1.

1 PATTERNS AND NUMBERS IN by the radii to the point and the tangent to the point remain
constant.
NATURE AND IN THE WORLD

PATTERNS

- Patterns are regular, repeated, or recurring forms or

designs. WORLD POPULATION

- It is a visible regularity in the world or in a man-made Mathematics can be used to model population growth using
design which the elements of pattern repeat in a predictable thev formula
manner.
A = Pert
- Patterns indicate a sense of structure and organization that
it seems only humans are capable of producing these
intricate, creative, and amazing formations. It is from this
A is the size of the population after it grows
perspective that some people see an “intelligent design” in
the way that nature forms. P is the initial number of people
SYMMETRY r is the rate of growth
- Symmetry comes from a Greek word which means “to t is time
measure together”
e is Euler’s constant with an approximate value of 2.718
- Mathematically, symmetry means that one shape becomes
exactly like another shape when you move it in some way – ________________________________________________
turn, flip, or slide. __2 THE FIBONACCI SEQUENCE

Types SEQUENCE

This type of symmetry where the left and right portions are - A sequence is an ordered list of numbers, called terms, that
exactly the same is called line or bilateral symmetry. This is may have repeated values. The arrangement of these terms
evident in most animals, including humans. is set by a definite rule.

If you rotate the spiderwort and starfish on the right by
several degrees, you can still achieve the same appearance
as the original position. This is known as rotational
symmetry.
The smallest angle that a figure can be rotated while still
preserving the original formation is called the angle of
rotation.
ORDER OF ROTATION
- A figure has a rotational symmetry of order n (n-fold
symmetry) if 1/n of a complete turn leaves the figure
unchanged.
- To compute for the angle of rotation, we use the formula
Angle of rotation = 360 degree/n
Packing problems involve finding the optimum method of
filling up a given space such as a cubic or spherical
container.
TIGER’S SPOTS AND HYENA’S SPOTS
The spots and stripes of these animals may seem random
designs but they are believed to be governed by
mathematical equations.
According to a theory by Alan Turing, chemical reactions
and diffusion processes in cells determine these growth
patterns.
Moreover, recent studies addressed the question of why
some species grow vertical stripes while others have
horizontal stripes.
FIBONACCI SEQUENCE
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34
- It is named after the Italian mathematician Leonardo of
Pisa, who was better known by his nickname Fibonacci.
- The Fibonacci sequence is a sequence that can be
obtained by getting the sum of the two previous numbers.
- It is also interesting to note that the ratios of successive
Fibonacci numbers approach the number φ (Phi), also
known as the Golden Ratio. This is approximately equal to
1.618.
________________________________________________
__1.3 MATHEMATICS FOR OUR WORLD
MATHEMATICS FOR ORGANIZATION
- We need mathematical tools to help us make sound
analysis and better decisions.
MATHEMATICS FOR PREDICTION
- Applying the concept of probability, experts can calculate
the chance of an event occurring.
y = 10x + 45
MATHEMATICS FOR CONTROL
- Through the use of mathematics, man is able to exert
control over himself and the effects of nature.
________________________________________________
__2.1 MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE

The growth of shells of snails is an example of equiangular THE LANGUAGE OF MATHEMATICS

spiral which follows the rule that as the distance from the
spiral center increases, the amplitudes of the angles formed - The language of mathematics uses symbols to
communicate mathematical ideas.
- The symbolic language of mathematics is a distinct,
special-purpose language which means that it has its own
symbols and rules that are rather different from spoken
languages.
- It is not a dialect of English (mostly a written language)
- Mathematics uses symbols instead of words.
Digits: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
Symbols for Operations: + − × ÷
Special Symbols: π = > < ≥ ≤ ≡ ± ∅ etc...
In general, variables can be used to give a temporary name
to the (arbitrary) number.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE
The characteristic of mathematical language is being
precise, concise, and powerful.
Mathematical Language being PRECISE
Precision in mathematics is like a culture of being correct all
the time. Definition and limits should be distinction.
Mathematical Language being CONCISE
Mathematical language shows simplicity. A mathematician
desires the simplest possible single exposition.
Mathematical Language being POWERFUL
Mathematical language is a way of expressing complex
thoughts with relative ease.
EXPRESSIONS VERSUS SENTENSES
Expression
An expression (or mathematical expression) is a correct
arrangement of mathematical symbols used to represent the
object of interest.
It does not contain a complete thought, and it cannot be
determined if it is true or false.
3h + 6
7h *2
8 − 4h*3
A sentence (or mathematical sentence) is a correct
arrangement of mathematical symbols that states a complete
thought and can be determined whether it is true or false.
It can use symbols or words like equals, greater than or less
than.
3h + 6 = 2
7h*2 > 5
8 − 4h*3 < −2
Mathematical language have conventions.
For instance, the principle of PEMDAS (Parenthesis,
Exponent, Multiplication, Division, Addition, and Subtraction)
is a convention in mathematics.
________________________________________________
__2.2 FOUR BASIC CONCEPTS
THE LANGUAGE OF SETS
Set theory is the branch of mathematics that studies sets or
mathematical science of the infinite. It has become a
fundamental theory in mathematics in 1870s which as
introduced by Georg Cantor (1845- 1918), a German
mathematician.
A set is a well-defined collection of objects
Illustration
The collection of counting numbers from 1 to 5 is a set.
The collection of the letters of the English alphabet is a set.
The collection of good Pinoy actors is not a set.
A = {1,2,3,4,5} is a set
B = {x|x is a letter in the English alphabet} is a set.
The objects of a set are called the elements or members of
the set.
The symbol ∈ is used to denote that an object is an element
of a set, and the symbol ∉ denotes than an object is not an
element of the set.
TWO WAYS TO DESCRIBE A SET
1. Roster Method/ Tabulation Method
In this method, elements of the set are enumerated and
separated by a comma.
Illustration:
A = {1,2,3,4,5}
B = {a, e, i, o, u}
C = {... , −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, ... }
2. Rule Method/ Set Builder Notation
This method is used to describe the elements or members of
the set and is written as {x|P x }.
Illustration:
A = {x|x is a counting number less than 6}
B = {x|x is a collection of vowel letters}
C = {x|x is an even integer}
TERMINOLOGIES
Unit Set / Singleton
A unit set is a set with only one element.
Examples:
A = {1}
B = {a}
C = {banana}
Empty Set / Null Set
An empty set is a unique set with no elements.
Examples:
A={} On contrary, the symbol ⊄ denotes that it is not a proper
subset.
B=∅
Illustration:
C = {x|x is a yellow carabao}
Suppose A = {c, d, e}, B = {a, b, c, d, e}, and C = {e, a, c, b,
Universal Set d}. A and C are both subsets of B; but A ⊂ B whereas C ⊄ B.
All sets under investigation in any application of set theory It can be observed that only A is a proper subset of B. C is
are assumed to be contained in some large fixed set called not a proper subset of B since the two sets have the same
universal set, denoted by the symbol U. elements.
Examples: Equal Sets
U = {x|x is a positive integer, x*2 = 4} Set A equals set B, written A = B, if and only if every element
of A is in B and every element of B is in A.
U = {1,2,3, ... , 100}
Symbolically, A = B ↔ (A ⊆ B)⋀(B ⊆ A).
U = {x|x is an animal in Manila Zoo}

Finite Set Illustration:

Suppose A = {a, b, c, d, e} and B = {a, b, d, e, c}.

A finite set is a set that the elements in a given set is
countable. Then A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.
Examples: Therefore, A = B.
A = {1,2,3,4,5,6} It can be noted that all elements of A are also elements of B.
B = {a, b, c, d} Power Set
Infinite Set Given a set S from universe U, the power set of S denoted
An infinite set is a set that elements in a given set has no by ℘(S), is the collection (or sets) of all subsets of S.
end or not countable. Illustration:
Examples: The power set of A = {e, f} is ℘ A = 2 n = 2 2 = 4.
The set of counting numbers Thus, ℘ A has four elements namely ℘ A = { e , f , e, f , ∅}
A = {... − 2, −1,0,1,2, ... } OPERATIONS ON SETS
Cardinal Number Union of Sets
A cardinal number of a set is the number of elements or Let A and B be subsets of a universal set U
members in the set. The cardinality of set A is denoted by
n(A). The union of A and B, denoted A ∪ B, is the set of all
elements x in U such that x is in A or x is in B.
Examples:
Symbolically: A ∪ B = {x|x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B}
The cardinality of set A = a, e, i, o, u is 5 or n A = 5.
Illustration:
The cardinality of set B = {Ana, Elsa,Olaff} is 3 or n B = 3.
1. Let A = {a, c, e} and B = {b, d}.
The cardinality of set C = x x is a positive integer less than
7 , which can also be written as {1,2,3,4,5,6} has cardinal Then A ∪ B = {a, b, c, d, e}.
number of 6 or n C = 6.
2. Let C = {1,2,3,4,5} and D = {1,3,5}.
Subset
Then C ∪ D = {1,2,3,4,5}.
If A and B are sets, A is called subset of B, written A ⊆ B, if
and only if, every element of A is also an element of B. Intersection of Sets

Symbolically, A ⊆ B ↔ ∀x, x ∈ A → x ∈ B. Let A and B be subsets of a universal set U

Illustration: The intersection of A and B, denoted A ∩ B, is the set of all

elements x in U such that x is in A and x is in B.
Suppose A = {c, d, e}, B = {a, b, c, d, e}, and U = {a, b, c, d,
e, f, g}. A ⊆ B since all elements in A is in B. Symbolically: A ∩ B = {x|x ∈ A⋀x ∈ B}

Proper Subset Illustration:

Set A is called a proper subset of a set B, written A ⊂ B, if
and only if, every element of A is in B but there is at least
one element of B that is not in A.
1. Let A = {a, c, e} and B = {b, d}.
Then A ∩ B = { }.
2. Let C = {1,2,3,4,5} and D = {1,3,5}.
Then C ∩ D = {1,3,5}. In general, a, b ≠ (b, a).

Complement of a Set (Absolute Complement)

Let A be a subset of a universal set U Illustration:

The complement of A, denoted A′ , is the set of all elements 1. Consider (2,5). 2,5 = (9 − 7, 2 + 3)
x in U such that x is not in A.
However, 2,5 ≠ (5,2).
Symbolically: A′ = {x ∈ U|x ∉ A}
Cartesian Product of Sets
Illustration:
The Cartesian Product of sets A and B, written A × B (read
1. Let U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g} and A = {a, b, c, d, e}. as A cross B) is A × B = {(a, b)|a ∈ A ∩ b ∈ B}.

Then A′ = {f, g}. Illustration:

2. Let U = {a, b, c, ... , x, y, z} and B = {a, b, c, ... , x, y, z}. 1. Consider A = {2,3,5} and B = {7,8}.

Then B ′ = ∅. To get A × B, we pair each element of A with each element

Difference of Sets (Relative Complement)
Let A and B be subsets of a universal set U The difference of
A and B, denoted A~B, is the set of all elements x in U such
that x is in A and x is not in B.
of B.
Therefore, A × B = { 2,7 , 2,8 , 3,7 , 3,8 , 5,7 , 5,8 }
________________________________________________
__2.3 FUNCTIONS AND RELATIONS

Symbolically: A~B = x x ∈ A⋀x ∉ B = A ∩ B ′ RELATION

Illustration: A relation is a set of ordered pairs. If 𝑥 and 𝑦 are elements of

these sets and if a relation exists between 𝑥 and 𝑦, then we
1. Let U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g} , A = {a, b, c} and B = {c, d, e} . can say that 𝑥 corresponds to 𝑦 or that 𝑦 depends on 𝑥 and
is represented as the ordered pair (𝑥, 𝑦).
Then A~B = {a, b}.

2. Let U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g} , A = {a, b, c} and B = {c, d, e} A relation from set 𝐴 to set 𝐵 is defined to be any subset of 𝐴
× 𝐵.
Then B~A = {d, e}.
If 𝑅 is a relation from 𝐴 to 𝐵 and 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅, then we can say
Symmetric Difference that 𝑥 is related to 𝑦 and is denoted as 𝑥 𝑅 y

Let A and B be subsets of a universal set U Let 𝐴 = {1,2,3} and 𝐵 = {4,5}.

The symmetric difference of A and B, denoted A ⊕ B, is the Consider relation 𝑅 from set 𝐴 to set 𝐵.
set consisting of all elements that belong to A or to B, but not
both A and B. Suppose 𝑥 𝑅 𝑦 ⟷ 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛.

Symbolically:A ⊕ B = x x ∈ A ∪ B ⋀x ∉ A ∩ B = A ∪ B ~(A ∩ List the elements of relation 𝑅.

B).
Identify the domain and range of the relation.
Illustration:
FUNCTION
1. Let U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g} , A = {a, b, c} and B = {c, d, e} .
A function is a relation in which, for each value of the first
Then A ⊕ B = {a, b, d, e}. component of the ordered pairs, there is exactly one value of
the second component.
Disjoint (Non-intersecting)
In other words, a function is a relation where no two distinct
Let A and B be subsets of a universal set U ordered pairs have the same first component.

Two sets are called disjoint if and only if they have no

common elements in common. Let set 𝑋 be the domain of the function.
Symbolically: A and B are disjoint ⟷ A ∩ B = ∅ For each element 𝑥 in 𝑋, the corresponding element 𝑦 in 𝑌 is
Illustration: called the value of the function (function value) at 𝑥.

1. Let A = {a, b, c} and B = {d, e} . The set of all images of the elements of the domain is called
the range of the function.
Then A ∩ B = { }.

Therefore, A and B are disjoint. Function is the one of the most concepts in the study of
mathematics.
Ordered Pair
Function helps us visualize relationships in terms of graphs
In the ordered pair (a, b), a is called the first component and
and make it easier to interpret different behavior of variables.
b is called the second component.
Functions are mathematical building blocks for financial
applications, economics (profit, revenue, cost), medicine,
engineering, different fields of sciences, and
others.
Some concrete applications of functions are predicting
natural disasters, calculating pH levels, measuring decibels
for sound intensity, and designing machineries among
others.
3.1 INDUCTIVE & DEDUCTIVE REASONING INDUCTIVE
REASONING
The type of reasoning that forms a conclusion based on the
examination of specific examples is called inductive
reasoning. The conclusion formed by using inductive
reasoning is a conjecture, since it may or may not be correct.
It is important to take note that when using inductive
reasoning, you have no guarantee that the conclusion is
correct.
COUNTEREXAMPLES
A statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all
cases. If you can find one case for which the statement is not
true, called a counterexample, then the statement is a false
statement.
Example: All prime numbers are odd numbers.
Consider the number 2. By definition of a prime, 2 = 2 ⋅ 1.
But 2 is an even number. So, the given statement is not true.
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
Deductive Reasoning is the process of reaching a specific
conclusion by applying general assumptions, procedures, or
principles.
Example:
First Premise: All positive counting numbers whose unit digit
is divisible by two are even numbers
Second Premise: A positive counting number 1,236 has a
unit digit of 6 which is divisible by two
Specific Conclusion: 1,236 is an even number
POLYA’S FOUR-STEP PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY
Step 1: Understand the Problem
Step 2: Devise a Plan
Step 3: Carry out a Plan
Step 4: Review the Solution
TERM OF A SEQUENCE
An ordered list of numbers such as 5, 14, 27, 44, 65, … is
called a sequence. The numbers in a sequence that are
separated by commas are terms of the sequence.
________________________________________________
__4.1MODULAR ARITHMETIC
Two integers 𝑎 and 𝑏 are said to be congruent modulo 𝑛
where 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁 if 𝑎 – 𝑏/ 𝑛 is an integer
. In this case, we write 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛). The number 𝑛 is called
the modulus. The statement 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛) is called a
congruence.
APPLICATIONS OF MODULAR ARITHMETIC
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BOOK NUMBER (ISBN)
One of the applications of modular arithmetic is on how to
check or how to determine whether the ISBN (International
Standard Book Number) is valid or not.
The ISBN consists of 13 digits and this was created to help
to ensure that orders for books are filled accurately and that
books are catalogued correctly. The first digits of an ISBN
are 978 (or 979), followed by 9 digits that are divided into
three groups of various lengths. These indicate the country
or region, the publisher, and the title of the book. The last
digit (13th digit) is called a check digit.
If we label the first digit of an ISBN as 𝑑1, the second digit as
𝑑2 and so on to the 13th digit as 𝑑13 , then the check digit is
given by the modular formula
as: 𝑑13 = 10 − 𝑑1 + 3𝑑2 + 𝑑3 + 3𝑑4 + 𝑑5 + 3𝑑6 + 𝑑7 + 3𝑑8 +
𝑑9 + 3𝑑10 + 𝑑11 + 3𝑑12 𝑚𝑜𝑑 10
The given ISBN is valid if the computed 𝑑13 and the given
𝑑13/check digit are equal. In the case that our computed 𝑑13
= 10, then the given check digit should be 0 for the ISBN to
be valid.
UNIVERSAL PRODUCT CODE (UPC)
Universal Product Code is placed on many items and is
particularly useful in grocery stores. The UPC is a 12-digit
number that satisfies a modular equation that is similar to the
one for ISBNs. The last digit is the check digit. The formula
𝑑12 = 10 − 3𝑑1 + 𝑑2 + 3𝑑3 + 𝑑4 + 3𝑑5 + 𝑑6 + 3𝑑7 + 𝑑8 +
3𝑑9 + 𝑑10 + 3𝑑11 𝑚𝑜𝑑 10
The given UPC is valid if the computed 𝑑12 and the given
𝑑12/check digit are equal. In the case that our computed 𝑑12
= 10, then the given check digit should be 0 for the UPC to
be valid.
CRYPTOLOGY AND CRYPTOGRAPHY
Cryptology is also the study of making and breaking secret
codes while cryptography is the art of writing and solving
them. The encrypted word is called the ciphertext while the
decrypted word is called the plaintext. So, plaintext is a
message before it is coded while the ciphertext is the
message after it has been written in code. The method of
changing from plaintext to ciphertext is called encryption
while the method of changing from ciphertext to plaintext is
called decryption.
If the encrypting code is to shift each letter of the plaintext
message in “m” positions, then the corresponding letter in
the ciphertext message is given by 𝑐 ≡ 𝑝 + 𝑚 𝑚𝑜𝑑 26 where
𝑐 is the encrypted code, 𝑝 is the number corresponds to a
letter in an English alphabet in a normal position, 𝑚 is the
shifted position and n = 26 is the modulus since there are 26
letters in an English alphabet.
The practicality of a cyclical alphabetic coding scheme is
limited because it is relatively easy for a cryptologist to
determine the coding scheme. A coding scheme that is a
little more difficult to break is based on the congruence 𝑐 ≡
𝑎𝑝 + 𝑚 𝑚𝑜𝑑 26 where 𝑎 and 26 do not have a common
factor.