`gw`ej butmgr o` Kre`nm os Nmbrfes Dbujefbore9 o`
Aercb`, Tbo`er Tofie9 o` E`afosm, Zmgcbs ^tebr`s Efogt.

Zmrguamgut tme cgjer` bae, bff brtoston dbrroers (reabrjo`a dgtm kgrc b`j ng`te`t) were tgr` jgw`,
uftocbtefy u`febsmo`a tgtbf bestmeton kreejgc. Ng`seque`tfy, tme brt wgrfj arbjubffy nebsej tg kebture
gverbrnmo`a bestmeton cgvece`ts. Zgjby, butmgrs wrote wmbtever tmey pfebse, o` wmbtever styfe tmey
pfebse, jrbwo`a upg` b`y o`kfue`nes tmey pfebse (krgc b`toquoty tg tme twe`ty-korst ne`tury)9 "brt
mostgry" mbs tmus, o` b se`se, ngce tg b` e`j.

Tgcb`tonosc nb. 2158-2?88

Bs jesnrodej bdgve, tme bae gk cgjer` foterbture spb`s nb. 2=58-prese`t. Cgjer`osc gverfbps
wotm Tgcb`tonosc, wmonm kfgurosmej nb. 2158-2?88.

Tgcb`tonosc je`gtes u`restrbo`ej expressog` gk ecgtog`. Tgcb`ton foterbture kebtures b `ucder gk

typonbf Tgcb`ton tmeces, o`nfujo`a tme `bturbf wgrfj, socpfe/pbstgrbf foke, sgnobf struaafe, exgton fb`js
b`j nuftures, cbaonbf/super`bturbf efece`ts, b`j mostgronbf `gstbfaob. B rb`ae gk kbcofobr cgjer` ae`res
o`otobffy kfgurosmej juro`a tme Tgcb`ton bae, o`nfujo`a bjve`ture (krgc Ejcg`j Jb`tís tg Fg`a Lgm`
^ofver), kb`tbsy (krgc Xeter Xb` tg Jrbnufb), b`j snoe`ne kontog` (krgc Nbptbo` @ecg tg Krb`ie`steo`).

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B`gtmer cblgr Tgcb`ton ae`re os tme kborytbfe, wmonm cby de jeko`ej bs "b droek stgry wotm cbaonbf
efece`ts". Qmofe kborytbfes mbve kfgurosmej (o` dgtm grbf b`j wrotte` kgrc) o` bff perogjs, tmey
experoe`nej b surae gk btte`tog` krgc Tgcb`ton butmgrs. Zme stgroes ngcpgsej dy tmese butmgrs (eotmer
dy jrbwo`a g` trbjotog`bf cbterobf gr o`ve`to`a `ew stgroes o` tme trbjotog`bf sporot) mbve dengce tme
cgst wojefy kbcofobr dgjy gk Eurgpeb` kborytbfes.

Bs `gtej bdgve, sgce Tgcb`ton ngffentog`s gk kborytbfes were kresmfy o`ve`tej, wmofe gtmers were `ew
setto`as gk trbjotog`bf stgroes. O` tme fbtter nbse, tme cgst pgpufbr sgurnes were Kre`nm (e.a. Fottfe Tej
Tojo`a Mggj, Debuty b`j tme Debst) b`j Aercb` (e.a. ^`gw Qmote, Tucpefstoftsio`). Zme cgst o`kfue`tobf
butmgrs gk trbjotog`bf kborytbfes bre tme Aercb` Drgtmers Arocc (Lbngd b`j Qofmefc), wmofe tme
kgrecgst butmgr gk `ewfy-o`ve`tej kborytbfes os Mb`s Nmrostob` B`jerse` (e.a. Zme Ecpergr's @ew
Nfgtmes, Zme Fottfe Cercboj, Zme Uafy Junifo`a), Je`cbri's arebtest wroter.

Jrbcb

Tgcb`ton jrbcb tmrovej nmoekfy o` Krb`ne b`j Aercb`y, fej

dy Muag b`j Agetme respentovefy.: (^gcetoces tme suprece pgsotog` o` Aercb` jrbcb os bnngrjej
o`stebj tg Kroejronm ^nmoffer, tme cgst re`gw`ej koaure o` Aercb` foterbture bkter Agetme.) Zme sbtoronbf
trbaejy Tuy Dfbs (o` wmonm b ngccg`er roses tg tme rb`i gk proce co`oster) os gkte` ng`sojerej Muag's

arebtest pfby, wmofe Agetme's kgrecgst jrbcb os Kbust.

Cgjer`ost jrbcb, g` tme gtmer mb`j, kfgurosmej procbrofy o` ^nb`jo`bvob b`j Tussob. Zme kgu`jer b`j
febjer gk cgjer` jrbcb os @grweaob` Me`roi Odse`, wmgse cgst re`gw`ej pfbys o`nfuje B Jgff's
Mguse, Amgsts, b`j Zme Cbster Duofjer. (Qojesprebj ng`se`sus mbs `gt eceraej g` b so`afe "arebtest"
Odse` pfby.)

Xgetry b`j Xrgse

Zme kove febjo`a `btog`s gk cgjer` foterbture (nb. 2=88-prese`t) mbve

dee` Krb`ne, Aercb`y, Tussob, E`afb`j, b`j tme U`otej ^tbtes. (Qotm tme jenfo`e gk gverbrnmo`a
bestmeton tre`js, mgwever, tme prese`ne gk sunm "foterbry febjers" mbs jwo`jfej so`ne tme fbte twe`toetm
ne`tury.) Zme koaures wmg mgfj tme totfe gk "arebtest `gvefost" b`j/gr "arebtest pget" kgr ebnm `btog` bre
`ebrfy bff wojefy bareej-upg`9 cgst fovej o` tme `o`etee`tm ne`tury.

XTOCBT_ XGEZ^ B@J @G[EFO^Z^ GK ZME CGJET@ XETOGJ

E`afosm
Aercb` Kre`nm Tussob`
Drotbo` U`otej ^tbtes
pgetry Xusmio` Qgrjswgrtm Qmotcb`
Agetme Muag
`gvef Zgfstgy Jonie`s Zwbo`

Zme pro`nopbf kgu`jer gk tme Tgcb`ton cgvece`t (wmonm groao`btej o` fbte eoamtee`tm-ne`tury Aercb`
foterbture) wbs Lgmb`` Qgfkab`a vg` Agetme, ae`erbffy ng`sojerej tme arebtest pget, `gvefost, b`j
jrbcbtost o` tme Aercb` fb`aubae. Agetme's cbsterpoene os Kbust, b` bjbptbtog` gk tme trbjotog`bf

:1 | X b a e
feae`j gk b wgrfj-webry snmgfbr wmg trbjes mos sguf tg tme jevof kgr i`gwfejae b`j pgwer. Kbust os
socuftb`egusfy ng`sojerej b jrbcb b`j b` epon pgec, bs ot strbjjfes tme twg kgrcs. (Bs b` epon
pgec, Kbust os tme g`fy serogus cgjer` rovbf tg Coftg`'s Xbrbjose Fgst.)5

O` Krb`ne, Tgcb`ton foterbture wbs fej dy [ontgr Muag, gkte` ng`sojerej tme suprece Kre`nm pget b`j
`gvefost, bs weff bs tme arebtest Kre`nm Tgcb`ton jrbcbtost. Mos pgeton cbsterpoene os tme epon Fb
Fïae`je jes soínfes, wmonm trbnes tme mostgry gk mucb`oty krgc tme Abrje` gk Eje` g`wbrj. Mos twg
cgst re`gw`ej `gvefs bre Zme Mu`nmdbni gk @gtre Jbce b`j Fes Cosïrbdfes.

Tgcb`tonosc o` Tussob wbs fej dy Bfexb`jer Xusmio`, wojefy esteecej tme arebtest Tussob` pget.
Xusmio`'s cbsterpoene os Euae`e G`eao`, b` epon pgec (gkte` jesnrodej bs b "`gvef o` verse") tmbt
rengu`ts tme trbaon foke gk b jorentog`fess `gdfecb`. Zme kgrecgst wgri gk Feg Zgfstgy, Tussob's febjo`a
`gvefost, os Qbr b`j Xebne, wmonm nmrg`onfes tme @bpgfeg`on o`vbsog` krgc tme perspentove gk severbf
Tussob` kbcofoes.

Nmbrfes Jonie`s os gkte` so`afej gut bs E`afb`j's arebtest `gvefost. Mos kgrecgst `gvefs o`nfuje B Zbfe gk
Zwg Notoes (dy sgce estocbtes tme dest-seffo`a `gvef gk bff toce), Arebt Expentbtog`s, b`j Jbvoj
Ngpperkoefj. Jonie`s bfsg pe``ej B Nmrostcbs Nbrgf, tme wgrfj's cgst kbcgus `gveffb (b prgse stgry gk
o`tercejobte fe`atm, detwee` b smgrt stgry b`j b `gvef).

Zme totfe gk "arebtest E`afosm pget" o` tme cgjer` perogj os ng`te`jej dy severbf Tgcb`ton pgets, gk
wmonm Qoffobc Qgrjswgrtm cby de kgrecgst. ^gce mbve brauej tmbt Qgrjswgrtm os tme arebtest fyron
pget o` E`afosm, b`j gnnupoes tme tmorj rb`i gk E`afosm foterbture (bkter ^mbiespebre b`j Coftg`)9 bt b`y
rbte, me wbs nertbo`fy tme febjo`a kgrne o` estbdfosmo`a tme Tgcb`ton cgvece`t o` E`afb`j.
Qgrjswgrtm's gutstb`jo`a ngffentog`s bre Fyronbf Dbffbjs (ng-butmgrej wotm Ngferojae, b`j ng`sojerej
tme kgu`jo`a wgri gk E`afosm Tgcb`tonosc) b`j Xgecs o` Zwg [gfuces.;

Cbri Zwbo`, gkte` ng`sojerej tme kgrecgst Bceronb` `gvefost, os i`gw` procbrofy kgr Zme Bjve`tures gk
Zgc ^bwyer b`j Bjve`tures gk Munifederry Ko`` (mos cbsterpoene). Zmguam ng`se`sus os fess strg`a
reabrjo`a Bceronb's arebtest pget, tme febjo`a nb`jojbte cby de Qbft Qmotcb`, wmgse cbsterpoene os
tme cbssove fyron ngffentog` Febves gk Arbss.

Zme Cbo` Nmbrbnterostons gk Cgjer`ost Foterbture

Foterbture snmgfbrs jokker gver tme yebrs tmbt e`ngcpbss tme Cgjer`ost perogj, mgwever cgst ae`erbffy
baree tmbt cgjer`ost butmgrs pudfosmej bs ebrfy bs tme 2==8s b`j o`tg tme coj-2?:8s. Juro`a tmos perogj,
sgnoety bt every fevef u`jerwe`t prgkgu`j nmb`aes. Qbr b`j o`justrobfozbtog` seecej tg jevbfue tme
o`jovojubf. Afgdbf ngccu`onbtog` cbje tme wgrfj b scbffer pfbne. Zme pbne gk nmb`ae wbs jozzyo`a.
Qroters respg`jej tg tmos `ew wgrfj o` b vbroety gk wbys.

O`jovojubfosc

O` Cgjer`ost foterbture, tme o`jovojubf os cgre o`teresto`a tmb` sgnoety. ^penokonbffy, cgjer`ost wroters
were kbsno`btej wotm mgw tme o`jovojubf bjbptej tg tme nmb`ao`a wgrfj. O` sgce nbses, tme o`jovojubf
troucpmej gver gdstbnfes. Kgr tme cgst pbrt, Cgjer`ost foterbture kebturej nmbrbnters wmg lust iept

tmeor mebjs bdgve wbter. Qroters prese`tej tme wgrfj gr sgnoety bs b nmbffe`ae tg tme o`tearoty gk tmeor

:= | X b a e
nmbrbnters. Er`est Meco`awby os espenobffy rececderej kgr vovoj nmbrbnters wmg bnneptej tmeor
nornucstb`nes bt kbne vbfue b`j perseverej.

Experoce`tbtog`

Cgjer`ost wroters drgie kree gk gfj kgrcs b`j tenm`oques. Xgets bdb`jg`ej trbjotog`bf rmyce snmeces

b`j wrgte o` kree verse. @gvefosts jekoej bff expentbtog`s. Qroters coxej ocbaes krgc tme pbst wotm
cgjer` fb`aubaes b`j tmeces, nrebto`a b ngffbae gk styfes. Zme o``er wgrio`as gk ng`snogus`ess were b
ngccg` sudlent kgr cgjer`osts. Zmos pregnnupbtog` fej tg b kgrc gk `brrbtog` nbffej strebc gk
ng`snogus`ess, wmere tme pgo`t gk voew gk tme `gvef ceb`jers o` b pbtter` resecdfo`a mucb` tmguamt.
Butmgrs Lbces Lgyne b`j [orao`ob Qggfk, bfg`a wotm pgets Z.^. Efogt b`j Ezrb Xgu`j, bre weff i`gw` kgr
tmeor experoce`tbf Cgjer`ost wgris.

Bdsurjoty

Zme nbr`bae gk twg Qgrfj Qbrs prgkgu`jfy bkkentej wroters gk tme perogj. ^everbf arebt E`afosm pgets
joej gr were wgu`jej o` QQO. Bt tme sbce toce, afgdbf nbpotbfosc wbs regrab`ozo`a sgnoety bt every
fevef. Kgr cb`y wroters, tme wgrfj wbs dengco`a b cgre bdsurj pfbne every jby. Zme cysterogus`ess gk
foke wbs deo`a fgst o` tme rusm gk jbofy foke. Zme se`sefess vogfe`ne gk QQOO wbs yet cgre evoje`ne tmbt
mucb`oty mbj fgst ots wby. Cgjer`ost butmgrs jepontej tmos bdsurjoty o` tmeor wgris. Krb`z Ibkib's "Zme
Cetbcgrpmgsos," o` wmonm b trbvefo`a sbfescb` os trb`skgrcej o`tg b` o`sent-foie nrebture, os b` exbcpfe
gk cgjer` bdsurjosc.

^ycdgfosc

Zme Cgjer`ost wroters o`kusej gdlents, pegpfe, pfbnes b`j eve`ts wotm soa`okonb`t ceb`o`as. Zmey
ocbao`ej b rebfoty wotm cuftopfe fbyers, cb`y gk tmec mojje` gr o` b sgrt gk ngje. Zme ojeb gk b pgec bs
b rojjfe tg de nrbniej mbj ots deao``o`as o` tme Cgjer`ost perogj. ^ycdgfosc wbs `gt b `ew ng`nept o`
foterbture, dut tme Cgjer`osts' pbrtonufbr use gk sycdgfs wbs b` o``gvbtog`. Zmey fekt cunm cgre tg tme
rebjer's ocbao`btog` tmb` ebrfoer wroters, febjo`a tg gpe`-e`jej `brrbtoves wotm cuftopfe
o`terpretbtog`s. Kgr exbcpfe, Lbces Lgyne's "Ufysses" o`ngrpgrbtes josto`ntove, gpe`-e`jej sycdgfs o`

ebnm nmbpter.

Kgrcbfosc

Qroters gk tme Cgjer`ost perogj sbw foterbture cgre bs b nrbkt tmb` b kfgwero`a gk nrebtovoty. Zmey
defoevej tmbt pgecs b`j `gvefs were ng`struntej krgc scbffer pbrts o`stebj gk tme grab`on, o`ter`bf
prgness tmbt ebrfoer ae`erbtog`s mbj jesnrodej. Zme ojeb gk foterbture bs nrbkt kej tme Cgjer`osts' jesore
kgr nrebtovoty b`j groao`bfoty. Cgjer`ost pgetry gkte` o`nfujes kgreoa` fb`aubaes, je`se vgnbdufbry b`j
o`ve`tej wgrjs. Zme pget e.e. nucco`as bdb`jg`ej bff strunture b`j sprebj mos wgrjs bff bnrgss tme
pbae.

:.> Kb`tbs /B`ocbf Kb`tbs

:? | X b a e
Kb`tbsy os b`y stgry gk tme ocpgssodfe, dut ot os prese`tej bs ok tmey were pgssodfe. Cgregver, tme kb`tbsy
efece`t mbs tg de kresm b`j groao`bf. Ot cby o`nfuje cbaon, tbfio`a b`ocbfs, toce trbvef, tme super`bturbf,
b`j bjve`tures o` bfter`btove wgrfjs-b`y kebture tmbt os ng`trbry tg tme fbws gk `bture bs we u`jerstb`j
tmec.
Kb`tbsy os moamfy ocbao`btove stgry bdgut nmbrbnters, pfbnes, b`j eve`ts, yet ot os defoevbdfe. Aggj
kb`tbsy os rggtej o` rebfoty b`j o` mucb` `bture. Cgjer` kb`tbsoes gkte` ng`tbo` trutms tmbt mefp tme
rebjer tg u`jerstb`j tgjby‟s sgnoety, tmguam tme eve`ts tmey jesnrode nb``gt mbppe` o` rebf foke.
‖Zme ocbao`bry wgrfj nbptures us9 ots u`jerfyo`a rebfoty cgves us.–
(Tusseff, 488?, p. 421)

Nmbrbnterostons
^etto`as trb`sne`j tg tme wgrfj gk rebfoty.
Nmbrbnters bre weff jevefgpej b`j dembve o` defoevbdfe wbys.
Xfgts bre weff strunturej b`j defoevbdfe tgg.
Zmeces rekfent tme sbce u`oversbf ojebs prese`t g` gtmer kgrcs gk nmofjre`‟s foterbture „ tme
vbfue gk kroe`jsmop, fgybfty, tme gverngco`a gk kebr, b`j respent kgr gtmers, ngco`a gk bae.
Zme tg`e os gkte` serogus, tmguam stgroes bre gkte` foamt, bory, b`j mucgrgus.

Zypes gk Kb`tbsy
2. Cgjer` Kgfitbfes (Foterbry Kgfitbfes)
Zmey bre tbfes tgfj o` b kgrc socofbr tg tmbt gk b trbjotog`bf tbfe wotm tme bnngcpb`yo`a typonbf
efece`ts< fottfe nmbrbnter jesnroptog`, strg`a ng`kfont, b`j kbst-cgvo`a pfgt wotm b sujje`
resgfutog`, vbaue setto`a, b`j sgcetoces cbaonbf efece`ts. Mgwever, tmese tbfes were groao`bf
b`j wrotte` dy i`gw` butmgrs.
Exbcpfes< Mb`s Nmrostob` B`jerse`‟s Kbory Zbfes (e.a., ‖Zme Uafy Junifo`a–, ‖Zme` @oamto`abfe–,
‖Zmucdefo`b–, ‖Zme Ecpergr‟s @ew Nfgtmes–, 2?=5)
4. B`ocbf Kb`tbsy
Zmey bre stgroes o` wmonm b`ocbfs dembve bs mucb` deo`as o` tmbt wby tmey experoe`ne
ecgtog`s, tbfis, b`j mbve tme bdofoty tg rebsg`. Zme b`ocbfs o` kb`tbsoes bfsg retbo` cb`y gk tmeor
b`ocbf nmbrbnterostons. B`ocbf kb`tbsoes gkte` mbve ebsy-tg-kgffgw eposgjon pfgts. B`ocbf kb`tbsy
ng`stotutes b kgrc gk foterbry sycdgfosc, tme b`ocbf nmbrbnters sycdgfozo`a mucb`
ngu`terpbrts, b`j tmese kb`tbsoes bre gkte` vemonfes kgr expfgro`a mucb` ecgtog`s, vbfues, b`j
refbtog`smop.
Exbcpfes< Zme Zbfe gk Xeter Tbddot (Debtrox Xgtter, 2?84)Zme Qo`j o` tme Qoffgws(Ie``etm
Arbmbce, 2?8=), [gybaes gk Jr. Jgfottfe (Muam Fgkto`a, 2?44), Nmbrfgtte‟s Qed(E.D. Qmote,
2?54), ^yfvester b`j tme Cbaon Xeddfe (Qoffobc ^teoa, 2?;?)
>. Zgy Kb`tbsy
Zmey bre stgroes wmonm bjcorej gr defgvej tgys (e.a., tejjy debrs, puppets, gr jgffs) bre drguamt
tg foke b`j trb`skgrcej o`tg b`ocbtej deo`as wmg tbfi, tmo`i, fove, drebtme, b`j fgve foie mucb`s
jg. Cgjer` tgy kb`tbsoes bre cgst kreque`tfy o` ponture-dggi kgrcbt.
Exbcpfes< Zme Bjve`tures gk Xo`gnnmog (Nbrfg, Ngffgjo, 2==2), Qo``oe tme Xggm (B.B. Cof`e,
2?4;)
:. Cbaonbf Kb`tbsy
Zme cbaon otsefk „ wmetmer b cbaonbf gdlent gr nmbrbnter wotm b cbaonbf pgwers „ dengces tme
very sudlent gk tme stgry, rbtmer tmb` socpfy b ceb`s tg b` e`j. @gte tmbt tme cbaonbf bfwbys
gperbtes bnngrjo`a tg sgce estbdfosmej rufes.

58 | X b a e
 Exbcpfes< Xoppo Fg`a ^tgnio`as (Bstroj Fo`jare`, 2?58), Nmbrfoe b`j tme Nmgngfbte Kbntgry (Tgbfj
Jmbf, 2?;:), ^ofvester b`j tme Cbaon Xeddfe(Qoffobc ^teoa, 2?;?)
5. E`nmb`tej Lgur`eys b`j Bfter`btove Qgrfjs
O` cb`y kb`tbsoes, we see tme prgtbag`osts u`jertbio`a lgur`ey tg sgce kb`tbsy wgrfj gr
bfter`btove wgrfj.
Tebfoston stgroes bfsg use tme lgur`ey cgtok, dut g`fy o` kb`tbsoes lgur`eys jg cbaonbf tmo`as
gnnur.
Zme lgur`ey cby mbve sgce purpgse (e.a., Bfone Qb`ts tg Ko`j tme Ruee`s Abrje`, Jgrgtmy
Qb`ts tg Ko`j tme Ecerbfjs Noty b`j uftocbtefy b wby dbni mgce, dut tme purpgse os usubffy
gversmbjgwej dy tme tmroff b`j jefoamt gkkerej dy tme extrbgrjo`bry eve`ts mbppe`o`a o` tme
kb`tbsy wgrfj.
Exbcpfes< Bfone‟s Bjve`ture o` Qg`jerfb`j ( Fewos Nbrrgff, 2=;5), Zme Qg`jerkuf Qozbrj gk Gz
( F. Krb`i Dbuc,2?88), Xeter Xb` (^or Lbces Dbrroe, 2?22), Mbrry Xgtter b`j tme ^grnerer‟s ^tg`e
(L.I. Tgwfo`as,2??=), Auffover‟s Zrbvefs (Lg`btmb` ^wokt, 214;), Zme Dgrrgwers (Cbry @grtg`,
2?5>).
;. Mergon gr Ruest Kb`tbsy(Moam Kb`tbsy)
Zmey bre bjve`ture stgroes wotm b request, sebrnm, cgtok. Zme quest cby de pursuot kgr b fgkty
purpgse, sunm bs lustone gr fgve, gr kgr b ronm rewbrj, sunm bs b cbaonbf pgwer gr b mojje`
trebsure.
Exbcpfes< Zme Mgddot/ Zme Fgrj gk tme To`as trofgay (L.T.T. Zgfioe`, 2?>1), Zme Fog`, tme Qotnm,
b`j tme Qbrjrgde (N.^. Fewos, 2?58), Zme` Dggi gk Zmree (Ffgyj Bfexb`jer, 2?;:), Zme Merg b`j
tme Nrgw` (Tgdo` CnIo`fey, 2?=5)
1. ^uper`bturbf b`j Cystery Kb`tbsy
G`e ngccg` kgrc gk super`bturbf kb`tbsy os tme amgst stgry. Amgsts o` nmofjre`‟s dggis nb` de
kebrkuf g mefpkuf prgtentgrs. B`gtmer ngccg` kgrc os tme cystery o` wmonm tme sgfutog` os
pbrtobffy super`bturbf gr brrovej bt wotm super`bturbf bssostb`ne, kgr exbcpfe, wotnmnrbkt.
Exbcpfes< Zme Feae`j gk ^feepy Mgffgw (Qbsmo`atg` Orvo`a, 2?21), Mbrry Xgtter b`j tme
^grnerer‟s ^tg`e (L.I. Tgwfo`a, 2??=).
=. ^noe`ne Kontog`
^noe`ne kontog` os b kgrc gk ocbao`btove foterbture tmbt prgvojes b ponture gk sgcetmo`a tmbt ngufj
mbppe` dbsej g` rebf snoe`tokon kbnts b`j pro`nopfes. Zmey cby pgrtrby b wgrfj tmbt ygu`a pegpfe
woff g`e jby o`mbdot 9 tmus, tmere bre sgcetoces nbffej ‖kuturoston kontog`–.
Exbcpfes< Krb`ie`steo` ( Cbrry ^meffey, 2=2=), Zme Zoce Cbnmo`e (M.A. Qeffs, 2=?5), Tgniet
^mop Abfofeg ( Tgdert Meo`feo`, 2?:1), B Qro`ife O` Zoce (Cbjefeo`e F‟E`afe, 2?;4) Zme wmote
Cgu`tbo`s ( Lgm` Nmrostgpmer, 2?;1), Zme Aover ( Fgos Fgwry, 2??>).

[bfues gk Kb`tbsy kgr Nmofjre`

Nmofjre` nb` jevefgp tmeor ocbao`btog` tmrguam tme vonbrogus experoe`ne gk e`tero`a b jokkere`t
wgrfj.
Ocbao`btog` ieeps us mgpekuf, e`bdfo`a us tg see tme cyrobj pgssodofotoes tmbt foke gkkers.
Nmofjre` nb` o`nrebse tmeor bdofoty tg tmo`i joverae`tfy. O` kb`tbsoes, tme `grcbf rufes gk tme rebf
foke bre suspe`jej, percotto`a tme rebjer tg abo` b `ew perspentove g` tme wgrfj gk rebfoty.
Kb`tbsy prgvojes b tecpgrbry esnbpe krgc rebfoty kgr nmofjre`.
Kb`tbsy nb` e`tertbo` tmrguam ots mucgr. Zwg u`oversbf sgurnes gk mucgr bre exbaaerbtog` b`j
tme rojonufgus gr kbr-ketnmej9 dgtm gk tmese nmbrbnterostons bre gkte` kgu`j o` cgjer` kb`tbsoes.
Nmofjre` nb` de o`sporej dy b` butmgr‟s trebtce`t gk serogus tmeces o` kb`tbsoes.

52 | X b a e
 Josnussog` Xgo`ts<

2. Mgw jg ygu expfbo` tme ceb`o`a gk tmos fo`e< ‖Zme ocbao`bry wgrfj nbptures us9 ots u`jerfyo`a
rebfoty cgves us.–
4. Uso`a tme [e`` jobarbc, wrote b ngcpbrosg` b`j ng`trbst gk Zrbjotog`bf Foterbture kgrc Cgjer`
Foterbture.
>. Ngufj ygu jesnrode tme nmbrbnterostons gk Cgjer` Kb`tbsy.

:.: Ng`tec grbr Tebfoston Kontog`

Tebfoston kontog` bttecpts tg pgrtrby tme wgrfj bs ot os. Ot ng`tbo`s `g kb`tbsy, `g super`bturbf efece`ts,
b`j ot usubffy jeponts grjo`bry pegpfe ago`a bdgut tme duso`ess gk jbofy fovo`a, wotm bff ots lgys, sgrrgw,
sunnesses, b`j kbofures.
Gver tme pbst 258 yebrs, nmofjre`‟s foterbture mbs arbjubffy cgvej krgc b rgcb`ton voew gk tme wgrfj
tgwbrj b cgre rebfoston voew ( @gte< ‖Tgcb`ne– rekers tg tme kontog` pgrtrbyo`a b wgrfj tmbt seecs
mbppoer tmb` tme g`e we fove o`). ^udlents tmbt were g`ne tbdgg o` rebfoston kontog` os `gw ngccg`pfbne
b`j fb`aubae b`j nmbrbnter jevefgpce`t bre prese`tej wotm arebter nb`jgr b`j dgfj`ess.

O` aggj rebfoston kontog`

2. Zme nmbrbnters bre e`abao`a b`j defoevbdfe
4. Zme jobfgaue os defoevbdfe.
>. Zme pfgt os kresm b`j groao`bf.
:. Zme setto`a os true tg foke.
5. Zme prgdfecs kbnej dy tme nmbrbnters bre mg`estfy pgrtrbyej.
;. Zme resgfutog` cbies se`se.
1. Zme tmece argws `bturbffy gut gk tme bntog` b`j nmbrbnters „ tme wroter jges `gt prebnm bt us.

Nmbrbnterostons
Zme Ngco`a-gk-Bae Zmece
Cb`y rebfoston stgroes jepont tmeor prgtbag`ost argwo`a up gr ngco`a gk bae. Zme ngco`a-gk-bae stgroes
typonbffy trbne tme prgtbag`ost‟s argwtm krgc b sefk-bdsgrdej, occbture o`jovojubf o`tg b` expe`sove,
cbture mucb` deo`a ng`ner`ej wotm tme wefkbre gk gtmers, b`j mos/mer pfbne o` tme wgrfj snmece.
O` aggj rebfoston kontog`, tme nmbrbnters pgssess b nfebrfy jeko`ej persg`bfoty b`j exmodots argwtm juro`a
tme ngurse gk tme stgry. Zmeor argwtm gk sefk-bwbre`ess usubffy ngces wotm struaafo`a, pbo`, b`j eve`
sukkero`a.
O` nmofjre`‟s stgroes, tme prgtbag`ost usubffy rebnmes b moamer fevef gk cbturoty b`j b arebter se`se gk
sefk-bwbre`ess dy tme dggi‟s e`j, `ut mbs `gt bnmoevej bjuftmggj.
Mucgr o` Tebfoston Kontog`
O` rebfoston kontog`, mucgr os kreque`tfy usej tg drebi tme te`sog` o` se`sotove sotubtog`s, u`foie kb`tbsoes
o` wmonm tme mucgr os gkte` tme mucgr gk tme bdsurj. Mucgr os s kgrc gk sefk-preservbtog`, gk tme tmree
kgrcs, ngpo`a.
O` rebfoston kontog`, mucgr usubffy tbies g`e gk tme tmree kgrcs<
2. Zme mucgr gk nmbrbnter. Zmos jepe`js g` tme b`tons gk b` enne`tron persg`bfoty.

54 | X b a e
 4. Zme mucgr gk sotubtog`. ^urproso`a, bwiwbrj, gr rojonufgus bntog`s gr sotubtog`s bre bcg`a tme
cgst ngccg` sgurnes gk nmofjre`‟s mucgr.
>. Zme mucgr gk fb`aubae. Xfbys g` wgrjs, verdbf org`y, cbfbprgposc (tme cosuse gk wgrjs),
cosu`jerstb`jo`as, bff ng`trodute tg verdbf mucgr.

Josnussog` Xgo`ts<

2. Qmbt ngufj de jesnrodej bs Tebfoston Kontog`7

4. Bt wmbt bae smgufj b tebnmer o`trgjune Tebfoston Kontog`7 Expfbo` ygur b`swer.
>. Qmbt os ceb`t dy ‖Ngco`a-gk-Bae Zmece–7 Ngufj ygu aove sgce exbcpfes gk sunm stgroes7
:. Qmbt os tme use gk ‖mucgr– o` Tebfoston Kontog`7 Ngufj ygu aove tefevosog` smgws tmbt nbter tg
tmese io`js7

NFG^UTE BNZO[ZOE^

2. Ngcpbre b`j ng`trbst trbjotog`bf foterbture tg cgjer` foterbture.

ZTBJOZOG@BF FOZETBZUTE CGJET@ FOZETBZUTE

4. Fost jgw` sgce exbcpfes gk Zrbjotog`bf b`j Cgjer` Foterbture b`j pgo`t gut tmeor jokkere`nes
b`j socofbrotoes.
>. Uso`a [e`` jobarbc ngcpbre b`j ng`trbst Kb`tbsy stgry b`j rebfoston kontog`. Josnuss ygur
o`terpretbtog` b`j o`soamts ngcpreme`sovefy.

5> | X b a e
^_@ZME^O^ / AE@ETBFO\BZOG@

"Zrbjotog`bf foterbture e`ngcpbsses dggis re`jerej krgc grbf trbjotog`--stgroes tmbt mbve dee` pbssej
jgw` kgr baes (Ioeker, 4881)--b`j bs b resuft bre ngccg`fy smbrej tmrguamgut tme wgrfj. Zmos foterbture
o`nfujes kgfitbfes, cytms, kbdfes, b`j feae`js", wmofe "Kgfitbfes jokker krgc tme stgroes gk tgjby o` tmbt
kgfitbfes bre cgre o`terestej o` preservo`a trbjotog` rbtmer tmb` nrebto`a ot. Qmerebs tme cgjer`
stgryteffer vbfues groao`bfoty gk pfgt, tme kgfifgrost vbfues ng``ento`a mos bujoe`ne wotm pbst b`j prese`t
nufture. Qotm bff jue reju`jb`ny, kgfitbfes nbpture tbfes gk tme kgfi. Zmey bre fovo`a mostgroes gk tme
pegpfe gk b pbrtonufbr toce b`j pfbne. Zmey smej foamt g` tme vbfues, bsporbtog`s, kebrs b`j jrebcs gk b
pbrtonufbr nufture. Zmey ejunbte, o`spore b`j e`tertbo`."

O` tme sbce cb``er, foterbture snmgfbrs jokker gver tme yebrs tmbt e`ngcpbss tme Cgjer`ost perogj,
mgwever cgst ae`erbffy baree tmbt cgjer`ost butmgrs pudfosmej bs ebrfy bs tme 2==8s b`j o`tg tme coj-
2?:8s. Juro`a tmos perogj, sgnoety bt every fevef u`jerwe`t prgkgu`j nmb`aes. Qbr b`j o`justrobfozbtog`
seecej tg jevbfue tme o`jovojubf. Afgdbf ngccu`onbtog` cbje tme wgrfj b scbffer pfbne. Zme pbne gk
nmb`ae wbs jozzyo`a. Qroters respg`jej tg tmos `ew wgrfj o` b vbroety gk wbys.
G` tme gtmer mb`j, kb`tbsy os moamfy ocbao`btove stgry bdgut nmbrbnters, pfbnes, b`j eve`ts, yet ot os
defoevbdfe. Aggj kb`tbsy os rggtej o` rebfoty b`j o` mucb` `bture. Cgjer` kb`tbsoes gkte` ng`tbo` trutms
tmbt mefp tme rebjer tg u`jerstb`j tgjby‟s sgnoety, tmguam tme eve`ts tmey jesnrode nb``gt mbppe` o`
rebf foke wmofe rebfoston kontog` bttecpts tg pgrtrby tme wgrfj bs ot os. Ot ng`tbo`s `g kb`tbsy, `g
super`bturbf efece`ts, b`j ot usubffy jeponts grjo`bry pegpfe ago`a bdgut tme duso`ess gk jbofy fovo`a,
wotm bff ots lgys, sgrrgw, sunnesses, b`j kbofures.

E[BFUBZOG@
XG^Z ZE^Z
Tebj ebnm otecs nbrekuffy b`j b`swer tme questog`s gr prgvoje o`kgrcbtog` tmbt os bsi gr deo`a jesnrode,
2. Ot o`nfujes bff tme cytms, feae`js, epons b`j kgfitbfes pbssej jgw` dy wgrj gk cgutm tmrguam
ae`erbtog`s. WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
4. Zme nmbrbnters bre cbo`fy agjs b`j agjjesses, wotm gnnbsog`bf ce`tog` gk mucb`s, b`j tme
setto`a os moam bdgve ebrtm o` tme mgce gk tme agjs.WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
>. Zmese bre fg`a stgroes gk mucb` bjve`ture b`j mergosc rengu`tej o` cb`y eposgjes, gkte` o`
verse. WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
:. Zmese bre stgroes dbsej g` eotmer rebf gr suppgsejfy rebf o`jovojubfs gr tmeor cbrvefgus jeejs.
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
5. Zmese bre moamfy exbaaerbtej bnngu`ts gk tme expfgots gk persg`s, dgtm rebf b`j ocbao`ej, sg
tmey cby de ng`sojerej b sudnbteagry gk feae`js, tmguam wotm cunm cgre rene`t groao`.
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
;. Zmese bre socpfe stgroes tmbt o`ngrpgrbte nmbrbnters (typonbffy b`ocbfs) wmgse bntog`s tebnm b
cgrbf fessg` gr u`oversbf trutm.WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
1. Ot os b`y stgry gk tme ocpgssodfe, dut ot os prese`tej bs ok tmey were
pgssodfe.WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW

5: | X b a e
 =. Zmey bre stgroes o` wmonm b`ocbfs dembve bs mucb` deo`as o` tmbt wby tmey experoe`ne
ecgtog`s, tbfis, b`j mbve tme bdofoty tg rebsg`.WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
?. Ot bttecpts tg pgrtrby tme wgrfj bs ot os. Ot ng`tbo`s `g kb`tbsy, `g super`bturbf efece`ts, b`j ot
usubffy jeponts grjo`bry pegpfe ago`a bdgut tme duso`ess gk jbofy fovo`a, wotm bff ots lgys, sgrrgw,
sunnesses, b`j kbofures.WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
28. Zme quest cby de pursuot kgr b fgkty purpgse, sunm bs lustone gr fgve, gr kgr b ronm rewbrj, sunm bs

b cbaonbf pgwer gr b mojje` trebsure.WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW

B^^OA@CE@Z / BATEECE@Z

2. Cbie b survey gk tme jokkere`t io`js gk cgjer` kb`tbsy tmbt ygu mbve wbtnm kgr tme pbst kove yebrs
b`j nfbssoky tmec bnngrjo`a tg io`j. De rebjy tg cbie b arbpmonbf prese`tbtog`.
4. B pgwer pgo`t prese`tbtog` gk ygur dggi repgrt (o`nfujo`a b dogarbpmonbf sietnm gk tme butmgr, b
succbry gk tme dggi, b` b`bfysos gk pfgts b`j nmbrbnters, b josnussog` gk tmeces, sycdgfs, tg`es
b`j styfes, ygur nrotonosc b`j persg`bf respg`se tg tme dggi).

TEKETE@NE^

Fbjob, C.B..X. Tejosngvero`a Nmofjre`‟s Foterbture.

O`ter`et fo`is<

mttps<//www.woseaeei.ngc/wmbt-os-cgjer`-foterbture.mtc
Esse`tobf Mucb`otoes „ Cgjer` Foterbture
mttp<//www.esse`tobf-mucb`otoes.`et/wester`-brt/foterbture/cgjer`/
Lgsm, Xbtroni. (Lu`e 2>, 4821) Zme Cbo` Nmbrbnterostons gk Cgjer`ost Foterbture
mttps<//pe`b`jtmepbj.ngc/cbo`-nmbrbnterostons-cgjer`ost-foterbture-=:522?1.mtcf
Nmofjre`'s b`j _gu`a Bjuft Foterbture< Zrbjotog`bf foterbture/Kgfifgre
mttps<//fodauojes.usbsi.nb/nmofjfot/trbjotog`bf

55 | X b a e
@BCE<WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW ^NGTE<WWWWWWWWWWWWWW
_EBT & ^ENZOG@<WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW JBZE<WWWWWWWWWWWWWWW

^UCCBZO[E E]BC (COJ-ZETC)

AE@ETBF O@^ZTUNZOG@< Tebj ebnm jorentog`s nbrekuffy. Qrote ygur b`swers o` ‖BFFNBXOZBF– fetter.
^trontfy @g Erbsure b`j ^uperocpgsotog`s

Zest O< Cuftopfe Nmgone

Jorentog`< Tebj ebnm otec nbrekuffy b`j sefent tme ngrrent b`swer. Qrote tme fetter gk ygur b`swer
dekgre tme `ucder.
2.Ot o`nfujes bff tme cytms, feae`js, epons b`j kgfitbfes pbssej jgw` dy wgrj gk cgutm tmrguam
ae`erbtog`s.
b. Kgfi foterbture
d. Cgjer` foterbture
n. Tebfoston kontog`
j. Kb`tbsy

4.Zme nmbrbnters bre cbo`fy agjs b`j agjjesses, wotm gnnbsog`bf ce`tog` gk mucb`s, b`j tme setto`a os
moam bdgve ebrtm o` tme mgce gk tme agjs.
b. Kb`tbsy
d. Feae`j
n. Cytms
j. Epons

>.Zmey bre fg`a stgroes gk mucb` bjve`ture b`j mergosc rengu`tej o` cb`y eposgjes, gkte` o` verse.
b. @gvef
d. Epon
n. Ruest stgroes
j. Mergosc stgroes

:.Zmese stgroes bre dbsej g` eotmer rebf gr suppgsejfy rebf o`jovojubfs gr tmeor cbrvefgus jeejs.
b. Feae`j
d. Epon
n. Cytms
j. pbrbdfe

5.Zmese stgroes bre moamfy exbaaerbtej bnngu`ts gk tme expfgots gk persg`s, dgtm rebf b`j ocbao`ej, sg
tmey cby de ng`sojerej b sudnbteagry gk feae`js, tmguam wotm cunm cgre rene`t groao`.
b. Feae`j
d. Zbff tbfes
n. Kgfi tbfes
j. Kb`tbsy tbfes

5; | X b a e
;.Zmese bre socpfe stgroes tmbt o`ngrpgrbte nmbrbnters (typonbffy b`ocbfs) wmgse bntog`s tebnm b cgrbf
fessg` gr u`oversbf trutm.
b. Kbdfes
d. Xbrbdfe
n. Feae`j
j. Cytm

1.Zmese bre b`y stgry gk tme ocpgssodfe, dut ot os prese`tej bs ok tmey were pgssodfe.
b. Kbory tbfes
d. Cytms
n. Kb`tbsy
j. Cbaonbf

=.Zmey bre stgroes o` wmonm b`ocbfs dembve bs mucb` deo`as o` tmbt wby tmey experoe`ne ecgtog`s,
tbfis, b`j mbve tme bdofoty tg rebsg`.
b. Kb`tbsy
d. B`ocbf kb`tbsy
n. Cbaonbf kb`tbsy
j. Mergon gr Ruest kb`tbsy

?.Ot bttecpts tg pgrtrby tme wgrfj bs ot os. Ot ng`tbo`s `g kb`tbsy, `g super`bturbf efece`ts, b`j ot usubffy
jeponts grjo`bry pegpfe ago`a bdgut tme duso`ess gk jbofy fovo`a, wotm bff ots lgys, sgrrgw, sunnesses, b`j
kbofures.
b. Kontog`
d. Tebfoston
n. Tebfoston kontog`
j. Tebf stgroes

28.Zme quest cby de pursuot kgr b fgkty purpgse, sunm bs lustone gr fgve, gr kgr b ronm rewbrj, sunm bs b
cbaonbf pgwer gr b mojje` trebsure.
b. Kb`tbsy
d. B`ocbf kb`tbsy
n. Cbaonbf kb`tbsy
j. Mergon gr Ruest kb`tbsy

Zest OO< Jeko`otog` Oje`tokonbtog`

Jorentog`< Oje`toky tme kgffgwo`a. Qrote ygur b`swers g` tme spbne prgvojej dekgre tme `ucder.
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW2. Ot e`mb`nes text dy prgvojo`a b vosubf represe`tbtog` gk tme sudlent
cbtter.
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW4. Ot prgvojes b nmofjre`‟s vosubf experoe`ne, wmere tme stgry jevefgps b`j
os suppgrtej dy ronm offustrbtog`s.
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW>. Zmey e`lgy dggis tmbt mbve droamt ngfgrs b`j doa pontures.

51 | X b a e
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW:. Zmey deao` tg see tmbt tme pro`t mgfjs ceb`o`a b`j tmey nb` quonify
dengce bjept bt pro`t ng`nepts sunm bs mgfjo`a tme dggi prgperfy, tur`o`a tme pbaes, b`j eve` trbnio`a
tme pro`t bs tmey ‖rebj.–
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW5. Nmofjre` nb` bntovefy pbrtonopbte o` rebj-bfgujs dy bsio`a b`j b`swero`a
questog`s bdgut tme text b`j reteffo`a stgroes.
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW;. Zypes gk ponture dggis wmonm o`nfuje dgbrj dggis, puff-tbd dggis, kfbp
dggis, pgp-up dggis, nfgtm dggis, b`j pfbston dggis.
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW1. Zypes gk ponture dggis tmbt kgster vosubf foterbny b`j fb`aubae
jevefgpce`t o` nmofjre`.
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW=. B type gk ponture dggi o` wmonm b text os bdse`t gr co`ocbf, sg nmofjre`
nb` bppfy ceb`o`a tg tme stgry.
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW?. Zmese bre rebfoston stgroes tmbt mbve b`ocbf gr o`b`ocbte gdlents bs tme
cbo` nmbrbnter.
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW28. O` tmos ae`re b kusog` gk rebfoty b`j ocbao`btog` wotm jrebcfoie ocbaery
meoamte`s tme experoe`ne gk tme ygu`a rebjer.

Zest OOO< Cbtnmo`a Zype

Jorentog`< Tebj ebnm otec o` ngfuc` B b`j sefent ygur b`swer krgc ngfuc` D. Qrote ygur b`swer g` tme
spbne prgvojej.

NGFUC@ B NGFUC@ D
WWWW2. Ot os jeko`ej bs wroto`as tmbt mbve B. Kgof nmbrbnter
exneffe`ne gk kgrc gr expressog`, wmonm express D. ^etto`a
ojebs gk b percb`e`t gr u`oversbf o`terest. N. Foterbture
WWWW4. Zme koaure wmg gppgses tme prgtbag`ost J. B`tbag`ost
b`j nrebtes tme ng`kfont. E. O`tearbf setto`a
WWWW>. Zme koaure wmgse persg`bfoty trbots bre tme K. Xfgt
gppgsote gk cbo` nmbrbnters. A. Tgu`j nmbrbnter
WWWW:. Zmey mbve cgre kuffy jevefgpej M. Dbnijrgp setto`a
persg`bfotoes. O. Zg`e
WWWW5. Tekers tg tme toce, tme aegarbpmonbf L. Xrgtbag`ost
fgnbtog`, b`j tme ae`erbf e`vorg`ce`t b`j I. Zmece
nornucstb`nes tmbt prevbof o` b `brrbtove.
WWWW;. ^etto`a os kuffy jesnrodej o` dgtm toce b`j
pfbne, usubffy kgu`j o` mostgronbf kontog`.
WWWW1. ^etto`a os vbaue b`j ae`erbf, wmonm mefps tg
ng`vey b u`oversbf, tocefess tbfe.
WWWW=. B seroes gk o`terng``entej eve`ts o` wmonm
every gnnurre`ne mbs b spenokon purpgse.
WWWW?. Ot os tme cbo`, u`jerfyo`a ojeb gk b poene gk
foterbture.
WWWW28. Ot rekers tg tme butmgr‟s cggj b`j cb``er
gk expressog` o` b wgri gk foterbture

5= | X b a e
Zest O[< Zrue gr Kbfse
Jorentog`< Qrote Z ok tme stbtece`t os true b`j K ok tme stbtece`t ok kbfse. Qrote ygur b`swer dekgre tme
`ucder.

2. Bfone o` Qg`jerfb`j (2=;5) os usubffy ng`sojerej tme korst sunnesskuf nmofjre`‟s `gvef.
4. Bs Lg` ^tgtt pgo`ts gut, tme dest nmofjre`‟s butmgrs nmggse jetbofs tmbt bre soa`okonb`t b`j brrb`ae
tmec o`tg ceb`o`akuf pbtter`. Xegpfe‟s foves bre foie b seroes gk rb`jgc eve`t9 b` ekkentove butmgr smgws
tme ng``entog`s detwee` eve`ts, tmeredy nrebto`a ceb`o`a b`j soa`okonb`ne.
>. B aggj stgry smgufj bfter ygu o` sgce wby9 ot smgufj nmb`ae ygur tmo`io`a, ygur keefo`a, ygur psynme,
gr tme wby ygu fggi bt tmo`as.
:. Nmofjre`‟s foterbture nb` de usej dy tebnmers bs o`struntog`bf cbterobfs tg ceet b vbroety gk
ejunbtog`bf agbfs b`j gdlentoves.
5. Zme vosubf b`j perkgrco`a brts respg`ses tg nmofjre`‟s foterbture kebturej o` tmos sentog` bre gkkerej bs
suaaestog`s b`j tg o`spore `ew ojebs.
;. Jrbcb respg`ses bffgw stuje`ts tg expfgre mgw efece`ts sunm bs dgjy fb`aubae, pgsture, aesture,
vgone, b`j o`kfentog` ng`trodute tg expresso`a b`j u`jerstb`jo`a ceb`o`a.
1. [osubf brts respg`ses expfgre mgw ngfgr, fo`es, smbpes, jrbwo`a, pbo`to`a, b`j bff gtmer efece`ts gk brt
ngccu`onbte cessbaes tg tme voewer.
=. Foterbture os tme ocbao`btove smbpo`a gk foke b`j tmguamt o`tg tme kgrcs b`j struntures gk fb`aubae.–
Zme prgvo`ne gk foterbture os tme mucb` ng`jotog`, foke wotm bff ots keefo`as, tmguamts b`j o`soamts.
?. ^ocpfe b`j strboamtkgrwbrj os g`e gk tme nmbrbnterostons gk nmofjre`‟s foterbture.
28. O`ng`aruoty os tme kgu`jbtog` gk mucgr. Qe fbuam bt tme te`sog` resufto`a krgc sgcetmo`a gut gk tme
grjo`bry. Mucgr os efusove. Mucgr te`js tg de bae spenokon. Mucgr nb` de eotmer sycpbtmeton gr
ae`otove.

Zest [< E`ucerbtog`

Jorentog`< Tebj b`j E`ucerbte tme kgffgwo`a
2. Iey tmeces b`j ng`ner`s o` nmofjre`‟s foterbture
b.
d.
n.
j.
e.

4. Exbcpfes Brts-dbsej respg`ses tg nmofjre`‟s foterbture

b.
d.
n.
j.
e.

5? | X b a e