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Goibogbrìe nb Letbrgedbs
Ejtgvgnen = - Bstrujture nb de l
letbrge.
etbrge. Huonelbotas
quìlgjas y bstrujtures jrgstedgoes
Najbotb0
Myrao Maogdde
=. Lbojgaob ediuoas jelmgas bo bd blpdba nb letbrgedbs qub ceye amsbrvena, nureotb
uo pbrgana, bo ediuoas pranujtas leouhejturenas. ±Uuç rezaobs pubnb ner pere
bxpdgjer das jelmgas ajurrgnas1
:. De er
ertr
trap
apdestg
destgee ttate
atedd nb jen
jenbr
bree (^CE) bs bd prajbnglgbota nb sustgtujgúo tated nb uoe
jenbre neõene par uoe prútbsgs ertghgjged.
De jembze a jalpaobotb jbhådgja nbmb sbr nb uo letbrged qub pbrlgte jrber uoe supbrhgjgb luy
dgse y rbsgstbotb ed nbsiestb. Jueota lås dgse sbe e supbrhgjgb nb de jembze, lboar sbrå de hrgjjgúo
qub ahrbjb ed lavglgbota par da teota lboar sbrå bd nbsiestb e da deria nbd tgblpa. Das letbrgedbs
qub sb subdbo utgdgzer sao de jbrålgje, bd ejbra y bd padgbtgdboa nb edte nbosgnen (qub bs uoe bspbjgb
nb pdåstgja luy nura).
Bd jalpaobotb ejbtemuder0 Bstb subdb tbobr nas vbrtgbotbs, de pertb qub sb uob ed cubsa qub
ibobredlbotb bs lbtådgje pere ahrbjbr uoe muboe rbsgstbojge e de treoslgsgúo nb des jeries0 ejbra,
tgteoga, teotedga, btj. De pertb qub bstå bo jaotejta jao de jembze qub nbmbrå sbr dgse y ahrbjbr uoe
lìogle hrgjjgúo y rbsgstbojge ed nbsiestb0 qub panrå sbr nb jbrålgje a nb padgbtgdboa.
Oa bxgstbo nghbrbojges glparteotbs bo jueota ed rbsudtena jdìogja nb das nghbrbotbs letbrgedbs
usenas bo des prútbsgs, de bdbjjgúo nb bstas nbmbrå rbedgzerde sgblprb bd jgru`eoa mesåonasb bo des
jerejtbrìstgjes pertgjuderbs nb jene pejgbotb, esì jala bo su bxpbrgbojge pbrsaoed y prbhbrbojges.
j) Lbojgaobs juådbs sao ediuoas nb das hejtarbs qub bd goibogbra nb letbrgedbs nbmb taler
* Mgajalpetgmgdgnen.
* ]bsgstbojge e ddee jarrasgúo bo bd lbnga mgadúigja.
* Vrapgbnenbs l
lbjåogjes
bjåogjes y hìsgjes jalpetgmdbs jao su huojgúo bspbjìhgje bo bd jubrpa
culeoa.
* ]bsgstbotbs e ddee hetg
hetgie
ie pere des epdgjejgaobs nb jeries jìjdgjes.
jìjdgjes.
* Úsba gotbirejgúo.
>. Zb jaosgnbre qub das treosgstarbs ceo jeusena uoe rbvadujgúo bo de bdbjtrúogje y, bo
jaosbjubojge, bo lujces atres gonustrges.
e) Gnbotghgqub das jalpaobotbs jrìtgjas nb uo treosgstar nb uogúo.
- Ngspasgtgva
- Blgsar
2. Bd jamrb bs usena jalðolbotb pere hemrgjer jemdbs pere jaonujgr jarrgbotb. ±Juåotas
åtalas nb jamrb cey bo 266 i nb jamrb1 Ju 8:.22 i/lad
ú 0 8:,22
∝ ∝∝
∝∝?
? 5
< 8.8.6=
6=:
: ∙ 56
56_=
_=:
: å
å
2 ∙ (5 / 8:,2
8:,22
2 ) < 6.69
6.69389
389
.
6.6938
6.69389
9
∙ (8.
(8.6=
6=:
: ∙ 56_
56_=:
=: å
å
/ 5
)
) < >.9
>.9:37
:37 ∙ 56
56_==
_== å
å
8. Ro edelmrb nb ara tgbob 6.96ll nb ngålbtra y 3.6 jl nb deria. ±Juåotas åtalas
jaotgbob1 De nbosgnen nbd ara bs 57.: i/jl:.
6.96
6.96
< 6.
6.69
696
6
<
ℏ
ℏ … . (
(
ç)
ç)
< 6.69
6.696
6 6.3 6
6.3
.3
< 6.6
6.6>>3 :
:
5 ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝ 8.6=56_=:
8.6=56_=: å
å
6.66>:7 ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝
< =.8>56_=5 å
< =6
5
36 < < 5.
5.=2
=2
8:.22 /
5 =6
=6
=6 < < < 6.:>5
6.:>5
23.89/ 23.89 /
< 5.=
5.=2 + 6.
6.:
:>5 < 5.2
.27
77
5.=2
< %
< 5,277 566
566%
% < =5.:%
5.:
6.:>55
%
< 56
566% < =5.:
.:%
%
5,277
3. Des bspbjghgjejgaobs nb uo letbrged pere treosgstarbs rbqugbrbo uo åtala nb mara par
5656 åtalas nb sgdgjga. ±Juåd sbrìe bd jaotbogna nb mara bo 5 ki nb bstb letbrged1
ℏ
5 ∙ 56·⁶ åå
0
0
5 ∙ 56
56·⁶
·⁶ åå
∙ (5 /
/8.
8.6=
6=:
: ∙ 56
56½º
½º åå
)
) (=
(=3
3
/ 5
5
) < >.
>.8>
8> ∙ 56
56⁻·º
⁻·º
:0
5 ∙ 56·⁶
56·⁶ å
å
↝ >.
>.8> 56⁻·ºº
8> ∙ 56⁻·
↝ 5666
5 å
å
↝ 5 ∙ 56
56·⁶
·⁶ å
å
=.522
=.522 ∙ 56
56·
· å
å ∙ ( 5
/8.
/8.6=
6=:
: ∙ 56½
56½ºº å
å)
)(5
(56.3
6.35
5 / 5 )(5
)(5 / 56
5666
66 )
< :.3
:.39 ∙ 56⁻··
⁻··
7. Nbtbrlgob sg jene uoe nb des sgiugbotbs ehgrlejgaobs bs hedse a vbrnenbre. Zg bs hedse,
jarrì`ede pere cejbrde vbrnenbre0
e. Bd oðjdba tgbob de leyar jeotgnen nb lese y enblås rbprbsbote de leyar pertb nbd
vadulbo nbd åtala.
]// Xbrnenbre
m. Jene åtala nb uo bdblbota
b dblbota nena tgbob bd lgsla oðlbra nb prataobs.
]// Xbrnenbre
j. Bd oðlbra nb bdbjtraobs bo uo åtala bs giued ed oðlbra nb obutraobs
obutra obs bo çd.
]// vbrnenbre
56. ±Uuç bs uo
56. armgted etúlgja1 ±Bo quç sb nghbrbojge uo armgted etúlgja nb uoe úrmgte1
Ro armgted etúlgja bs de rbigúo nbd bspejga naonb sb lubvbo das bdbjtraobs, das juedbs oa
tgbobo uoe treybjtarge nbhgogne, ye qub bs glpasgmdb
glpasgmdb jaoajbr
ja oajbr de pasgjgúo
pasgjgúo nb uo bdbjtrúo nb uo
armgted bo uo lalbota nbtbrlgoena.
Roe úrmgte bs uoe treybjtarge jgrjuder a bdìptgje, jala de qub sgiubo das pdeobtes nbd sgstble
sader edrbnbnar nbd sad. Ro armgted, bo quìlgje bs uo bspejga nbtbrlgoena nbd åtala naonb
pubnbs bojaotrer e uo bdbjtrúo
b dbjtrúo a e das bdbjtraobs.
55. Nbsjrgme
55. des jerejtbrìstgjes nb uo armgted s, uo armgted p y uo armgted n. Nb das sgiugbotbs
armgtedbs, ±Juådbs oa bxgstbo0 5p, =s, =n, :p, :n, :h, >i1
Das armgtedbs s (d<6) tgbobo harle bshçrgje. De bxtbosgúo nb bstb armgted nbpbonb nbd vedar
nbd oðlbra juåotgja prgojgped, esì uo armgted :s tgbob de lgsle harle, pbra bs leyar qub uo
armgted =s. Das armgtedbs p (d<5) bståo harlenas par nas dúmudas gnçotgjas qub sb praybjteo
pra ybjteo e
da deria nb uo b`b
Das armgtedbs n, tgbobo nghbrbotbs harles. ^gbobo harles damuderbs jao sgioas edtbroenas a uo
namdb dúmuda jao uo eogdda qub das ranbe.
5 = ∙ : > 2 8 9
= : ∙ > 2 8
8
. . .
: ∙ > 2 .. .
> ....
0
0 5, =, :, >.
5=.
5=. Eoedgjb des nghbrbojges y sglgdgtunbs botrb uo armgted 5s y uo armgted =s.
5:. Nbtbrlgob
5:. bd oðlbra låxgla nb bdbjtraobs qub sb pubnbo bojaotrer bo jene uoa nb das
sgiugbotbs sumogvbdbs0 :s, :n, >p, >h, 2h.
5>. ±Uuç
5>. bs de jaohgiurejgúo bdbjtrúogje1 Nbsjrgme bd sgioghgjena nbd prgojgpga nb bxjdusgúo
nb Veudg y nb de rbide nb Cuon bo de bsjrgture nb de jaohgiurejgúo bdbjtrúogje.
åtala oa pubnbo tbobr oulbra juåotgjas giuedbs“. Das bdbjtraobs pubnbo ajuper bd lgsla
armgted sadelbotb sg sus bspgobs sao nghbrbotbs. Var da jued, bd juerta oðlbra juåotgja,
juåot gja, bd ig
igra
ra
—spgo“ nbmb sbr apubsta uoa nbd atra. Bsta qugbrb nbjgr qub das bdbjtraobs pubnbo ddbver sus
trbs prglbras oðlbras juåotgjas giuedbs pbra bd spgo nbmb sbr nghbrbotbs.
]bide nb Cuon0 de rbide sb mese bo bd ddboena nb armgtedbs, etúlgjas
etú lgjas qub tboieo giued bobriìe.
Das bdbjtraobs sb ngstrgmuybo, sgblprb qub sbe pasgmdb. Jao sus bspgobs peredbdas, bs nbjgr
qub oa sb jruzeo de pertìjude sumetúlgje bs lås bstemdb (tgbob lboas bobriìe) jueona tgbob
bdbjtraobs nbseperbenas (bspgobs peredbdas) qub jueona bsas bdbjtraobs bståo eperbenas
(bspgobs apubstas a eotg peredbdas).
52. Bxpdgqub
52. bd sgioghgjena nbd sìlmada >n8.
58. Bsjrgme
58. des jaohgiurejgaobs bdbjtrúogjes pere das sgiugbotbs bdblbotas a gaobs0
e. M, X, Og, Es, ^d, Y, Eu, J, O.
M (z<2) 5s= =s= =p5
X (P < =:) 5s= =s= =p8 :s= :p8 >s= :n:
Og (P< =3) 5s= =s= =p8 :s= :p8 >s= :n3
Es (P<::) 5s= =s= =p8 :s= :p8 >s= :n56 >p:
^G (P<==) 5s= =s= =p8 :s= :p8 >s= :n=
Y (P<9>) 5s= =s= =p8 :s= :p8 >s= :n56 >p8 2s= >n56 2p8 8s= >h5> 2n>
Eu (P<)5s= =s= =p8 :s= :p8 >s= :n56 >p8 2s= >n56 2p8 8s5 >h5> 2n56
J (P<8) 5s= =s= =p=
j. Jd
Jd-- ,Z
Z=-
=- , A=-
A=-
Jd- (P < 59, 53 bdbjtraobs) 5s= =s= =p8 :s= :p8
Z=- (P < 58 bdbjtraobs) 5s= =s= =p8 :s= :p>
A=- (P < 3, 56 bdbjtraobs) 5s= =s= =p8
59. Jdesghgqub
59. das sgiugbotbs bdblbotas nb ejubrna sg sao lbtedbs, lbtedagnbs a oa lbtedbs0
Mb, Er, Gr, C, ^d, H, Jd, Oe, Zb, Me, Vm, Et, ]o, Ie, Mg. Boulbrb atras jgoja (2) bdblbotas
nb jene tgpa, bsjrgme de ngstrgmujgúo bdbjtrúogje tated pere nas (=) nb das bdblbotas qub
sbeo oa lbtedbs.
Mb, lbted
Er, oa lbted
Gr, lbted
C, oa lbted
^d, lbted
H, oa lbted
Jd, oa lbted
Oe, lbted
Zb, oa lbted
Me, lbted
Vm, lbted
Et, lbtedagnb
]o, lbted
Ie, lbted
Mg, lbted
2 lbtedbs
De, Ch, As, Lt, Zo
2 Oa lbtedbs
C, G, H, J, V
C (P<5) 5s5
V (P<52) 5s= =s= =p8 :s= :p:
2 Lbtedagnb
^b, Va, Et, Mb, Ib
Bdbjtraobietgvgnen0 bs de tbonbojge qub b`brjb uo åtala bo uoe ladçjude pere etrebr bdbjtraobs
jalpertgna cejge su oumb bdbjtrúogje. eulbote bo das irupas cejge de Gzqugbrne y bo das pbrganas
eulbote cejge errgme.
Vatbojged nb Gaogzejgúo0 bs de bobriìe lìogle objbserge pere sejer uo bdbjtrúo nbsnb bd bstena
huonelboted a Gao Iesbasa. eulbote jaoharlb ngslgouyb P bo das irupas Eulbote cejge de
nbrbjce y bo das pbrganas eulbote cejge errgme.
57. Nbsjrgme
57. mrbvblbotb y nç nas b`blpdas nb jene uoa nb das sgiugbotbs tgpas nb bodejbs
prglergas0 e) Gúogja; m) javedbotb y j) lbtådgja.
Ro bodejb javedbotb botrb nas åtalas sb pranujb jueona bstas åtalas sb uobo, pere edjeozer bd
"ajtbta bstemdb", y jalpertbo bdbjtraobs nbd ðdtgla ogvbd. De nghbrbojge nb bdbjtraobietgvgnen botrb
das åtalas oa bs da suhgjgbotblbotb ireonb jala pere qub sb pranuzje uoe uogúo nb tgpa gúogje
=6. Nbsjrgme
=6. mrbvblbotb y nç nas b`blpdas nb jene uoa nb das sgiugbotbs tgpas nb bodejbs
sbjuonergas0 e) ngpada gonujgna; m) ngpada pbrleobotb; j) pubotb nb cgnrúiboa.
Ngpada Gonujgna0 ngpada gonujgna sb neo botrb ladçjudes javedbotbs epaderbs, b gojdusa botrb
åtalas oa bodezenas, jala bs bd jesa nb das iesbs oamdbs. We cblas vgsta prbvgelbotb, bo bd
jesa nbd cgnrúiboa ngetúlgja, C=, qub des ladçjudes nb cgnrúiboa sb uobo botrb sì par uoe
hubrze nb 5 k@/lad.
=5. Nbtbrlgoene
=5. epdgjejgúo nbleone uo letbrged qub sbe dgibra bo pbsa, egsdeotb bdçjtrgja y edia
hdbxgmdb.
e) ±Uuç jdesb nb letbrgedbs govbstgierìe pere su sbdbjjgúo1
Bo bstb jesa uo letbrged qub julpde jao tanes des jaongjgaobs bstemdbjgnes
bstemdbjgnes sbrìeo das padìlbras.
Vgxeme y.
Roe merre jrgstedgoe nb ezðjer larboe. Hubotb0 Vgxemey.
m. Zúdgna elarha0 sao equbddas qub oa pasbbo uoe bstrujture arnboene nb deria edjeojb. Zao da
apubsta e da qub sb jaoajb par uo súdgna jrgstedgoa. Zus pertìjudes sb esajgeo nb uo lana
nbsarnboena, perbjgna ed nb das dìqugnas, pbra jao de hubrze suhgjgbotb pere qub jacbsgaobo bo uoe
bstrujture súdgne.
Bstb jeråjtbr elarha bs lås jalðo nb da qub sb pungbre pboser; bs nb cbjca, uoa nb das bstenas
pasgmdbs qub pubnb enapter de letbrge
letbr ge jaonbosene. Jao
Ja o bsta sb botgbonb qub juedqugbr jalpubsta
ja lpubsta
jepez nb sadgnghgjer y, par bonb, jrgstedgzer, pubnb esglgsla eidalbrersb nb leobre nbsarnboene
sg des jaongjgaobs bxpbrglbotedbs da pbrlgtbo.
ZA= C=A
Dg
b. Vetrúo0 Roe sadujgúo petrúo bs uo rbejtgva nb jaojbotrejgúo jaoajgne jao bxejtgtun. Bstes
ngsadujgaobs nbsblpbõeo uoe huojgúo prgojgped bo tanas das lçtanas vadulçtrgjas. Vere bstemdbjbr
de jaojbotrejgúo cey nas apjgaobs0 prbpererdes par uo lçtana ngrbjta a par uo lçtana gongrbjta a
oarledgzejgúo.
Bo quìlgje, uoe sadujgúo petrúo, a ngsadujgúo petrúo, bs de ngsadujgúo nb uoe susteojge utgdgzene
jala rbhbrbojge ed lalbota nb cejbr uoe vedarejgúo a bsteonergzejgúo.
h. Jbdne uogterge nb uoe rbn jrgstedgoe0 Bs uo bspejga a rbigúo gleigoerge qub rbprbsbote de
lìogle bxprbsgúo nb uo tana; qub, bo bd jesa nb de quìlgje, bd tana vbonrìe e sbr uo jrgsted
jalpubsta nb åtalas, gaobs a ladçjudes, das juedbs sb arnboeo sgiugbona uo petrúo bstrujtured.
Des jbdnes uogterges nbd b`blpda IJ sao mgnglbosgaoedbs; sgo blmeria, bsta oa epdgje bo das
lanbdas rbedbs qub jaosgnbreo des trbs nglbosgaobs. Esì, des jesgddes a peredbdairelas sb
treosharleo bo peredbdbpìpbnas. Ecare, bd tçrlgoa —jbdne“ jamre leyar sbot gna.
gna.
Des nglbosgaobs nb bstes jbdnes a peredbdbpìpbnas nbpbonbo nb quç teo derias sbeo sus denas y
åoiudas rbspbjtgvas.
rbspbjtgvas.
Bo de gleibo gohbrgar sb tgbob de bsqugoe gohbrgar tresbre nbd peredbdbpìpbna, jalpubste par das
denas e, m y j, y das åoiudas ε, ν y κ.
Jala pubnb vbrsb, e bs uo paja lås deria qub m y j. Bo bd jbotra sb tgbob uo jìrjuda jao treza
gongjer das åoiudas ε, ν y κ, botrb ej, jm y me, rbspbjtgvelbotb. Vere jene jbdne
puotbena pere gongjer
uogterge bstas perålbtras tgbobo vedarbs jaosteotbs, y nbhgobo su sglbtrìe y de nbd rbsta nbd jrgsted.
Hubotb0 cttps0//www.uv.bs/~jeoterbr/bsad/p5.pnh
Hubotb0
=>. ±Juådbs
=>. sao des trbs bstrujtures jrgstedgoes lås jaluobs bo das lbtedbs1 Gongqub jgoja
(2) lbtedbs qub tboieo ediuoe nb bstes bstrujtures jrgstedgoes.
Bo das lbtedbs das åtalas sb arnboeo harleona rbnbs trgnglbosgaoedbs, ajupeona pasgjgaobs nb
bqugdgmrga bo das vçrtgjbs nb nbtbrlgoenes harles ibalçtrgjes. E de eirupejgúo bdblboted nb
åtalas sb de jaoajb jala jbdne uogterge, y e de eirupejgúo nb çstes harlejgaobs sb des
nboalgoe rbnbs jrgstedgoes y sb nbhgobo
nbhgobo bo jrgstedairehìe par trbs vbjtarbs jaojurrbotbs bo uo argibo
y das trbs åoiudas qub harleo çstas botrb bddas.
Das lbtedbs nb usa gonustrged lås hrbjubotb jrgstedgzeo bo trbs rbnbs0
- ]bn jðmgje jbotrene (j.j.)0 cgbrra edhe, jrala, tgteoga, ladgmnboa, btj.
- ]bn jðmgje nb jeres jbotrenes (j.j.j.)0 cgbrra ielle, jamrb, edulgoga, ara, pdala, oìqubd, btj.
=2. Bd
=2. ies oamdb Er jrgstedgze jao uo blpequbtelgbota jðmgja jbotrena bo des jeres y bd K
da cejb jao uo blpequbtelgbota jðmgja jbotrena bo bd jubrpa. Jedjudb de daoigtun nb de
ergste bo pl nb de jbdne uognen, semgbona qub das rengas etúlgjas sao0 r(Er)< 5,7= Å y
r(K)< =,=2 Å.
Vbrtbobjb e das letbrgedbs jbrålgjas ye qub nbotra nb sus jerejtbrìstgjes bstb bdblbota sb
bojubotre bo harle jrgstedgoe, bs luy nura y paja sadumdb
uo lgdìlbtra nb bspbsar, utgdgzeona uoe sgbrre nb ngeleotb. Nb jene jgdgonra sb amtgbobo lgdbs
nb wehbrs, y nb jene amdbe sb hemrgjeråo vergas jgbotas nb lgjraprajbsenarbs.
=9. Bxpdgqub par quç lujcas padìlbras tgbobo bstrujture elarhe a sblgjrgstedgoe. ±Var quç
=9.
Bd vgnrga bs uo letbrged qub sb pubnb bojaotrer nb harle oetured. Bs uoe letbrge elarhe qub
oa tgbob uoe bstrujture jrgstedgoe y par teota, des pertìjudes qub de harleo bståo arnboenes ed
ezer.
Bd Xgnrga telmgço pubnb sbr amtbogna ertghgjgedlbotb, pbra sb nghbrbojge nb das oeturedbs
parqub bstas sgblprb prbsboteo uo gogjg
gogjgaa nb jrgstedgzejgúo.
jr gstedgzejgúo.
Mgmdgairehìe