GA I U S F U R I U S C R E S I M U S ,

a f r e e d m an b e i n g able to r ai s e fro m a
,

bit o f l and fa r m o re abu n d ant h arv e st s

th an h is n e igh bors could fro m t h e
l arge s t fa rm s w as gre atly e nvie d an d
, ,

a ccu s e d o f e nticing aw ay t h e cro p s o f

o th e rs by t h e practice o f s orce ry .

A d ay w as appo int e d fo r h is tri al .

Appre h e n siv e o f b e ing con d e m n e d ,

w h e n t h e qu e stio n w as to b e p u t t o
vote am o n g t h e trib e s h e h ad a ll h is ,

im ple m e nts o f h u s b andry broug h t

i n to th e F o ru m toge t h e r wit h h is farm
,

s e rv an t s robu st an d as Pi so s ay s
, , , ,

w e ll co ndi ti o n e d an d w e ll clad iro n

- -
,

to ol s s p le ndidly m ade s tout m atto ck s

, ,

po n d e rou s plo ug h s h are s an d s l e e k ,

ox e n W h e n al l t h i s h ad b e e n don e
.
,

h e s aid ,
T h e s e R o m an ci t iz e n s ar e
, ,

m y in s tru m e n t s o f m agic ; n o r can I

e x h ibit t o your V i e w o r bring i n to
,

t h e F oru m t h o se m idn ig h t to il s o f
,

m i n e t h o s e e a rly w atc h in g s t h o se
, ,

U pon t h i s h e
”
s w e at s a n d f ati u e s
g .

un ani m ou sly acqui t te d P LI N Y .

T HE E S S E N T IA L S O F

A G R I C ULT U R E

H E NR Y JA C K S O N W A TERS
P RES E N T
ID OF THE K A N S A S ST ATE A G R U T U R A
IC L L C O EGE
LL

G I NN A N D C O M PA NY
0
NEW YO R K C H I C A G O L O N D O N
0

DA LL A S C O L U M B U S S A N F R A N C I S C O
 Y R I G H T 1915 BY
CO P , ,

H EN R Y J AC K S O N W A TERS

A LL R I G H TS RESER V E D

t he t cn z u ram E s
G NN
I A ND C OM AN P Y P RO
P R I E TO R S BO ST ON U S A
. .
 P RE FA C E

The A m e rican p e opl e hav e d e finit e l y d e cid e d that th e public

schools shall t e ach pupils to think and to do ; that so far as is ,

consist e nt with a r e asonably libe ral culture t h e training o f t h e

,

stud e n t shall r e lat e intimat e ly to t h e li fe h e e xp e cts to l e ad .

F or a c e ntury and a hal f agricultur e has b e e n r e gard e d by

a fe w o f t h e f ore most e ducators as worthy o f a plac e i n our
public schools but it is only within t h e last d e cad e that t h e
,

dre am o f th e s e e ducators has approach e d r e alization A gr icu l .

ture wh e re v e r w e ll taught has prov e d to be a sourc e o f stre ngth

, ,

to t h e school wh e th e r a o n e t e ach e r country school a high

,
-
,

school a coll e ge or a univ e rsity

, , .

I n no way is it possibl e fo r t h e school to s e rv e t h e local com

munity more succ e ss fully than through instruction in agr icu l
ture T his may be b e st accomplish e d through t h e utilization o f
.

t h e f aciliti e s o f t h e n e ighborhood as a laboratory T h e gard e ns .

,

orchards and farms and ind e e d t h e gard e n e rs and farm e rs

, , , ,

th e ms e lve s should b e utiliz e d to t h e fu l l e s t e x t e n t B y this

, , .

m e ans t h e school and t h e community ar e brought i nto t h e

clos e st re lations and th e re is awak e n e d among t h e farm e rs a
,

liv e ly int e re st in t h e work o f t h e school .

I f t h e farm e r is to support prop e rly his own f amily and t h e

two town famili e s fo r whom h e must provid e food h e will n e e d ,

all t h e h e lp that sci e nc e can giv e Th e way t h e two famili e s in

.

town will l ive is d e finit e ly r e lat e d to t h e d e gre e o f skill with which

t h e farm e r tills his land an d t h e d e gr e e o f int e llig e nc e which t h e
’
townsp e opl e display in utilizing t h e farm e r s products .

T his boo k is fo r stud e nts who d e sire a practical working

knowl e dge o f t h e e ss e ntials of agriculture Th e author has .

tri e d to pre s e nt a cl ear stat e m e nt o f th e principl e s und e rlying

succ e ss ful farm practic e and to giv e a vi e w o f what t h e

3 3 3 S9 6
vi TH E ES S ENT I A L S OF A GR I C U LTU RE
comparativ e ly n e w an d world wid e int e r e st in agriculture m e ans
-
.

Th e arrang e m e nt o f subj e ct matt e r in this t e xt is bas e d upon

t h e r e sults o f t h e b e st e xp e ri e nc e in t e aching agricultur e i n
s e conda ry schools and upon t h e cours e s o f study adopt e d by
,

various stat e d e partm e nts o f e ducation F o r schools pre s e nting .

l e ss than a y e ar s cours e it is sugge st e d that C hapt e rs I X V I I I

’ —

be studi e d first ; th e n f rom t h e r e maining chapt e rs thos e should

be s e l e ct e d which are most f undam e ntal to t h e f arm practic e s o f
t h e community .

A griculture is too compl e x fo r all o f its d e tails to b e mast e re d

by o n e p e rson Th e e xp e rt in crops or soils do e s not poss e ss
.

mor e than a ge n e ral knowl e dge o f liv e stock f ruit growing and , ,

dairying I n t h e subj e ct of crops th e re ar e thos e who hav e

.

sp e cializ e d in grains forage crops or grass e s I n animal hus

, , .

bandry th e re ar e sp e cialists in b e e f cattl e or dairy cattl e s p e ,

cialists i n dra ft hors e s or light hors e s and sp e cialists in sh e e p ,

or swin e I f a man att e mpt e d to sp e ak out o f his own knowl

.

e dg e o n all t h e phas e s o f agricultur e cov e r e d by a school t e xt ,

t h e tr e atm e nt o f many o f t h e subj e cts would b e inaccurat e and

misl e ading or e ls e so ge n e ral as to be o f littl e valu e T o insur e
, .

a work that is accurat e in all its d e tails t h e author has chos e n

fo r e ach branch o f t h e subj e ct an e xp e rt who is re sponsibl e in
large part fo r t h e mat e rial i n t h e fi e ld o f his sp e cialty T h e .

author has organiz e d this mate rial into a logical t e achabl e work ,

on a gricultural sci e nc e and practic e .

T o t h e h e lp o f t h e f ollowing sp e cialists is d u e i n large m e as

ur e what e v e r m e rit t h e book poss e ss e s M F M ill e r Pro fe ssor . .
,

o f A gronomy U niv e rsity o f M issouri S oils H F R ob rts

, ( ) ; e . .
,

Pro fe ssor o f B otany and P lant B re e ding Kansas S tat e A gr icul ,

tural C oll e ge ( Plant B re e ding and Plant F e e ding) H D Hugh e s . .

,

P ro fe ssor o f A gronomy I owa S tat e C oll e ge ( C orn O ats A l fal fa

, , , ,

and C love r) C e cil S almon A ssistant Pro fe ssor o f F arm C rops

, ,

Kansas S tat e A gricultural C oll e ge ( W h e at) ; C arl e ton R B all .

,

C rop S p e cialist U nit e d S tat e s D e partm e nt o f A gricultur e ( S o r

,

g h u m s
) ; W. R D odson. D ir e ctor L ouisiana, E xp e rim e nt S ta tion
C otton D r J C W hitt e n P ro fe ssor o f H orticultur e U niv e rsity
( ) ; . . .
, ,
 P R EF A C E V ii

of M issouri ( O rchards ) ; D r W L H oward , P ro fe ssor

Pomol
. . . of

o gy U niv e rsity
,
o f C ali f ornia ( Plant P ropagation ) C
A S cott . .
,

P ro fe ssor o f F ore stry Kansas S tat e A gricultural C oll e g e ( F or,

e st ry) ; L E C all . . Profe ssor o f A gronomy Kansas S tat e A gri

, ,

cultural C oll e ge ( D ry F arming) ; D r W W G arn e r P hysiologist . . .

,

in charge o f Tobacco and P lant Nutrition I nv e stigations U nit e d ,

S tat e s D e partm e nt o f A griculture ( T obacco ) ; G e org e A D e an .

,

P ro fe ssor o f E ntomology Kansas S tat e A gricultural C oll e ge ,

I ns ct P e sts ) ; E C J ohnson S tat e L e ad e r Kansas S tat e A g

( e . .
, ,

r i cu l t u r al C oll e g e Plan D is e as e s ; A lb e rt D ick e ns P ro f e ssor

( t ) ,

o f H orticultur e Kansas S tat e A gricultural C oll e ge ( S praying)

,

J . M . E v va r d L iv e S tock E xp e rim e nta list

,
I owa S tat e C oll e g e ,

( F e e ding A nimals ) ; E A T rowbridg e Pro f e ssor o f A nimal

. .
,

H usbandry U niv e rsity o f M issouri ( H ors e s and M ul e s) ; O E

, . .

Re e d P ro fe ssor o f D airy H usbandry Kansas S tat e A gricultural

, ,

C oll e ge ( D airy C attl e and D airy M anu facture s ) ; H P Rusk B ee f . .

,

C attl e S p e cialist U niv e rsity o f I llinois ( B e e f C attl e ) ; T H

, . .

W right A ssistant P rofe ssor o f A nimal Husbandry Kansas S tat e

, ,

A gricultural C oll e ge ( S win e and S h e e p ) W A L ippincott P ro . .

,

f e sso r o f Poultry H usbandry Kansas S tat e A gricultural C oll e ge ,

( Poult ry ; A
) A Pott
. e r D e an o f t h e D ivision o f E ngin e e ring
.
, ,

Kansas S tate A gr icultural C oll e ge ( M e chanical Pow e r for t h e

F arm ) ; D H D oan e P ro fe ssor o f F arm M anag e m e nt U niv e r
. .
, ,

s it o f M issouri F arm M anag m e nt and O R J ohnson A

y ( e
) s . .
,

s i s ta n t Pro f e ssor o f F arm M anag e m e nt U niv e rsity o f M issouri ,

( F arm A ccounts ) .

F o r valuabl e sugge stions r e garding t h e adaptations o f t h e

principal crops to t h e particular re gions with which t h e f ollow
ing m e n ar e most clos e ly associat e d acknowl e dgm e nt is mad e ,

to : D r A ndre w M S oul e P re sid e nt o f t h e S tat e C oll e g e o f

. .
,

G e orgia ; D r B W Killgore D ir e ctor o f t h e N orth C arolina

. . .
,

D e partm e nt o f A griculture ; A ndre w B oss C hi e f o f t h e D ivision ,

o f A gronomy an d F arm M anage m e nt U niv e rsity o f M i nn e sota ,

J. F . D uggar D ir e cto r o f t h e A gricultural E xp e rim e nt S ta

,

tion o f A labama ; F W T aylor P ro fe ssor o f A gronomy o f t h e

. .
,

Ne w H ampshir e A gricultural C oll e ge ; D r C B H utchison . . .

,
viii THE ES S ENT I A L S OF A GR I C U LT U RE

Pro fe ssor o f F arm C rops U niv e rsity o f M issouri ; C A M oo e rs

, . .
,

C h e mist and A gronomist U niv e rsity o f Te nn e ss e e ; A H

, . .

Le id igh A gronomist in C harge o f S oils T e xas A gricultural

, ,

C oll e g e ; C B W illiams C hi e f o f D ivision o f A gronomy North

. .
, ,

C arolina A gricultural C oll e ge ; D r A N H um e A gronomist . . .

, ,

S outh D akota S tat e C oll e ge ; J A F oord Pro fe ssor o f F arm . .

,

A dministration M assachus e tts A gricul t ural C oll e ge ; and C F

, .

M arbut D ire ctor o f t h e S oil S urv e y U nit e d S tat e s B ur e au

, ,

o f S oils .

T h e author also d e sir e s to e xpre ss his pro found gratitud e to

J. W . S e arson Pro f e
,
ssor o f t h e E nglish Languag e o f t h e Kansas ,

S tat e A gricultural C oll e g e for ge n e ral advic e and fo r assistanc e

,

in t h e arrange m e nt o f subj e ct matt e r and to E L H olton Pro

"

. .
, ,

f es s o r o f E ducation H L K e nt P ro fe ssor o f Vocational E d u

, . .
,

cation and J H M ill e r D e an o f t h e E xt e nsion D ivision o f

,
. .
, ,

t h e Kansas S tat e A gricultural C oll e g e fo r h e lp ful criticisms , .

E sp e cial acknowl e dgm e nt is du e D r O tis W C aldw e ll D e an . .

,

o f t h e U niv e rsity C oll e ge and Pro f e ssor o f B otany in t h e S chool

o f E ducation o f Th e U niv e rsity o f C hicago and a re cogniz e d

-

authority in matt e rs p e rtaining to t he t e aching o f sci e nc e fo r ,

his constructiv e criticisms of t h e e ntire manuscript and fo r his

invaluabl e assistanc e in e diting and adapting t h e work to t h e
n e e ds o f s e condary schools .

H E NRY J AC K S O N W A T E R S
 C O N T E NT S

CHA TER
P P AGE
I T H E N E W A GR I C ULTURE
.

II B ETTER P L A NTS A N D A N I M A LS
.

III H o w P L A NTS FEE D A N D G R O W

.

IV P L A NT P R O PA G A T I O N
.

V T H E S O I L A N D I TS M A N A GEMENT
.

VI T H E P R O P ERT I ES OF S O I LS
.

VII P L A NT F OO D I N T H E S O I L
.

VIII M A I NT A I N I NG S O I L FERT I L I T Y
.

IX B A RN Y A R D M A N URE
. .

X C O MM ER C I A L FERT I L I Z ERS
. .

XI R EL A T I O N OF TY P E OF F A RM I NG T O S O I L FERT I L I T Y
.

XI I D R A I N A GE I RR I G A T I O N A N D D R Y F A R M I NG
.
, ,

X I I I C O RN
.

X I V T H E S M A LL G R A I NS
.

I . VV H E A T
I I O A TS
. .

I I I B A R LE Y
.

I V RY E
.

V RI CE
.

XV . F I B ER CR O P S
I C O TT O N
.

I I FL Ax
. .

I I I H EM P
.

XV I . G R A SSES

XV I I . LEG UMES
I G ENER A L S T A TEM ENT
.

.I I R E D CLO V ER
I I I A L FA LF A
.

I V O T H ER LEG UMES
. .

X VI I I . F O R A GE CR O P S
XIX . R OO TS A N D T U B ERS
A THE ES S ENT I A LS OF A GR I C U LTU R E

T H E S UG A R CR O P .

T O B ACC O
S I Lo s A N D S I L A GE
T H E O R C H A R D CR O P .

T H E W OO D CR O P
P L A NT D I SE A SES
I NSE CTS O N T H E F A R M
SP R A Y I NG
FEE DI NG A N I M A LS
H O RSES A N D M u LE s
D A I R Y C A TTLE
D A I R Y P R O D U C TS
B EE F C A TTLE
S W I NE
S H EE P
P O ULTR Y
B US I NESS A S P E C TS O F F A RM I NG
M E C H A N I CA L P O W ER FO R T H E F A RM

A PP E N D I X E S
A S I NGLE P L A TE S C O RE C A R D
.
- — A PP LES

B SC O RE C A R D FO R I N D I V I D U A L E A RS OF C O RN
.

C SC O RE C A R D D R A F T H O RSES
.
— .

D S C O RE C A R D
.
— L I G H T H O RSES

E SC O RE C A R D
.
— M ULES
F SC O RE C A R D
.
— D A I R Y C A TT LE
G SC O RE C A R D
.
— B EE F C A TT L E
H A G E OF D O MEST I C A N I M A LS A S I N D I CA TE D B Y T H E T EET H
.

I G ENER A L S P R A Y SC H E D ULE FO R T H E C O NTR O L OF T H E

.

I M P O RT A NT I NSE C TS A N D D I SE A SES O F FR U I TS A N D
VEGET A B LES
J QU A NT I T Y O F S EE D T O S o w P ER A C RE
.

K L EG A L W E I G H TS OF A B US H EL
. x ii
v

L A T A B LE OF C O M M O N F A RM W EE D S
. x iii
v

I ND E X
 S E E D T I M E AN D H A R V E S T

W h ats oe v e r a m an s o we th th t
, a s h al l he l r
a so e ap .
— T HE B I B L E
 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F
A G R IC U LT U R E

C HA P T E R I

THE NE W AGRI CULTUR E

H e re is l d wh r a b ll
an b r thi g fie e f ro m th ir o tril h
no u s, ea n re e n s s, av e

p lo w d t
e h oil ; weh r s or m o d r g o t th w r
e e no en r ow ; w h r us a ns
’
ee e e e ve s n e e

no h m h r t t rt d p b ri tli g w ith h l m t d ro w d d l
u an a ves s a e u , s; b t n e e s an c e an c e s u

t mi g or
ee n c d th wi n godan M i j i h
e m d it th ir w ; i t
ne
’
s as s e u ce av e a e e o n s

t t
e n an s a r e b r ti g ro p u d l x ri
s n t h r d o f ttl H
c s an om th u u an e s ca e . e n ce c es e

W ar hor th t p r se p ro d l y i to t h
a an c e s b ttl fi l d H u th w hit flo kn e a e e . e n ce e e c s

u po n atho d hill T hi k too o f t t l y iti

u s an s . d tro p h
n o f h m toil
, , s a e c e s an ies u an

d to w il h d w ith g r t ri r flo w i g b th th ir ho or d
’
an p d nsb y m e an s an ea ve s n en ea e n e

w lla s It i
. l d too w hi h h d i lo d tr m o f m t l m tli g i i t
s a an , , c as sc se s ea s e a an n n s

i
ve n s, l d th t h p ro d d m ort l tri b o f h roi m ol d H il to th
a an a as u ce a es e c . a ee,

m i g hty m oth r o f o b l f r it e d ob l m
n e V E RG I L
u s an n e en —

1 . M oder n
r i cu l t u r e L ord B acon a not e d E nglish phi
ag .
,

l o s o p h e r was at o n e tim e much int e re st e d in agricultur e

,
He .

coll e ct e d and r e ad car e fully many books on t h e subj e ct W h e n .

h e had finish e d r e ading t h e bo oks h e ord e r e d his s e rvant to tak e ,

th e m into t h e gard e n and burn th e m b e caus e th e y d e alt with ,

t h e art or practic e s o f agricultur e and contain e d no principl e s .

I n mod e rn agriculture art and sci e nc e ar e combin e d A s ,

.

an art agriculture is compl e x and involv e s a study o f t h e b e st

,

practic e s conn e ct e d with t h e fi e ld t h e orchard t h e gard e n , , ,

t h e barn t h e f e e d yard and t h e dai ry

,
B u t to und e rstand t h e
-
,
.
 T HE E S S ENT I A LS OF A G R I C U LTUR E

principl e s und e rlying th e s e practic e s to know why o n e p rac ,

tic e is b e tt e r than anoth e r or to d e ve lop practic e s which are ,

b e tte r than thos e now in u se it is n e c e ssary to hav e ,

som e knowl e dge o f almost e v e ry sci e nc e now known

to man .

2 . How sci en ce an d

i n v en t i on h av e h el p ed
t A lthough a gr i cu l u r e .

agriculture is t h e old
6 8 1: and m o s t important
FI G . T h e r e p ho k
I a . FI G I b T h r d l
a o . . e c a e

o f our I n d u s t r I e s I t was
By m e f th i h
an s o k Th r dl e m d it p m
s oo a e c a a e o
,

f w h d
e ea f gr m w r
s obl f a rm f l f g r i among t h e last tO r e
e e e o r an a u o a n

h W t d t e h tm k ‘ b “mk
ce i ve att e ntion f rom i n
a CS e a ac “
S t e 0 e C a on e s

v e ntors and sci e ntists or to profit by th e ir discov e ri e s T h e e ra .

o f labor saving machin e ry may b e said to hav e had its b e ginning

-

about a c e ntury ago

with t h e inv e ntion
o f t h e iron plow .

A s lat e as t h e
middl e y e ars o f t h e
nin e te e nth c e ntury ,

farming was p e r
f orm e d mostly by
hand and t h e world
,

had mad e littl e prog

r e ss i n agriculture .

T h e plow and t h e FI G 2 Th r p i g m hi e . . e ea n ac n

harrow w e re al most Thi i m od l f t h fi r t s f l r p r whi h w

s a e o e s s u cc e s s u ea e ,
c as

t h e only impl e m e nts

i t d b y Cy r H M C mi k i
n ve n e 83 I t fi r t us . c or c n 1 1 . n I s s

tr l t h r p r w ord r d t of t h fi l d b
ia e ea it e as e e ou e e e c au s e

drawn by hors e s r ttl d t h h d ff t h wh t A fri d ly i ghbor

. a e e ea s o e ea .
”
en ne

f th i tor o ff r d h i w h t fi l d l i whi h
C orn was dropp e d o e pn ve n e e s ea e as a ace n c

to g i t h m hi f ir tri l ved it t gr i e ac ne a a a ,
”
an cu a n s uc

in furrows by hand f l l y for fi ho r F t h fi r t t m g r i w

, ce s s u t ve u s . or e s i e a n as c u

a practic e which th e W th hor B t t h m hi i d it i tor

se sw r di
.
”
u e ac n e an s n ve n e e s

r d it d T h f l g f t h i ghb orhood w w ll
c e e . e ee in o e ne as e ex

e arly s e ttl e rs had p r d by l d w om wh e sse i d I t i m rt rio an o an o sa ,

s a s a cu us

l e arn e d f rom t h e ort f thi g b t it w o t s r oo m to m h It w

n ,
u n
’
e ve c e uc .
”
as

t y r b f or t h i entor fo d
ea s b y r f or e o f e e n ve n un a u e on e

I ndians W h e at was .
hi p o h m ki g m hi s e c -
a n ac nes
 T H E NEW A GR I C U LTUR E 3

sown broadcast by hand as i n B ibl e days Re aping was still

, .

don e with t h e sickl e and t h e cradl e with littl e improv e m e nt sinc e ,

e arly history ( F igs I a I b 2 and . H ay was mow e d with a

, , ,

scyth e and coll e cte d with a hand rak e and a wood e n stick ,

s e rv e d as a fork fo r pitching it upon t h e stack .

T h e first e poch making sci e ntific discov e ry r e lating to agri

-

cultural practic e was mad e by t h e G e rman ch e mist L i e big

F i
( g ) .
4 and was first announc e d in 1.8 4 0 L i e big S how e d wh e r e .

FI G 3 A m o d r
. . e n w h t h d i g d thr hi g m hi
ea -
ea n -
an -
es n ac ne

Th e p o w r i f r i h d i thi
e s u n s e n s c as e b y thirt y thr m l T h thr h d wh t i l ft i
-
ee u es . e es e ea s e n

ba g r dy for m rk t
s ea a e

and how plants obtain th e ir food and how wornout soil can be
re store d to productiv e n e ss by t h e u se o f artificial fe rtiliz e rs .

I n 1 8 4 5 t h e p e opl e o f t h e U nit e d S tat e s did not rais e e nough

wh e at fo r th e ir bre ad A t that tim e t h e production was only
.

bush e ls fo r e ach p e rson I n 1 8 59 t h e production had b e e n

.

incre as e d to bush e ls fo r e ach p e rson in 1 8 69 to 7 5 bu s h e ls ,

.

and in 1 8 7 9 to ,
bush e ls I n 1 8 30 it re quire d thr e e hours o f
.

’
man s labor to produc e a bush e l o f wh e at ; in 1 8 9 6 it r e quire d
only t e n minut e s I n 1 8 50 t h e labor re pre s e nt e d in a bush e l
.

o f corn was four an d a hal f hours by 8 this had b n

; 1 94 e e
4 TH E ES S ENT I A LS OF A GR I C U LTURE

re duc e d to forty o n e minut e s I n 1 860 t h e labor inv e st e d i n a

-
.

ton o f hay was thirty fi ve and a hal f hours ; in 1 89 4 t h e labor

-

cost o f a ton o f hay had b e e n r e duc e d to e l e v e n and a hal f hours .

W ithin t h e last tw e nty y e ars t h e production o f wh e at in t h e

world has incre as e d almost o n e hal f whil e t h e are a sown ,

has incre as e d only o n e fourth S inc e 1 8 80 wh e at production .

has incre as e d about 66 p e r

c e nt whil e t h e population ,

has not incre as e d as much

as 30 p e r c e nt .

3 I n cr ea s ed p r odu cti on .

f ol l ow ed b y b ett er l i v in g .

I f t h e p e opl e o f t h e world
had subsist e d fo r four thou
sand ye ars und e r t h e anci e nt
syst e m o f agriculture a nd ,

i f more improv e m e nts in

m e thods w e re mad e in t h e
last fi fty y e ars than in t h e
thousands of ye ars b e for e ,

th e stud e nt may wond e r

what b e cam e o f t h e i n
cr e as e d production and why
th e re was not a s e rious ov e r
FI G 4 B a ro J t
. . Li bi g
n production Of foo d T h e
us us von e .

A G rm e i ti t wh fir t p pli d t h p ri
an s c e n s otruth is that up to t h e tim e
s a e e n

CIp l es of h m t
c y to
e g r lt
Is r r d d a i cu u e , an
O f t h e birth O f t h e n e w agri
i s co v

r d i ti fi m thod of f d g p l t
e e a sc en c e ee in an s

culture t h e world had not

had e nough to e at M uch o f t h e incr e as e d output du e to b e tte r
.

machin e ry and b e tt e r m e thods was absorb e d in high e r standards

o f living W h e n our for e fath e rs w e r e fighting for e sts I ndians
. , ,

and pov e rty a p e ck o f wh e at was a fair ye arly allowanc e o f that

,

articl e o f food fo r a whol e family T o day e ach p e rson in t h e .

-

U nit e d S t at e s consum e s on an av e rag e b e tw e e n fi v e and s ix

, ,

bush e ls o f wh e at e ach y e ar M e at at that tim e was scarc e and .

di fficult to procure T o day e ach family consum e s an av e rage o f

.
-
6 THE E S S E NT I A L S OF A G R I C U L TUR E

is approximat e ly $ 1 000 as compar e d with $ 58 0 in G e rmany

‘

$ 57 0 i n F ranc e and $ 2 35 in Japan , .

T h e standard o f int e llig e nc e o f t h e p e opl e on t h e farm in

any country is dire ctly r e lat e d to t h e incom e d e riv e d f rom farm
ing as compar e d with that d e riv e d from oth e r occupations I f .

farming is allow e d to
b e com e unprofitabl e i n
comparison with oth e r
occupations t h e busi ,

n e ss will be giv e n ov e r
to l e ss e ffi ci e nt p e r
sons than ar e now on
th e farm E v e ryon e .
,

wh e th e r in t h e country
or in t h e city is int e r ,

e st ed in h aving t h e
A m e rican farm yi e ld an
incom e large e nough to
k e e p on t h e farm a fair
shar e o f t h e b e st p e opl e
born th e r e .

6 I n t en s i v e agr i cu l .

t u r e h el p s s oci et y b ut
h ur t s t h e f ar m er . In
t e nsiv e agriculture is
FI G 5 J s ti S m ith M orrill ( 1 8 1 0— 898 )
. . u n favorabl e to soci e ty at 1

A thor f t h M orr ll A t p
u o e d by C o g r iilarge but it is un favor
c ,
as s e n ess n
,

86 z,p p ro p r t g l d to p ro m ot
ia in d ti an e e u ca on In
e to t h e p e opl e on
1 a
abl
gr lt r m h rt d th trl .

a i cu u e, ec an i c a s , an e na u a S c I e n ce s

i
n ry t t i t h U io Thi i t h m o t i fl
eve s a e n e t h e farm
n I t IS e ss e n
n . s s e s n u .

t l
e n Ia i gl p i of l g i l tio p o g ri lt r l t ial l hand farming and
s n e e ce e s a n u n a cu u a

d to e y uca i n

is adapt e d only to con

d it io n s wh e re land is d e ar and labor is ch e ap .

E xt e nsiv e agricultur e d e v e lops t h e high e st f orm o f ru ral

civilization b e caus e it give s an incom e abov e t h e physical n e e ds
,

o f t h e family I t is t h e kind o f agriculture that us e s much

.

machin e ry and rais e s much liv e stock and th e s e two conditions ,

 T H E N EW A GR I C U LTU R E 7

i n th e ms e lv e s d e v e lop a high typ e o f husbandman A s a busi .

n e ss e xt e nsiv e agriculture is on a l e v e l with m e rchandizing ,

publishing and t h e l e arn e d pro fe ssions with r e sp e ct to t h e i n

,

com e i t yi e lds and t h e int e llig e nc e and e xp e ri e nc e r e quire d

succ e ss fully to conduct it and this s e rv e s gre atly to incr e as e t h e
r e sp e ct which t h e farm e r has f o r hims e l f and fo r his busin e ss .

A S long as a country can ge t along with f arms o f a r e ason

abl e siz e i t is not advisabl e to try to forc e upon it an int e nsiv e
typ e o f farming No country has e v e r adopt e d int e nsiv e farm
.

ing until forc e d to do so to giv e p e opl e a chanc e to work or ,

by t h e d e mand o f soci e ty fo r ch e ap e r f ood T h e re for e until .

,

soci e ty is mad e to su ffe r undu e hardships on account o f t h e

high cost o f living a r e asonably e xt e nsiv e syst e m o f agriculture
,

is t h e b e st fo r e v e rybody .

QUES TI ONS AND P ROB LEM S

1 . W h y S ho u l d L or d B ac on h av e or de r e d h is r
s e v an t t o bu r n th e b ook s
o n agri c u lt r e ?
u

2 . W hy is a k o w l e dg
n e of b oth t h e ar t an d t h e sc e n ce o f ag i ri c ltu r e
u

n e ce s sa ry ?
3 W h t m rk s t h e b e g i
. a a i g o f t h e ra o f l b or a i g m achi e ry ?
nn n e a -
s v n n

4 W h a t w as t h e fi r s t e p o c h m a ki g s c i e ti fi c d i sc o v e ry r e l ati n g t o
.
-
n n

agri c lt u r a l p r ac ti ce ?
u

5 G i e ill s tr atio s s ho w i g w h e n r e al ag ri c lt u r al d e v e lo p m e n t b e gan

. v u n n u .

6 S k e t c h b ri e fly t h e d e e lo p m e t i n w h e a t p ro d c tio s i ce 1 84 5
. v n u n n .

7 E x p l ai n w h a t b e c am e o f t h e i c r e as e i t h e p ro d uc tio n o f w h e t
. n n a .

8 W h a t i s t h e r e l a tio n b e tw e e n m a y i e l d s a d ac r e y i e l d s ?
. n -
n -

9 C o m p ar e e xt e n s i v e a d i t e n s i v e f a r m i g a s t o th e i r re s p e c ti v e e ffe c t s
. n n n

on s o c i e t y a d o n t h e f ar m e r
n .
 C HA P T E R I I

BETTE R P LANTS AND ANI MALS

Still w ill t h d tho g h ho

e se e s,w ith toil o m p i
u c sen s e a ns

D g e r t if m
e n e a e, i d trio h d
an s
’
n us us an

C llu t
no h y r t h l rg t d t h b t V E R G I L
e ac ea e a es an e es .

7 . P l an t s an d an i m al s i m p r ov ed b y m an
A ll o f our culti .

vat e d plants an d dom e stic animals hav e b e e n so improv e d that

’
th e y s e rv e man s purpos e s b ett e r than t h e wild pare nts f rom
which th e y cam e W e can still gath e r p e cans strawb e rri e s
.
, ,

plums and p e rsimmons i n t h e wild stat e but t h e s e l e ct e d cul

, , ,

t ivat e d sorts a r e o f gr e at e r S iz e and b e tt e r flavor and ar e v e ry

much more productiv e than thos e which wild nature o ffe rs us .

B e e f and dairy bre e ds o f cattl e hav e b e e n d e v e lop e d e ach ,

distinct f rom t h e oth e r an d e v e n among t h e dairy br ee ds th e m

,

s e lv e s w e hav e gr e at div e rsity F iv e rac e s o f corn had alre ady

.

com e into e xist e nc e b e for e t h e discov e ry o f A m e rica ( F i g .

Re c e ntly sp e cial strains o f al fal fa r e sistant to cold and oth e rs

,

r e sistant to drought hav e b e e n d e v e lop e d W h e ats hav e b e e n .

produc e d that are r e sistant to drought and oth e rs that are ,

r e sistant to rust I nd e e d t h e possibility o f improving plants

.
,

and animals so that th ey will b e r e sistant to dis e as e s has great

promis e i n mod e rn agriculture .

8 W h en pl an t i m p r ov em en t b egan
. I n cas e o f most o f our .

cultivat e d plants t h e e xact p e riod in which th e ir cultivation be

1
gan is unknown A S wiss botanist e num e rat e s two hundre d
.

1 A p l ho n se d e C an d oll e, O ri g i o f C lti t
n u va e d P l t
an s . 1 88 2 .

8
 B ETTER P L A NTS A N D A N I M AL S 9

and forty s e v e n sp e ci e s o f cultivat e d plants known to civiliz e d

-

man o f which forty four sp e ci e s hav e b e e n cultivat e d f o r mor e

,
-

than four thousand y e ars A mong th e s e anci e nt plants ar e .

wh e at barl e y mill e t sorghum ric e flax h e mp cabbage onions

, , , , , , , , ,

turnips grap e s apricots p e ach e s p e ars quinc e s appl e s oliv e s

, , , , , , , ,

figs dat e s and bananas

, ,
.

9 How n ew v ar i e t i es ar e p r oduced
. Ne arly e v e ry plant .

which has b e e n long in cultivation is re pre s e nt e d by many dis

tinct vari e ti e s I nd e e d t h e numb e r o f e xisting vari e ti e s o f a
.
,

cultivat e d plant is lik e ly to be clos e ly re lat e d to t h e l e ngt h o f

FIG 6 . Ki
. n ds o f or
c n

F rom l ft to ri ght t h ki
e e n ds of or c n ar e p o d, fl I n t , p op , swe e t ,
an d den t

tim e it has b e e n in cultivation I n most cas e s t h e vari e ti e s ar e .

e sp e cially d e v e lop e d with r e sp e ct to som e o n e or mor e o f

th e ir parts ; for e xampl e we hav e t h e gre at roots o f t h e sugar
,

b e e t t h e large l e af h e ads o f cabbage and l e ttuc e t h e flow e r

, ,

h e ads o f cauliflow e r and t h e flow e rs of t h e cultivat e d strains o f

,

pansi e s T h e way i n which n e w vari e ti e s ar e produc e d may be

.

b e st l e arn e d by studying th e history o f a fe w cas e s .

1 0 Th e Con cor d gr ap e a ch an ce s eedl i n g

. I n t h e y e ar 1 8 4 0 .

som e boys o f t h e village o f C oncord M assachus e tts who had , ,

be e n gath e ring wild grape s in t h e woods on re turning to ,

th e ir hom e s stre w e d th e s e e ds of th e ir spoil upon t h e land o f

,
10 THE ES S ENT I A L S OF A GR I C U LTU RE

Mr . E phraim B ull A chanc e s e e dling from this vagabond

.

sowing was pre s e rv e d by him and wh e n it f ruit e d thre e y e ars

, ,

lat e r M r B ull sow e d th e s e e ds o f its only clust e r o f f ruit

, . .

N in e y e ars a ft e r t h e accid e ntal sowing o n e o f t h e s e cond ,

ge n e ration o f s e e dlings pro ve d to b e so far sup e rior to all of

t h e oth e rs ( F ig 7 ) that t h e r e st w e r e d e stroy e d
. and t h e ,

survivor b e cam e t h e
C oncord grap e T his .

e xampl e illustrat e s
how a cultivat e d plant
may originat e f rom
a wild o n e .

11 . Th e B u r b ank
day i n p ot a t o . On e
th e d e cad e b e gin
ning in 1 8 7 0 Luth e r
B urbank who was ,

th e n a young man in
Lancast e r Mass ac h u ,

s e tts working in his ,

mark e t gard e n found ,

a singl e s e e d ball on
a plant in a fi e ld o f
E arly R os e potato e s .

H e sav e d t h e s e e ds ,

and plante d th e m ,

and th e r e gre w a s e e d
FI G 7 T h C o c or d g r p ( t ri ght ) d i t s
. . e n a e a
ling wh i ch yi e ld e d
, an

p r t ( t ]
a en f t 21 e
t ube r s o f unusual S i z e
and quality T hus h e found t h e potato which b e ars his nam e and
.
,

which has add e d millions o f dollars to t h e products o f agriculture .

1 2 I m p r ov em en t b y s y st em a ti c s el ecti on I n walking through

. .

t h e fi e lds o f grain n e ar his nativ e villag e in S cotland Patrick ,

S h i rr e ff in t h e y e ar 1 8 1 9 happ e n e d upon what s e e m e d to be

an e xc e ptional wh e at plant b e aring on S ixty thre e h e ads som e
,
-

twe nty fi ve hundre d k e rn e ls T h e s e e ds from t h e plant w e re

-
.
 B ETTER P L A NTS A N D A N I M A LS

sav e d and sown in a sp e cial plot and in two y e ars s u fl i cie n t s e e d ,

‘

had b e e n obtain e d to warrant his putting it upon t h e mark e t as

a n e w vari e ty T his wh e at by virtu e o f its sup e riority soon
.
, ,

cam e into ge n e ral cultivation i n S cotland and spr e ad into E n g ,

land and F ranc e M r S h ir r e ff continu e d to s e l e ct h e ads f rom

. .

t h e b e tt e r app e aring wh e at plants in t h e fi e lds o f his n e ighbor

-

hood and soon had as many as s e v e nty di ffe r e nt h e ads H e .

plant e d t h e grains o f e ach h e ad s e parat e ly by what we now call ,

t h e e ar r o w m e thod
-
H e was thus abl e to compare t h e yi e lds
.

and t h e charact e ristics o f t h e plants o f t h e di ffe re nt rows with

o n e anoth e r O u t o f t h e s e v e nty e ar rows only thr e e w e r e
.
-
,

sav e d T h e s e thre e strains or as w e might say vari e ti e s

.
, , , ,

b e cam e quit e ge n e rally distribut e d i n S cotland and E ngland ,

and e v e n S pre ad to t h e C ontin e nt .

T h e s e e xampl e s illustrat e ways i n which n e w vari e ti e s may

com e into e xist e nc e W e hav e obtain e d most of ou r improv e d
.

f orms o f plants through s e l e ction which m e re ly discov e rs and ,

pre s e rve s to our us e s that which nature has in som e unknown

way produc e d alre ady .

1 3 Var i at i on i n pl an t s an d a n i m al s
. E v e rywh e r e in natur e .

th e re is variation and variations giv e us t h e mat e rial f rom which to

,

m ak e s e l e ction No two plants or animals ar e e v e r e xactly alik e

. .

S om e tim e s as in t h e cas e o f t h e amount o f sugar conta in e d in

,

t h e sugar b e e t it s e e ms impossibl e to fix th e s e variations by s e l e c

,

tion I n such a cas e we call th e m fluctuating variations without

.
,

in any way und e rstanding why th e y fluctuat e I n oth e r instanc e s .

,

as in t h e cas e o f corn with di ffe re nt numb e rs o f k e rn e l rows on

t h e e ar or o f corn that b e ars its e ars at di ffe r e nt h e ights on t h e
,

stalk it is possibl e to s e parat e di ffe r e nt br e e ds which will com e

,

1
approximat e ly tru e A n i nt e r e sting e xp e rim e nt with corn was
.

mad e which re sult e d in fixing t h e e ars high or low on t h e sta lk

by continu e d s e l e ction ( F i g A ft e r S i x y e ars o f continu e d
.

s e l e ction th e re had b e e n d e v e lop e d two kinds o f corn — on e

b e aring its e ars at an av e rag e o f f our fe e t nin e inch e s abov e t h e

ground and anoth e r b e aring its e ars at an av e rag e o f only two
,

1 8 11 1 8 I lli oi E x p ri m
21 t S t tio
5 1 72 1 2 , n s e en a n .
12 TH E E S S EN TI A L S OF A G R I C U L TU R E
fe e t abov e t h e ground T his had b e e n accomplish e d by s e l e ction
.

alon e t h e e ars high on t h e stalk b e ing s e l e ct e d e ach y e ar as

,

s e e d fo r producing t h e high e ar corn and e ars low on t h e

-
,

stalk b e ing s e l e ct e d as s e e d fo r th e low ear corn plots -

.

FI G . 8 . F ixi n
g the h i ght o f t h
e e c or n e ar by l ti o
se ec n

W ill t h e improv e d rac e s p e rsist without continuanc e of t h e

s e l e ction ? I n most cas e s t h e m e thods by which t h e improv e
m e nt was brought about must be k e pt up to pre ve nt t h e rac e
f rom going back to its original typ e W h e re continu e d s e l e c .

tion has p e rman e ntly improv e d t h e rac e o f plants or animals ,

it is probabl e that t h e d e sire d charact e rs had pre viously b e e n

14 TH E ES S ENT I A LS OF A GR I C U LTU RE

t h e family first W e grow a gre at many s e parat e famili e s an d

.

t e st th e ir proge ny W e compar e th e s e f amili e s fo r s e v e ral y e ars

.

in nurs e ry rows in small plots and finally in t h e fi e ld in ord e r

, , ,

to d e t e rmin e such matt e rs as yi e ld e arlin e ss wint e r hardin e ss , ,

-
,

rust re sistanc e t h e hardn e ss and milling quality o f t h e grain

, ,

and t h e baking quality o f t h e flour .

T h e abov e m e thod commonly known as t h e e ar row m e thod

,
-
,

was originat e d n e arly a hundre d y e ars ago but was forgott e n , .

I n t h e m e antim e n e arly all t h e plant br ee d e rs in E urop e and

t h e U nit e d S tat e s sought to gain all th e ir r e sults by s e l e cting
plants by r e gim e nts u ntil t h e m e thod o f taking th e m s e parat e ly
,

as individuals was r e discov e re d T his is t h e proc e ss by which .

t h e b e st famili e s or strains ar e most quickly sort e d out and

, , ,

is t h e m e thod now f ollow e d in this country and in E urop e

by n e arly e v e ryon e wh o is trying to improv e t h e standard o f
agricultural plants .

1 5 M ak i n g n ew v a r i et i e s b y cr oss i n g Th e most important

. .

m e thod o f plant improv e m e nt is t h e bre e ding or act ual cre ation , ,

o f n e w kinds o f plants S e l e ction cre at e s nothing n e w

. It .

S imply fi nds and us e s t h e b e st o f what alre ady e xists B re e ding .

go e s furth e r and through t h e crossing o f favorabl e pare nt plants

,

and animals produc e s n e w typ e s o f o ffspring I n 1 8 6 5 a highly

, .

important law o f crossing or hybridization was discov e re d T his , , .

law is o f such importanc e that all o f our mod e rn sci e ntific

knowl e dge o f plant and animal bre e ding dat e s f rom t h e work o f
t h e A ustrian monk G r e gor M e nd e l which was first publish e d
, ,

in t h e r e ports o f a sci e ntific soci e ty o f B r ri n n in A ustria but ,

which strange to say re main e d unknown to sci e nc e until in

, , ,

1 9 00 it was r e discov e r e d almost S imultan e ously by thr e e not e d

,

1
E urop e an botanists .

1 6 M en d el s Law
.
’
M e nd e l e xp e rim e nt e d with gard e n p e as
.

and found that di ffe r e nt kinds o f p e as di ffe r e d i n c e rtain r e

s p e ct s wh e n t h e plants w e r e cross e d H e found among oth e r .
,

things that p e as di ffe re d i n t h e color o f t h e rip e s e e ds ( wh e th e r

,

1 Pro f or H g o d V ri
e ss u e es o f H oll an d, P ro f ess or E ri h
c Ts c h e r m a k of
Au s tri P ro f
a, or C rl C orr
ess a ens o f G rm
e an
y .
 B ETTER P L A NTS A N D A N I M A LS 1 5

ye llow or gr e e n ) and in t h e S hap e o f t h e rip e s e e ds ( wh e th e r

smooth or wrinkl e d ) M e nd e l th e n discov e r e d that i f h e cross e d
.
,

fo r e xampl e a plant b e aring smooth p e as with a plant b e aring

,

’
wrinkl e d p e as t h e l zy br za plant coming from such a cross would
’

b e ar all smooth s e e ds H e also found that oth e r pairs o f charac

.

t e rs with which h e e xp e rim e nt e d b e hav e d in a mann e r S imilar to

t h e b e havior o f t h e smoothn e ss or wrinkl e dn e ss o f t h e s e e ds o f
p e as I n t h e first g e n e ration
.

o n e charact e r dominat e d and

app e ar e d alon e appar e ntly

,

to th e total e xclusion o f t h e
oth e r I n this first ge n
.

e rat io n how e v e r it was sup

, ,

pos e d that i n r e ality t h e

charact e r n ot app e aring was
actually pr e s e nt but was
hidd e n by t h e s o call e d d om
-

i n a n t charact e r T h e charac
.

t e r thus hidd e n is call e d t h e

r e ce s s i v e charact e r .

I t was f ound by fu rth e r

e xp e rim e nt with plants and

animals that c e rtain char

ac t e r s a r e always dominant

in t h e first ge n e ration whil e ,

FI G 9 S m ooth d b r d d W h t
. . an ea e ea s

oth e rs ar e alwayS r e ce S S IV C
Wh m ooth d b rd d Wh t
en s ro d an ea e e a s ar e c sse ,
F or e xampl e ,
When tal k l l t h h d i t h fir t g
a r tio
e m ooth
ea s n e s en e a n are s

st e mm e d and short st e mm e d -

p e a plants a r e cross e d t h e tall st e mm e d charact e r is dominant

,
-

in t h e o ffspring o f t h e first g e n e ration W h e n p e a plants b e ar .

ing th e ir flow e rs along t h e st e m ar e cross e d with thos e which

b e ar th e ir flow e rs bunch e d at t h e e n d o f t h e st e m t h e o ffspring ,

all b e ar th e ir flow e rs along t h e st e m t h e charact e r o f b e aring ,

t h e flow e rs at t h e e n d o f t h e st e m b e ing r e c e ssiv e W hen .

b e arde d and b e ardl e ss W h e ats ( Fi g 9 ) ar e cross e d t h e first ge n

.
,

e rat i o n is b e ardl e ss L ong stapl e cotton cross e d with short stap l e

.
- -
1 6 TH E ES S ENT I A LS OF A GR I C U LTUR E

cotton ( F ig 1 0) produc e s hybrids b e aring only long stapl e cotton

.
-
.

P oll e d cattl e wh e n cross e d with horn e d cattl e ( F i g 1 I ) produc e .

o ffspring non e o f which hav e horns in t h e first ge n e ration .

W h e n trotting and pacing hors e s ar e cross e d all t h e o ffspring ,

i n t h e first ge n e ration trot .

1 7 Th e app ear an ce of s ucceedi n g gen er ati on s

. I t was also .

f ound by M e nd e l that i n t h e ge n e rations f ollowing t h e first

hybrids t h e dominant and re c e ssiv e charact e rs would app e ar in
d e finit e proportions F o r e xampl e i f t h e smooth s e e d e d p e as
.
,
-

which w e r e produc e d as hybrids in t h e cross b e tw e e n smooth

and wrinkl e d p e as w e r e sown o n e f ourth o f t h e s e e ds th e y ,

FI G . 10 . L o g t pl
n -
d hort t p l
s a otto
e an s -
s a e c n

W he n lo t pl
n g-s a e an d s hort t p l otto
-
s a ro d l l t h fib r
e c n ar e c s se ,
a e e s in th e fir ts

g r tio
en e a lo g t p l
n are n s a e

produc e d would be wrinkl e d whil e thre e fourths would be ,

smooth I f t h e wrinkl e d s e e ds w e re th e n sown th e y would pro

.
,

duc e plants b e aring only wrinkl e d s e e ds B u t i f all t h e smooth .

s e e ds w e re again sown o n e third of th e m would produc e plants

,

b e aring smooth s e e ds whil e t h e oth e r two thirds would b e ar

,

both smooth and wrinkl e d s e e ds in t h e ratio of 3 I as at first , .

I n e v e ry g e n e ration a ft e r t h e first th e r e thus app e a r to be

two ki nds o f s e e ds o f which o n e fourth ar e wri nkl e d and thre e
,

f ourths ar e smooth A ft e r t h e first ge n e ration how e v e r th e r e

.
, ,

a r e r ea l ly t fi r e e ki n d s o
f s e e d s although this f act is not e vid e nt
,
.

1 .O n e f ourth are s m e ar/z s ee ds and grow into plants that

produc e smooth s e e ds that com e tru e .
 B ETT E R P L A NTS A ND A N I MA L S 7

2 . O n e f ou rth ar e w r i n kl e d
and grow into plants that
s e e ds

produc e wrinkl e d s e e ds that com e tru e .

3 . O n e hal f ar e s m o o t /z s e e ds and grow into plants that

produc e s e e ds o f which on e f o n r t/z are w r i n kl e d and t/zr ee
f o u r t/zs a r e s m oo t /z .

1 8 P r odu ci n g n ew ch ar a ct er s b y cr oss i n g
. T wo whit e .

fl ow e r e d sw e e t p e as of t h e sam e vari e ty w e re cross e d T h e s e .

re s e mbl e d e ach oth e r in all re sp e cts e xc e pt that o n e plant bore ,

flow e rs with long poll e n grains and t h e oth e r bore flow e rs with ,

FI G . 1 1 . P oll e d an d hor n e d ca ttl e

W he n p oll e d an d hor n e d ca ttl e are c ro ssed , th e fir t g

s r tio
en e a n is p oll ed

round poll e n gr ains Th e hybrid bor e purpl e flow e rs a totally

.
,

n e w charact e r O n e o f th e s e hybrid plants b e aring purpl e

.

flowe rs was cross e d with anoth e r lik e its e l f O f t h e o ffspring .

o f this cross tw e nty s e v e n plants bor e purpl e flow e rs nin e bor e

-
,

r e d flow e rs and tw e nty e ight bor e whit e flow e rs

,
-
Not only did .

t h e purpl e charact e r p e rsist but t h e n e w charact e r r e d app e ar e d , ,

.

Th e limits of production o f n e w charact e rs by crossing ar e not

known and a gr e at d e al o f e xp e rim e ntation is b e ing don e on
,

this phas e o f t h e qu e stion .

1 9 Ch ar act er p r es en t or ab s en t
. I t has re c e ntly b e e n dis .

cove re d that th e re are not t wo opposing charact e rs as was at ,

1 8 TH E E S S ENT I A L S OF A GR I C U LTURE

first suppos e d but that a giv e n charact e r is pre s e nt in t h e o n e

,

cas e and abs e nt in t h e oth e r cas e W h e n t h e cross is mad e t h e .

,

characte r pre s e nt in o n e par e nt go e s into t h e hybrid whil e t h e ,

oth e r pare nt do e s not contribut e anything to that charact e r .

C ons e qu e ntly t h e o n e charact e r is dominant in t h e s e ns e that

it is pre s e nt F o r e xampl e in t h e cas e o f smooth and wrinkl e d
.
,

s e e ds t h e smoothn e ss is d ue to t h e pre s e nc e o f a fe rm e nt or ,

e nzym e in t h e s ee ds which chang e s t h e sugar in t h e growing

, ,

s e e d into starch wh e re by t h e s e e d is more p e rfe ctly fill e d out

,

and is cons e qu e ntly smooth I n t h e cas e o f t h e wrinkl e d s e e ds

.

this fe rm e nt is ab
s e nt t h e sugar r e ,

mains unchange d ,

and sinc e t h e c e lls

ar e not fill e d with

solid starch g rains

but with a wat e ry
sugar solution t h e ,

s e e ds on drying , ,

shriv e l and h e nc e
b e com e wrinkl e d .

I n th e cas e o f
FI G 1 . R zor b c k or
2 a . i m p ro d h g
a a gre e n s e e ds in
, un ve o

M t r low ly d i l
a u es s l b l wh m t r
,
an s P 6 3 8
e s s va uaan een z
y m e en a u e

d e stroys t h e gre e n
mat e rial known as chlorophyll and l e av e s only t h e y e llow color ;
th e r e fore t h e s e e ds a re ye llow I n t h e cas e o f gre e n p e as t h e
.

e nzym e is abs e nt ; h e nc e t h e y e llow color is obscur e d by t h e

gre e n color and t h e p e as app e ar gre e n .

I n a word M e nd e l found that a plant ( and t h e sam e has sinc e

,

b e e n found tru e o f animals ) i n re sp e ct to its charact e rs is as it ,

’
w e re l ik e a child s playhous e construct e d o f many di ffe re nt
, ,

shap e s kinds and colors o f building blocks which can be tak e n

, , ,

to pi e c e s and put toge th e r again in a n e w way so as to mak e ,

a structure e ntire ly di ffe re nt in app e aranc e although built f rom ,

t h e sam e mat e rials Th e hous e is t h e plant or animal and t h e

.
,
 B ETTER P L A NTS A N D A N I M A LS 19

charact e rs such as t h e color o f t h e flow e rs or hair t h e markings

, ,

on t h e s e e ds t h e shap e and siz e o f t h e l e av e s and t h e h e ight

,

o f t h e st e ms t h e horn e d or poll e d charact e r in cattl e t h e gait

, ,

o f t h e hors e ( wh e th e r t h e trot or t h e pac e ar e t h e blocks

) Th e , .

blocks that re pre s e nt singl e charact e rs ar e call e d units and t h e ,

charact e rs that b e hav e lik e units that is that cannot be brok e n , ,

up are call e d unit charact e rs or unit factors S om e tim e s we

, , .

find that it ta ke s mor e than o n e unit to mak e a Charact e r .

FI G 1 b Th
. 2 . e o r i m p ro d ty p o f h g
m de n, ve e o

M t r r p i d ly
a u es a ,
an d i m or
s l b l wh m t re va ua e en a u e

2 0 M en del
.
’
s Law W ithout a knowl e dge o f
an d t h e b r e eder .

M e nd e l s Law man has d e v e lop e d a gr e at many pur e br e e ds

’

o f animals and plants all within comparativ e ly r e c e nt tim e s

,
An .

und e rstanding o f this law how e v e r will prov e o f gre at valu e by

, ,

S howing how to produc e many mor e br e e ds and e sp e cially how , ,

to produc e th e m more quickly I t will h e lp to show t h e n e ce s.

s it f using pur strains wh n xp rim e nting not to produc e

y o e e e e

n e w typ e s but to grow a particular kind or quality o f plant or

animal It h e lps to S how that what app e ars to be t h e charact e r

.

o f a hybrid may or may not app e ar in t h e n e xt ge n e ration A nd .

20 TH E ES S ENT I A L S OF A G R I C U LTU R E

it f urnish e s t h e man who wish e s to e xp e rim e nt with a sci e ntific ,

basis upon which his e xp e rim e nts may be conduct e d .

2 1 I m p rov ed pl an ts an d an i m al s r equ i r e con s t an t car e Plant

. .

and animal improv e m e nt cannot be mad e by s e l e ction and bre e d

ing alon e F e e ding and car e ar e e qually important ( F igs 1 2 a and
. .

1 2 b Th mor highly d v lop e d plants and animals b e com e

.
) e e e e ,

t h e mor e d e p e nd e nt ar e th e y upon man W h e n our agricultural .

plants gr e w wild th e y w e r e plant e d by natural m e ans re quir e d

, ,

no cultivation and fought th e ir own battl e s with oth e r wild plants

,
.

If th e y w e r e now l e ft to th e ir own r e sourc e s many o f th e m would ,

FI G . 1 3
. An i m p ro v e d c o w an d t h e ca l ves w hi h
c h er m ilk m i ght h av e

o ri h d
n u s e

o r hi gh g r
A m de n, -
ad e co w ma y gi o gh m ilk to o ri h fi ft
ve en u n u s e en l
ca v e s . Th e un im
p ro v e d co w g av e r ly o gh m ilk to t i
s ca ce en u s u s a n o n e ca lf

not surviv e I t is doubt ful if our highly d e v e lop e d b e e f and

.

dai ry cattl e would surviv e if l e ft to subsist unaid e d by man on , ,

t h e wild st e pp e s o f R ussia or in t h e d e ns e j ungl e s o f t h e tropics .

C e rtainly if th e y did surviv e it would be b e caus e th e y had t h e

,

pow e r quickly to re v e rt to t h e unimprov e d typ e T h e y would .

liv e b e caus e o f th e ir pow e r to throw o ff what man has b e e n

c e nturi e s in d e v e loping .

T his do e s not m e an that improv e d animals and plants ar e

w e ak e r than th e ir wild anc e stors I t m e ans m e re ly that t h e con.

d it io n s u nd e r which wild plants and wild animals liv e ar e v e ry

di ffer e nt from thos e und e r which dom e sticat e d forms liv e and ,
22 TH E E S S ENT I A L S OF A GR I CU LTU R E

ES TI O NS AND P RO B LEMS QU

1 P r p r e li s t o f yo r b t lo ca l e x m p l
. e a f p l ts a d a i m al
a u es a es o an n n s
“

w hi h c th r s lt f i m p ro e m t o e r l s de ir ab l
are e e u ce s tor s
s o v en v es s e an .

2 t t . t h e lo l lti t d p l ts w hi h h
a ar e b e lo ge t l ti ca cu va e an c av e e n n s cu

v at e d b y m an ?

3 . H o w w as t h e C o n c or d g r ap e d e v e lo p e d ? t h e B u r b an k p ota to ?
4 . W hat we re th e m e tho ds by w hi c h Pa tri c k S h i r r e ff d e v e lo p e d n ew

s tr ai n s of h eat ? w

5 W h a t i s m e a t b y a ri atio am o g p l a t a d a i m al s ? I n m a s
’
. n v n n n s n n n

p ro b l e m s o f i m p ro e m e t o f p l a t s a d a i m vl w h t
n s e d o e s h e
n m a k e n n a s, a u

o f v a ri tio n s ?a

6 I w h at r e s p e c t s i s t h e e ar ro w m e tho d o f s e l e c ti g p l an t s b e tt e r
. n -
n

th a m ss s e l e ctio n ?
n a
”

7 E x p l i n w h t i s m e a t b y c ro s s i g p l a ts or a i m al s I n w h at w ays
. a a n n n n .

m ay c ro s i g c o tri b t e t o t h e m ki g o f
s n n w a ri e ti e s ?
u a n ne v

8 E x p l ai n b ri e fly h o w M e n d e l d i s c o v e r e d t h e l aw k o w n as M e n d e l s
’
. n

Law .

9 . H ow d o e s
k o w l e dge o f M e de l s Law h e l p th e b r ee de r ?
a n n
’

1 0 E x p l ai n an d ill s tr t t h e m e i g o f T h e m or e hi g hl y d e lo p e d
. u a e an n ve

pl a ts d an i m l s b e c o m e t h e m or e d e p e de t are th e y p o n m an
”
n an a ,
n n u .

1 1 W h at p l a t s a d a i m l s ar e m o s t li k e ly t o b e c ho se n as s ubj ects
. n n n a

fo r de ve lo p m e n t ?

R E F E R ENCES
B A I LE Y L H T h e E v ol u tio n o f o u r N ativ e F r u its T h e M acm ill an
,
. . .

C o m p an y .

B A I LE Y an d G I L B ERT P l an t B r e e d i n g T h e M acm ill an C o m p an y

. . .

C O ULTER J M F u n dam e n t al s o f P l an t B r e e d i n g D Ap p l e to n an d
, . . . .

C o m p an y .

D A R B I S H I R E A D B r e e d i n g an d t h e M e n d e li an D i s co v e ry C as se ll an d
,
. . .

C o m p an y .

D A R W I N C H A RLES V a ri atio n o f A i m al s an d P l an t s u n d e r D o m e s ti catio n

, . n .

2 v ol s D A pp l e to n a d C o m p an y
. . n .

D E C A N DO LLE A O ri gi n o f C u lti v a t e d P l an t s D A pp l e to n an d C o m p an y
,
. . . .

S H A LER N A T H A N I EL D o m e s ti cat e d A n i m al s T h e ir r e l a tio n t o m an an d

, . .

t o h i s ad va n c e m e n t i n c i v iliz a tio n C h a rl e s S c ri b n e r s S o n s
’
. .
 C HA P T E R I I I

HOW P LANTS FEE D AND GR OW

W ho e v e r w ill b e
rf t i t h i pe ec n e sc e n ce of
ri lt r m t b w ll q i t d
ag cu u e us e e ac ua n e

w ith t h q liti o f oil

e ua d pl t
es s s an a n s an d m t t b
us i g or t o f t h
no e rio n an e va us

cli m ta es, th t h m y k ow w h t
so a e a n a is gra bl d wh t i r p g
e ea e an t to a s e u n an

e ac h C O LU M E LL A
.

22 . F act or s t h at det er m i n e t h e h ar v e st
I n t h e spring a .

f arm e r carri e s to t h e fi e ld a doz e n e ars o f s e e d corn and in t h e

f all brings back a harv e st o f p e rhaps thirty thousand pounds o f
gr ee n forage or t e n thousand rip e n e d e ars S om e v e ry impor
'

.
,

tant things hav e happ e n e d b e tw e e n t h e tim e wh e n t h e farm e r

dropp e d t h e s e e d into t h e warm e arth and th e tim e wh e n h e
brought hom e t h e harv e st W h e re did t h e incre as e com e f rom
.

W ill t h e incre as e always be t h e sam e ?

Th e f our f actors which combin e d d e t e rmin e t h e abundanc e
, ,

o f t h e harv e st ar e t h e s e e d t h e soil t h e cultur e and t h e climat e

, , ,
.

M an d e te rmin e s t h e kind o f s e e ds h e will sow and wh e th e r or ,

not th e y shall inh e rit high producing pow e rs H e d e t e rmin e s .

to a consid e rab l e e xte nt t h e productiv e n e ss o f t h e soil and with ,

j udgm e nt and skill h e r e gulat e s t h e proc e ss e s o f cultivating ,

harv e sting and housing t h e crop I t is only t h e climat e which

, .

h e cannot modi fy but to it h e may adapt his practic e s and

,

his plants :
2 3 Ol d cr op s i n n ew cl i m at e s
. It is of prim e importanc e for .

t h e farm e r to know how to adapt his practic e s to t h e g e n e ral

climat e o f t h e re gion and to t h e wid e range o f s e asons it a ffords .

2 3
2 4 TH E E S S ENTI A L S OF A G R I CU LTUR E

F or e xampl e wh e n t h e farm e rs o f humid r e gions ha ve mov e d

,
‘
”

into re gions of limit e d rain fall th e ir di ffi culti e s hav e b e e n gre atly

,

incre as e d b e caus e th e y hav e tak e n with th e m t h e crops and

m e thods us e d i n humid climat e s O n t h e oth e r hand wh e n
.
,

som e Russian immigrants brought wh e at which had b e e n grown

fo r c e nturi e s in a comparativ e ly dry climat e to a r e gion in t h e
U nit e d S tat e s wh e re t h e rain fall was limit e d t h e r e sult was that ,

wh e at farming prosp e re d b e yond t h e hop e s e v e n o f th e first

s e ttl e rs T h e d e v e lopm e nt o f a corn suit e d to t h e climate o f t h e
.

North chang e d corn gr owing f rom unc e rtainty to c e rtain ty I n

-
.

C hina and A f rica t h e sorghums ar e plants which ar e capabl e of

withsta nding long droughts T h e s e hav e b e e n introduc e d into
.

r e gions o f limit e d rain fall in t h e U nit e d S tat e s with t h e re sult ,

that large str e tch e s o f f e rtil e soil which oth e rwis e would hav e
b e e n suitabl e only fo r grazing hav e b ee n mad e into succ e ss ful
f arms .

2 4 W h er e p l an t s get t h ei r f ood T h e young plant liv e s on

. .

t h e food alr e ady stor e d in t h e s e e d tub e r or oth e r part plant e d

, , ,

until it has d e v e lop e d a syst e m o f fe e ding roots and until its ,

l e av e s hav e b e e n un fold e d in t h e air and light Th e plant is .

th e n usually abl e to liv e on t h e soil and air e ntire ly but it stands ,

a much b e tt e r chanc e o f making a satis factory d e v e lopm e nt i f

t h e part plant e d contains a su ffi ci e nt r e s e rv e o f f ood to h e lp
sustain t h e plant whil e it is young T his is e sp e cially importa nt
.

wh e n t h e w e ath e r or soil conditions ar e not id e al for t h e nourish

m e nt o f t h e t e nd e r plant I t is int e re sting to know that b e ans
.
,

for e xampl e may b e grown to t h e flow e ring sta ge without nutri

,

tiv e salts f rom t h e ground t h e plant d e p e nding e ntire ly on t h e

,

store d u p food in t h e thick fl e shy s e e d l e av e s T his is o n e r ea

-
, .

son why corn which contains an abundanc e o f food and which

,

ge rminat e s vigorously is chos e n fo r s e e d and why t h e pi e c e o f

, ,

potato which is plant e d is o f large r siz e than is re quire d to sup

port t h e plant until its l e av e s r e ach t h e surfac e B e sid es t h e f ood .

which is obtain e d f rom t h e pare nt t h e growing plant mak e s ,

f ood f rom mat e rials which it s e cure s f rom t h e soil through its
r oots and f rom t h e air through its l e av e s .
 H OW P L A NTS F EE D A ND GR O W 2 5

25 . t W h e n a plant is analyz e d
Taki n g t h e pl an t ap a r .

ch e mically it is found to consist o f wate r organic matt e r and , ,

ash A bout 7 5 p e r c e nt o f t h e av e rag e growing gr e e n plant is

.

wat e r A fi e ld o f growing corn has b e e n found to contain as

.

much as 8 0 p e r c e nt o f wat e r ; a potato crop 7 9 p e r c e nt ; and ,

a cabbage patch 9 1 p e r c e nt C ure d hay contains f rom 8 to 1 2

, .

r c e nt o f wat e r and corn in t h e crib f rom 8 to 1 4 c nt

p e , p e r e , .

T h e r e fore i f a gre e n corn plant is dri e d and w e igh e d th e re

, ,

may b e l e ft only 2 0 p e r c e nt o f t h e original w e ight Th e wat e r .

has b e e n driv e n o ff by h e at W h e n this dry mat e rial is burn e d

i

and w e igh e d only about 1 p e r c e nt o f t h e original w e ight is l e ft

,

as ash T h e organic matt e r has b e e n burn e d and has pass e d

.

Off into t h e air in t h e f orm o f gas e s as in t h e cas e o f t h e organic ,

matt e r o f wood or coal burn e d in t h e stov e or furnac e T hus .

,

t h e gr e e n corn plant is about 8 0 p er c e nt wat e r 1 9 p e r c e nt ,

organic matt e r and 1 p e r c e nt ash ,

.

M ost o f t h e organic matt e r o f plants is carbon which is ,

obtain e d f rom t h e air through t h e l e av e s N itroge n is a part .

o f t h e organic matt e r and cam e originally f rom t h e air O nly a .

f e w plants ar e abl e to f e e d u pon nitroge n in t h e f re e stat e in

which it e xists i n t h e air and all o f t h e agricultural plants e xc e pt
,

t h e l e gum e s such as b e ans p e as and clov e rs which ar e dis

, , ,

cuss e d lat e r tak e all th e ir nitroge n f rom t h e soil in which it

, ,

is combin e d with oth e r e l e m e nts T h e wat e r t h e ash and t h e .

, ,

nitroge n e xc e pt t h e nitroge n which t h e l e gum e s tak e f rom t h e

,

air ar e obtain e d f rom t h e soil through t h e roots

,
.

2 6 El em en t s of p l an t f ood W at e r is compos e d o f hydrog e n

. .

and oxyge n O rganic matt e r is com pos e d o f carbon nitrog e n

.
, ,

and t h e sam e e l e m e nts as wat e r Th e ash or t h e min e ral part o f .

,

plants consists o f phosphorus potassium calcium iron sulphur

, , , , , ,

and magn e sium all o f which are absolut e ly e ss e ntial to t h e li fe

,

and growth o f plants T o th e s e must b e add e d t h e e qually indis

.

e f h
p nsabl e our e l e m e nts coming f rom t e air carbon hydroge n
—
, ,

Oxyg e n and nitroge n T hus th e r e ar e at l e ast t e n e l e m e nts

, .
,

absolute ly n e c e ssary fo r all plants I n t h e ash o f n e arly all plants .

sodium silicon and chlorin e are also f ound and i n many plants
, , ,
2 6 THE ES S ENT I A L S OF A GR I CU LTURE

mangan e s e occurs but th e s e e l e m e nts ar e not consid e re d e ss e n

,

tial to t h e li fe o f plants W hil e only v e ry small quantiti e s o f .

som e o f th e s e e l e m e nts such as iron and sulphur ar e r e quire d , , ,

any att e mpt to grow crops without th e m re sults in failur e A ll of .

t h e e l e m e nts e xc e pt carbon and a part o f t h e oxyg e n ar e o b

, ,

ta i n e d by most plants f rom t h e soil alon e though som e o f t h e ,

e l e m e nts hav e com e to t h e soil

f rom t h e air A soil th e re f or e .

, ,

f rom which plants f ail to s e cur e

o n e or mor e o f th e s e e l e m e nts

mak e s a poor farm .

27 . How p l an t s g et t h ei r
raw food mat e rials f ood . Th e
in t h e soil must be dissolv e d i n
wat e r b e for e t h e plants can tak e ?

th e m up through th e ir roots .

T h e r e for e t h e soil wat e r s e rv e s

a doub l e purpos e — as food fo r
t h e crop and as a carri e r o f ,

oth e r f ood e l e m e nts T h e roots .

p e n e trat e t h e soil in all d i r e c

tions wh e re v e r th e re is air and ,

FI G 1 4 R oot y t m o f c or
. . moistur e ( F ig I 4 ) T h e roots
s s e a n . .

Pl t o f a corn or sunflow e r plant fill

an

T h root pr d d form xt i a Cl l biC yar d Of S O il W ith tiny

e s s ea an an e e n s ve

m t w ithi t h
a oi l T h root h r
n e s . e ai s are

no t how i thi p i t r Not t h

s n n r O Ot l e t S
s T h e rOO t S p rO d UCQ d in
c u e . e e o

seri f b r root t b d tho

es o ace
a se as o n by a wh e at plant i f
s a a
, ,
an 5, se

t h i g r h d to t h 0 1 ,
t
a c no av n e ac e e 5 1
plac e d e n d to e n d would e xte nd ,

a third o f a mil e A pumpkin vin e may produc e fi fte e n mil e s

.

o f roots in a s e ason .

2 8 Th e n a t u r e an d ex t en t of r oot h a i r s T h e tiny rootl ets do

. .

not th e ms e lv e s absorb much wat e r T his is don e by minut e .

root hairs som e tim e s numb e ring to t h e squar e inch o f root

surfac e T h e s e grow in fe ath e ry tu fts n e ar t h e tips o f t h e small
.

e st rootl e ts Th e root hairs b e gin as proj e ctions on t h e outsid e

.

c e lls of th e rootl e ts ( F ig at a point about a third o f an inch .

 H O W P L A NTS F EE D A ND GR O W 2 7

back f rom th e ir tips T h e s e proj e ctions wind about in e v e ry

.

dire ction among t h e soil particl e s to which th e y clos e ly adh e re, .

T h e root hairs may incre as e t h e absorbing sur fac e o f corn roots

fi v e and o n e hal f tim e s and o f barl e y roots tw e lv e tim e s
-
, .

2 9 How r oot h ai r s s ecu r e w a t er f r om t h e s oi l

. T h e soil .

is mad e up o f a multitud e of fi n e particl e s E ach particl e is .

surround e d by a thin film o f wat e r h e ld th e re by t h e forc e o f

gravity T h e wat e r n e ar e st t h e soil par
.

t icl e is h e ld mor e firmly than that farth e r

away T h e way in which t h e root hairs
.

ar e abl e to pull t h e wat e r f rom t h e soil

particl e s may be shown by a simpl e e x

p e r i m e nt I f a
. bladd e r or a bag mad e

f rom parchm e nt pap e r is fill e d with

wat e r containing 1 0 p e r c e nt o f sugar ,

and if o n e e n d o f a glass tub e is fast

e n e d in t h e bladd e r and t h e bladd e r

plac e d in a pan o f pur e wat e r int e re st ,

ing r e sults f ollow Th e sugar solution

.

will ris e i n t h e tub e and t h e distanc e to

,

which it ris e s hour by hour can be

, ,

watch e d I magin e t h e thin wall Of t h e FI G 1 5 R oot h ir g ro w

. . . a s

root hair to corr e spond to t h e bladd e r f ro m th r f f th e su ace O e

m flle t r tl e t
,
s

f
S oo s
and t h e sap insid e t h e root hair c e ll to -

R oot h r p ro d d ai s ar e u ce in
corre spond to t h e sugar solut i on Th e e ry g r t m b e r d .
v ea nu s an e x_

sap is a d e ns e r or more conc e ntrat e d t d i to t h 0 1 wh r th y en n e 8 1

,
e e e

t k pw t r d b t a e u a e an su s an c e s
solut i on than t h e wat e r i n t h e S Ol l out i ol tio i w t e r n s u n n a

sid e o f t h e root hair Th e wat e r in t h e

.

soil mov e s through t h e wall o f t h e root hair j ust as t h e wat e r ,

in t h e basin mov e s through t h e bladd e r toward t h e insid e so ,

that t h e quantity o f wat e r on t h e insid e incre as e s ; that is th e ,

l e ss d e ns e solution always mov e s toward t h e more d e ns e solu

tion T his giv e s ris e to a pr e ssur e ( osmotic pr e ssure ) which is
.

som e tim e s consid e rabl e and is call e d root pre ssur e I t is o n e

,
.

o f t h e f actors which caus e t h e sap to ris e in plants I t is o n e o f .

t h e caus e s p e rhaps t h e chi e f caus e o f t h e bl e e ding o f inj ur e d

, ,
2 8 THE ES S ENT I A LS OF A GR I CU LTU RE

tr e e s and grap e vin e s in t h e e arly spring Th e sugar mapl e tr e e .

-

is bl e d by tapping and its sap is coll e cte d and boil e d down to

,

sirup or sugar .

W h e n t h e ground is warm and moist t h e root hairs absorb

wat e r most r e adily F u rth e rmore t h e roots will not grow and
.
,

produc e t h e many rootl e ts which b e ar t h e root hairs unl e ss t h e

soil is We ll suppli e d with air sinc e t h e roots grow only wh e n ,

th e y can s e cure th e oxyge n of t h e air that circulat e s through

t h e soil .

30 On l y p ar t of t h e soi l w at er u s ed b y pl an t s
. Not all t h e .

wat e r in t h e soil can be absorb e d by t h e root hairs S om e .

wat e r is l e ft i n t h e soil during t h e s e v e r e st droughts a ft e r ,

all t h e plants hav e w ith e re d T his amount may be as much .

as 5 or 1 0 p e r c e nt in ordinary agricultural soils T h e amount .

o f this unavailabl e wat e r vari e s in di ff e re nt soils b e ing gr e at e r ,

i n a fi n e fe rtil e loam than in a sandy soil b e caus e t h e gre at e r ,

t h e numb e r o f t h e soil particl e s t h e gr e at e r t h e num be r o f ,

films o f wat e r that will b e h e ld D i ff e re nt kinds o f plants .

,

more ov e r va ry with r e sp e ct to t h e d e gr e e to which th e y can

,

e xhaust t h e wat e r o f t h e soil L e ttuc e and cucumb e rs l e av e in

.

t h e soil f rom 8 to 1 0 p e r c e nt o f wat e r which th e y ar e unabl e

to withdraw whil e corn and cabbage in t h e sam e soil l e av e
,

only 6 p e r c e nt .

31 Th e am ou n t of w a t er r eq ui r ed by p l an t s
. I n more than .

hal f t h e ar e a o f t h e U nit e d S tat e s and ind e e d o f t h e world , ,

th e re is not e nough wat e r availabl e i n t h e av e rage s e ason for a

maximum yi e ld o f crops I n th e c e ntral part o f t h e U nit e d
.

S tat e s agricultural plants on t h e av e rage tak e about four hun

, ,

dre d and fi fty pounds o f wat e r from t h e soil fo r e v e ry pound

o f dry matt e r produc e d I t is of t h e gr e at e st importanc e th e re
.
,

f ore to find out what plants will produc e a pound o f d ry matt e r

,

1
on t h e l e ast wat e r drawn f rom t h e soil B y care ful e xp e rim e nts .

t h e pounds o f wat e r which und e r ordinary conditions ar e d rawn

f rom t h e soil fo r e v e ry pound o f dry matt e r manu facture d by
c e rtain plants has b e e n asc e rta in e d to be as follows
1
B l l ti
u e84 a d B l l t i
n 2 85 U it e d S t t
n u e nD e p rt m e t o f A g ri c lt r e
2 , n a es a n u u .
30 TH E ES S ENT I A LS OF A GR I C U LT UR E

A small part o f t h e wat e r t h e nitrog e n and t h e min e ral e l e

,

m e nts ar e l e ft i n t h e plant and lat e r mad e into n e w plant

,

tissu e s I n t h e surfac e lay e r or e pid e rmis o f t h e l e av e s o f

.
, ,

plants th e re a r e many small pore s through which t h e wat e r

pass e s to t h e outsid e air T h e s e pore s ar e known as s tom a ta
.

( s to m a sin
,
gular m e aning ,
mouth T h e stomatal op e ning is

surround e d by a pair o f surfac e c e lls known as guard c e lls I n , .

dry w e at h e r t h e guard c e lls a r e usually a ffe ct e d so as to clos e

t h e op e ning and i n damp w e ath e r so as to l e av e it op e n
, , .

T h e numb e r o f stomata on t h e l e av e s vari e s on an av e rage

f rom about to a squar e inch although th e re ,

a r e plants such as t h e oliv e tre e in which t h e numb e r runs

, ,

as high as a squar e inch and in rap e t h e e normous

,

numb e r o f a squar e inch is re ach e d I t is said that an .

av e rage l e a f o f rap e contains as many as stomata

and that a large su nflow e r l e a f has
I t is e stimat e d that if all t h e wat e r giv e n o ff by t h e plants
o f a wh e at fi e ld in t h e growi ng s e ason could b e put back on

t h e land again it would cov e r t h e ground to a d e pth o f about

,

four and a hal f inch e s whil e that giv e n o ff f rom t h e plants o f a

,

fi e ld of oats would cov e r t h e ground to a d e pth o f fi ve inch e s .

I t is e stimat e d that f rom o n e tw e l fth to o n e e ighth o f t h e total an

nual rain fall in t h e C e ntral stat e s pass e s out through e vaporation
f rom t h e soil T his shows that a wid e margin o f sa fe ty e xists f or
.

t h e farm e r who handl e s his land so as to cons e rv e t h e wat e r .

34 W eeds w a s t e w at er I t is e stimat e d that an acre o f land

. .

cove re d with sunflow e rs will los e in a s e ason through th e s e ,

plants ,
gallons Of wat e r which would cov e r t h e ground
,

to a d e pth o f o n e and o n e fift h fe e t and would b e su ffici e nt to

-

irrigat e about o n e acre of al fal fa through t h e s e ason I n e v e ry .

farming r e gion thousands o f acr e s o f w e e ds ar e constantly s e nd

ing t h e pre cious ground wat e r into t h e air throughout t h e grow
ing s e ason and this wate r i s o ft e n n e e d e d by our farm crops
,
.

35 How or gan i c m a tt er i s m ade

. A bout 2 0 p e r c e nt o f
.

t h e w e ight o f gre e n plants is organic matt e r T h e two prin .

c i pal groups are t h e carbohydrat e s and t h e prot e ins T h e .

 H O W P L A NTS F EE D A ND GR O W 31

carbohydrat e s such as t h e sugars starch e s fats and oils and

, , , , ,

woody fib e r or c e llulos e are mad e only by gre e n plants and by

, , ,

th e m only i n t h e gre e n parts that is principally in t h e l eav e s , , , .

’
U nd e r t h e influ e nc e of t h e su n s rays upon t h e gr e e n mate
rial t h e carbon dioxid e o f t h e air which e nt e rs t h e ,

l e av e s through t h e stomata is brok e n up into its constitu e nts , ,

carbon and oxyge n T h e s e ar e th e n combin e d with t h e e l e m e nts

.

FIG . 1 6
. f or m atio
Se ed d f oo d tor n an s ag e in or c n

P oll en from t h t e as s e l ( t ri ght) f ll p o t h ilk of t h

a a s u n e s e e ar ( t l ft)
a ed f rtiliz tio
,
an e a n

r lt A
e su s . s the o l ri p i to g r i th y
vu e s en ntor a ns e ar e s e d w ith foo d m t ri l a e a

which compos e wat e r hydroge n and oxyge n A lthough t h e — .

d e tails o f this proc e ss ar e not ye t fully known it is known ,

that by succ e ssiv e st e ps t h e e l e m e nts composing wat e r and car

bon dioxid e hydroge n oxyge n and carbon — ar e built into
—
, ,

grap e sugar or glucos e and lat e r into starch ; it is also known

, ,

that much oxyge n is re l e as e d into t h e air by t h e work o f chloro

phyll S ugar is solubl e i n t h e c e ll sap and is e asily transport e d
.

through t h e plant to any plac e wh e re it is n e e d e d T h e sugar .

which a corn plant mak e s can e asily be found in t h e stalk at

flowe ring tim e I nd e e d if t h e e ars be stripp e d o ff so that t h e
.
, ,
32 TH E E S S ENT I A L S OF A GR I CU L TUR E

sugar cannot be carri e d into th e m this sugar can be h e l d in t h e ,

stalk and we can s e cure sugar f ro m cornstalks as f rom sugar can e

,
.

I n som e plants as in t h e roots o f t h e sugar b e e t sugar is

, ,

store d i n quantity in t h e form not o f glucos e but of can e

,

sugar or saccharos e How e v e r in most plants sugar is not

, .
,

stor e d but is carri e d to growing parts such as t h e tub e rs o f t h e ,

potato t h e f ruit o f t h e banana or t h e s e e ds o f corn and oth e r

, ,

grains and is th e re conv e rt e d by m ea ns of a ch e mical f e rm e nt

, , ,

or e nzym e i n to s tarch T hroughout t h e plant kingdom starch

, h
.

is t h e most common form in which t h e f oods ar e store d .

I n som e s e e ds ,

t / such as thos e of s ar e z

t h e castor b e an

H y t h and Of flax and or n s ar c ,

Sh t f mb y in t h e fl e sh o f
oo o e r o

gm
t h e oliv e foods
“
,
G m er

R t f m om ar e store d I n
oo o e

“m "
t h e f orm o f fats
ll a

and oils T h e se .

ar e e asily de
FI G 1 7 D i ag ram s o f g r ai s o f or
. . n c n
compo s ed while ,

sta rch is not e asily change d W h e n n e e d e d by th e plant t h e

.

insolubl e starch is change d by e nzym e s or fe rm e nts into solubl e , ,

sugar which is th e n carri e d i nto t h e growing parts o f t h e plant

, .

A noth e r important form o f carbohydrat e s is c e llulos e or ,

woody fib e r which constitut e s t h e f ram e work or sk e l e ton o f

, , ,

all plant c e lls C e llulos e is t h e most stabl e f orm of organic

.

matt e r T his is s e e n in t h e pow e r o f wood to re sist d e cay Th e

. .

ste ms of plants are rich in c e llulos e and ar e t h e last parts o f t h e

plant to d e cay W h e n e at e n by animals st e ms ar e dige st e d l e ss
.
,

compl e t e ly and with gre at e r di ffi culty than grains and l e av e s .

I n ge n e ral t h e gr e at food store hous e s o f plants ar e th e ir

,

s e e ds ( F igs 1 6 and . in which t h e f oods ar e d e posit e d and

in which t h e n e w plant li e s e mb e dd e d Man has ta k e n adv an .

tage o f this storing habit o f plants j ust as h e utiliz e s t h e ,

hon e y storing habit of th e be e

-
.
 H O W P L A NTS F EE D A ND GR O W 33

36 . Th e p r ot ei n s . M ost o f t h e prot e in is usually mad e by t h e

tim e t h e plant com e s into blossom and is locat e d in t h e st e m ,

and l e av e s wh e r e it was mad e ; but much o f it is usually trans

f e rr e d to t h e f ruit or s e e ds as th e y d e v e lop T h e r e f ore t h e s e e ds .

and f ruit ar e rich e r in prot e in than ar e t h e straws and hays .

A familiar e xampl e o f v e ge tabl e prot e in is t h e glut e n in wh e at .

Prot e in is compos e d principally o f nitroge n carbon hydroge n , , ,

and oxyg e n S om e prot e ins also contain sulphur and oth e rs

.
,

phosphorus Prot e ins ar e t h e most compl e x plant substanc e s

.

known W hil e t h e amount o f prot e in contain e d in most plants

.

is small i n comparison with t h e amount o f carbohydrate s it is ,

v e ry important b e caus e toge th e r with t h e min e ral e l e m e nts o f ,

plants it is t h e sourc e o f t h e growth o f all animals W ithout

, .

prot e in animals could not grow

, .

S O S AND P ROB LEM S QUE TI N

1 W h a t f tor s de t r m i e t h e b
. ac da ce o f t h h r e t a dh w d
n a un n e a ves ,
n o an

t o w h t e xt e t m y m
a n o trol a h ? a an c n e c

2 : G i e ill t ti o s f f r m ro p s w hi h h e b
v us ra n o i tro d e d i to
a c c av een n uc n

ne w li m t s a d ho w t h e r
c a e ,
lt s w hi h f ollo w d
n s esu c e .

3 W h y i i t i m p ort a t t o p l t
. s l rge p i c i t e d f a m ll p i e
n an a a e e ns a o s a ce

o f p ot to ? a

4 W h at
. e th r l ti ar d t g s o f p l ti g fo r s m ll p i
e e a ve a or
v an a e an n u a e ce s

tw o l rg p i a e f p ot to i
e ce s o hill ? a es n on e

5 W h t p r c t ge f t h e w hol g r e
. a e en a c or p l o t d o h g ro p f e en n an e s e ac u o

c o m p o t b ta e f or m ? H w m y thi s b e d t r m i d ?
n en su s nc s o a e e ne

6 Wh t . th e cessa y e l e m
a ar e ts of p l t f oo d d w h t e th i r
e n r en an ,
an a ar e

s o r es ?
u c

7 A ss m i g th t t h c or p l t i a m a hi e w hi h m
. u n a e f t r
n and s c n c a n u ac u e s an

us e sf oo d m t ri l d e i b t h e m chi t h e s o r
a e a ,
sc r f t h m t ri l s w ith
e a n e, u ce s o e a e a

w hi h i t w ork h w i t ge t th
c s, m t i l h w it h g
o s th m d w h t
e se a er a s, o c an es e ,
an a

th fie l p ro d cts e
na u ar .

8 H w d o e t h e ch r t r f t h e oil ff c t t h d g r e t w hi h p l t
. o s a ac e o s a e e e e o c an s

m y t ake p t h e s oil w t r ?
a u a e

9 A s m i g th t y o r s hool g ro
. su n d i t h b otto m o f
a u w a te r ta k
c un s e a n ,

th e i d s d d w ll
e an f w hi h
en as hi g ha r e q ir d f t h f ollo w i g
s O c ar e as u e or e n

p ro b l e m h o w hi g
,
h w o l d t h c ol m f w t e r b eu w hi h i g i e e ff i t h
u e n o a c s v n o n
34 THE ES S EN T I A LS OF A GR I C U LTU RE

g ro w i g se as o n b y a t w e ty ac r e fi e l d o f o t s ? W h a t r e l a tio d o e s thi s
n n a n
-

b e ar t o y o u r a l r ai n fall ?
n n ua

1 0 I n w h a t w ys m i g ht a l aye r o f l e af h air s affe c t t h e am o u t o f w at e r

. a n

w i thi n a p l a t ?
n

1 1 W h t i s t h e e ffe c t o f a g ro w th o f w e e d s p o s oil w at e r ?
. a u n

1 2 W h y i s s ta r c h r a th e r th a s g a r a m or e ad a t age o u s f or m fo r
. n u v n

s tor e d f oo d ?

1 3 W h a t i s t h e i m p orta ce o f p rot e i f oo d ? W h e r e i m o s t o f t h e
. n n s s

p rot e i o f p l a t s s tor e d ?
n n

REF E RE NCES
B ERGEN an d C A L D W ELL P r acti ca l B ot an y ch ap Ii G i n n an d C o m p an y
.
, . . .

B R I GGS an d S H A NT Z T h e W a t e r R e qu ir e m e n ts o f P l an ts B u l l et i n 2 84
.
,

a n d B u l l e t i n 2 85 B u r e au O f P l a n t I n d us try U n it e d S t a t e s D e p ar t m e n t
, ,

o f A g ri c u lt u r e .

D UG G A R B M T h e P hys iology o f P l an t P ro duc tio n T h e M acm ill an

, . . .

C o m p an y .

T h e W e e d F actor i n t h e C u lti v atio n o f C or n B u l l et i n 2 5 7 B u r eau o f

, ,

P l an t I n d u s try U n it e d S tate s D e p art m e n t o f Ag ri cu lt u r e

, .
 C HA P T E R I V

P LANT P ROP AGATI ON

Th e oil r i i i t b o o m t h
s e ce ve s d tt r d b ro d t p o it o f t
n s s e see s ca e e a ca s u n , s

en e d d b rok
an p ; h fir t k p it o
en u l d th r i ; xt w h it h
s e s ee s c n ce a e e e n ne , en as

been w rm d by t h
a h t d b y lo p r
e e r h p lit it p
ea an d dr w c se e s su e , s e s s O e n an a s

f ro m it t h g r y o f t
e h b l d C
een erI C E R O e a e .

37 . How p l an ts ar e our
p r op agat ed . C omparativ e ly fe w of

principal food plants l iv e long e r than a singl e y e ar A lmost a .

n e w ge n e ration o f plants must b e produc e d at t h e op e ning o f

.

e ach n e w s e ason T o und e rs tand how plants multiply th e r e

.
,

fore is fundam e ntal to t h e succ e ss ful production o f crops

, .

A ll cultivat e d p lants com e f rom s e e ds spore s or f rom som e , ,

f orm o f bud growth Ne arly all f arm and gard e n crops ar e

.

grown f rom s e e ds but only a fe w o f t h e f ruit tre e s are prop

,

agat e d in this way T h e important fi e ld crops not grown

.

f rom s e e ds ar e sugar can e I rish potato e s and sw e e t potato e s , ,

.

A ppl e s p e ach e s p e ars orange s and oth e r f ruits with fe w e x

, , , , ,

ce pt i on s will not com e tru e f rom t h e s e e d

,
and ar e th e re fore ,

propagat e d by m e ans o f bud growth .

38 How a p l an t com e s f r om t h e s eed

. I n e v e ry liv e s ee d .

th e re is a living plant in an und e v e lop e d stat e T his is t h e .

part o f t h e s e e d call e d t h e g e r m or e m bry o ( F ig Th e ,

.

e mbryo is usually but a small part o f t h e s e e d T h e bulky part .

o f most s e e ds consists o f f ood principally starch and oil ) which

( ,

has b e e n store d by th e par e nt plant T his food fe e ds t h e ge rm or .

,

e mbryo whil e it is sprouting ; it also f e e ds t h e young plant until

,

35
36 THE E S S ENT I A L S OF A GR I C U LTU RE

it has d e v e lop e d a root syst e m and un fold e d its l e av e s i n t h e

air and light and is abl e to ge t food from t h e soil and air
,
.

I f a grain o f corn b e so ft e n e d by soaking it in wat e r fo r a day

or two t h e ge rm can e asily be re mov e d I f this g e rm is plant e d
,
.

it will not grow b e caus e it has b e e n robb e d of its supply of

,

f ood and t h e prot e ction which t h e s e e d coats a fford I f a b e an .

be soak e d in wat e r and th e n op e n e d it will b e s e e n that t h e ,

halv e s are h e ld toge th e r by t h e c e ntral part o f th e e mbryo I n .

fact t h e halv e s ar e t h e s e e d l e av e s o f t h e e mbryo and ar e

, ,

much large r and thick e r than t h e re st o f t h e plant b e caus e

it is in th e m that t h e f ood fo r t h e young plant is store d .

W h e n th e s e thick s e e d l e av e s ar e r e mov e d f rom t h e e mb ryo

it will not grow w e ll for t h e sam e re ason that t h e corn ge rm
, ,

or e mbryo without ,

t h e r e st o f t h e grain
would fail to grow .

E m bry o 39 Th e embry o
. .

or t h e T h e e mb ryo ,
und e v e lop e d plant
FI G 1 8 C or . d be . e mb r os
yn an an as it e xists in t h e
A or g r i w ith mb ry o r m o d ; B b
,
c n a n e m b ry o
e ve s ee d b e fore growt h
,
e an e

b e gins consists o f ,

thre e parts — t h e s e e d l e av e s or co ty l e d on s ( F ig 1,
which nour .

ish t h e young plant ; t h e bud or p l u m u l e which grows into t h e

, ,

st e m and l e av e s ; and t h e r a d i cl e which d e v e lops i nto t h e root , .

40 Requ i r e m en t s f or ger m i n at i on
. S e e ds cannot ge rminat e .
,

or sprout unl e ss th e y ar e suppli e d with moistur e air and t h e

, , ,

prop e r t e mp e rature T h e first st e p in g e rmination is t h e abs o rp

.

tion o f wat e r W h e n t h e store d food in t h e s e e d b e com e s moist

.

and t h e t e mp e rature is favorabl e t h e food i s conv e rt e d into ,

sugar through t h e activity o f fe rm e nts or e nzym e s C los e ly fol , .

lowing t h e formation o f sugar t h e c e lls o f t h e e mbryo b e gin to ,

sw e ll and grow and t h e littl e plant soon b e com e s large e nough

,

to bre ak t h e s e e d coat S e e ds will pass through t h e first stage s

.

o f g e rmination e v e n though subm e rg e d in wat e r T h e y soon .

stop growing how e v e r and die fo r lack o f air D e ath is quickly

, , .
38 TH E E S S ENT I A LS OF A GR I C ULT UR E

s e e ds harv e st e d in we t w e ath e r ar e lik e ly to be w e ak e r than

thos e harv e st e d i n dry w e ath e r .

A ll s e e ds should b e dry wh e n store d as th ey can th e n stand ,

gre at e r e xtr e m e s o f h e at and cold without inj ury S e e ds will .

re tain th e ir vitality much longe r if th e y are store d wh e re t h e

t e mp e rature is mild and constant P lants whos e s e e ds may los e .

th e ir vitality quickly ar e rye corn wh e at oats blu e grass mill e t

, , , , , ,

onions cauliflow e r parsnips c e l e ry and lima b e ans S om e o f

, , , , .

thos e whos e s e e ds re tain th e ir vitality fo r a consid e rabl e l e ngth

of tim e are clov e r al fal fa common bush and pol e b e ans gard e n
, , , ,

p e as cabbage turnips cucumb e rs m e lons and squash e s W hite

, , , , ,
.

and r e d clov e r s e e ds that had b e e n buri e d fo r thirty fi ve y e ars -

u nd e r s e v e ral fe e t o f clay hav e b e e n known to ge rminat e r e adily

but s e e ds do not liv e fo r c e nturi e s as is som e tim e s stat e d ,
.

4 2 S eed p l an t i n g
. A prop e rly pre par e d s e e d b e d is th e
.

b e st guaranty o f a good crop S e e ds cannot ge rminate without .

moistur e and wat e r is most r e adily absorb e d by s e e ds i f t h e soil

particl e s are fi n e and fit clos e ly against th e m T h e small e r and .

w e ak e r t h e s e e ds t h e b e tt e r t h e s e e d b e d must be T his i s
,
.

o n e r e ason why fi n e gard e n and flow e r s ee ds ar e o ft e n plant e d

i n box e s o f sp e cially pr e par e d soil and t h e young s e e dlings

transplant e d to t h e gard e n or fi e ld .

S e e ds must not be plant e d too d ee p and t h e small e r and ,

w e ak e r th ey are t h e shallowe r th e y should be plant e d T imothy

, .

s e e ds for exampl e should not b e plant e d as d e e p as corn or lima

, ,

b e ans b e caus e wh e n plant e d at a consid e rabl e d e pth th e y do not

contain food e nough to support a plant until it r e ach e s t h e sur
f ac e W h e n t h e ground is cool e arly in t h e spring all kinds o f
.
, ,

s e e ds should be plant e d only d e e p e nough to obtain t h e moisture

re qu i re d fo r g e rmination .

P r op a ga t i on b y b u d gr ow t h A bud is m e re ly a growing .

point T wo kinds o f bud growth ar e conc e rn e d i n propagation

.

that from visibl e or tru e buds such as ar e s e e n on t h e tips and

, , ,

along t h e sid e s o f young twigs or st e ms and that f rom adve n

t it io u s buds which aris e f rom t h e growing lay e rs o f st e m l e a f
, , ,

or root .
 P L A NT P R O P A G A T I O N 39

E v e ry tru e bud is capabl e o f f orming a n e w plant lik e its

pare nt W h e n a branch con taining buds has f orm e d roots and
.

is cut o ff f rom t h e par e nt st e m a n e w plant has b e e n produc e d

, .

T h e roots ar e form e d f rom adv e ntitious growth which tak e s ,

plac e i n t h e growing lay e r ( cambium ) which li e s j ust b e n e ath

t h e bark A dv e ntitious growth may also tak e plac e abov e ground
. .

I n this cas e sprouts f orm S w e e t potato slips t h e roots o f cut

.
-
,

tings and lay e rs t h e sprouts o f old tre e stumps and t h e wat e r

, ,

S prouts that f orm on t h e trunk and larg e branch e s o f tr e e s ( par

t i cu l arl y f ollowing h e avy pruning) ar e all f rom dormant buds or ,

o f adv e ntitious origi n I t is known that cutt i ng or wounding a

.

FIG . 20 . S tr aw b e rry p l t t rt d b y r r
an s s a e un n e s

Th e r
un n e s r deve lop w p l t t t h o d or joi t
ne an s a e n es, n s

plant stimulat e s t h e e nzym e s into activity and it is probabl e that ,

th e s e substanc e s ar e re sponsibl e for causing t h e formation o f

adv e ntitious buds .

44 Lay er s r un n er s an d r oot t i p s
.
, A lay e r is a pi e c e of
, .

a plant usually a branch that has b e e n partly cov e re d with soil

, ,

to induc e it to tak e root M any woody plants with branch e s.

long e nough to r e ach to t h e ground can be propagat e d in this

mann e r ; among thos e most f re qu e ntly laye re d ar e grap e vin e s ,

ornam e ntal shrubb e ry hon e ysuckl e s and climbing ros e s To

, ,
.

propagat e plants by laye ring a branch should be cov e re d d e e ply

,

e nough to bri ng it in contact with moist soil Lay e r e d plants .

root b e tt e r if t h e part o f t h e branch that is to be cov e re d with

e arth is wound e d by twisting hacking or scraping f o r ad v e n t i, , ,

tious growth is stimulat e d by such wounds .

40 TH E ES S E NT I A L S OF A GR I C ULTU RE

Plants lik e currants or goos e b e rri e s may be propagat e d by

m ou n d l ay e rs without b e nding down t h e branch e s S hoots ar e .

first wound e d n e ar t h e ground by scraping t h e bark T h ey .

ar e th e n cov e r e d with soil to a d e pth o f six or e ight inch e s .

Roots form i n or abov e t h e wounds and this n e wly root e d ,

portion may be transplant e d and thus b e com e a n e w plant .

Th e common hous e rubb e r plant is

propagat e d by p o t l ay e r i ng or by wound ,

ing a branch s e v e re ly and binding

’
mass of soil or fl o r i s t s packi ng moss
( sphagnum ) ov e r t h e wound and k e e ping ,

FI G . 22 . A root ed l fea cu t

F IG . 2 1 . Cu tti g o f g r i m
n s e an u s ti g o fn re x be go in a

S uc h tti
cu n gs s oo t k root i f p l t d i
n a e an e n T h l f t lk h
e ea s a as be en bu ri de

m oi ts d san i m oi t
n d wh
s s an ,
e re it took root

th e soil or moss moist by f r e qu e nt wat e ring Roots f orm in .

about six w e e ks W h e n t h e n e w plant is root e d it may b e cut

.
,

o ff and plant e d .

Plants lik e strawb e rri e s ( Fi g 2 0) form sp e cial shoots call e d .

ru n n e r s which cre e p along t h e ground and tak e root usually

,

at t h e j oints or nod e s A n e w plant grows from e ach roote d

, .

portion T his plant may be re mov e d wh e n it is large e nough

.

f o r transplanting .
 P L A NT P R O P A G AT I O N 41

B lack cap raspb e rry plants ar e propagat e d by m e ans o f r oo t

-

tips . I n lat e summ e r as t h e long branch e s b e nd ov e r with th e ir

,

w e ight and re ach t h e ground t h e e nds b e com e much e nlarge d by ,

t h e storag e o f an e xtra supply o f plant food in th e m and a strong ,

t e rminal bud is form e d U pon touching t h e ground t h e e n d .

curv e s upward and j ust back o f t h e curv e i f t h e soil i s moist

, , ,

roots form and a n e w plant b e com e s e stablish e d .

45 P r op agat i on by s ep ar at i on an d di v i si on
. E xc e ll e nt e x .
‘

ampl e s o f propagation by s e paration and division ar e to be

found in bulbs ( lik e t h e
hyacinth and tulip ) and ,

in t h e rootstocks o f t h e
canna or in t h e crowns
o f t h e lily o f t h e vall e y
- - -
.

B ulbs may be wound e d

by hollowing out t h e
low e r part thus causing,

a large numb e r o f littl e

bulbs to form T h e s e
. .

small e r bulbs ar e tak e n

o ff and cultivat e d for
FI G 2 3 S t m g r f ti g . . e a n
f rom f our to e ight ye ars
A l ft g r ft or io ( lly t b o t fOI t i
,
a c e a ,
sc n usua cu a u i r o s x
W h e n th e y W 1 11 p r O dU CC i h lo g ) B g r ft t to om i
nc es t t n ,
a s se s o as c e n c o n ac

w ith t h g w i g t i o f th to k l t C h
good flow e rs A S fo r p ; te ro n ss u e s e s c an ,
e

wo d o r d W th g r ft g w to p rot t g t
.
o

un c ve e i a in ax ec a ai n s
th e rootstocks t h Cy ar e f t o d d ry g or oth r j ry in ec i n an in e in u

m e r e ly brok e n ( or cut)
into pi e c e s care b e ing tak e n to s e e that e ach part contains a
,

bud f rom which a n e w plant may grow .

4 6 P r op a ga t i on b y cutt i n gs
. M any plants may be cut into .

pi e c e s and e ach pi e c e caus e d to tak e root and thus to form

,
’
a n e w plant T h e last s e ason s growth o f grap e vin e s and o f
.

most ornam e ntal shrubs can e asily b e mad e to root in this way .

B e dding plants lik e g e ranium ( F ig 2 col e us and h e liotrop e .

,

ar e propagat e d by m e ans o f pi e c e s o f t h e st e m known as gr e e n

or so ftwood cuttings T his m e thod is e mploy e d e xt e nsiv e ly in

.

propagating b eddin g and oth e r orn am e ntal plants .

4 2 T HE ES S ENT I A LS OF A GR I C U LTURE
B lackb e rry roots may be dug up in t h e fall cut into thr e e ,

inch pi e c e s and store d lik e grap e cuttings I n t h e spring th e s e

, .

root cuttings may b e plante d in Op e n f urrows .

P lants with fl e shy l e av e s lik e th e r e x

b e gonia ( F ig 2 2 ) ar e propagat e d from l e a f .

cuttings T h e l e a fstalk is buri e d and.

,

t h e l e a f is laid flat upon t h e sand Th e .

l e a f should b e wound e d by cutting t h e

v e ins or ribs and should be w e ight e d
, ,

down with p e bbl e s or pinn e d to t h e sand .

W h e n t h e n e w plants ar e root e d th e y ,

should be tre ate d like ge ranium cuttings .

C uttings are mad e f rom tub e rs such as ,

thos e o f I rish potato e s by cutting th e m ,

into pi e c e s so that e ach pi e c e contains o n e

”
or two buds or ey e s S prouts aris e f rom
,
.

t h e buds and th e s e quickly form roots and ,

lat e r sp e cial shoots which e nlarge into p o

t at oe s Th e fl e shy roots o f sw e e t potato e s
.

a r e plant e d whol e or split i n halv e s By .

m e ans o f adv e ntitious gro wth sprouts aris e ,

f rom toward t h e st e m e n d and roots f rom

t h e oth e r e n d Th e sprouts form roots o f .

” “
th e ir own wh e n th e y are pull e d o ff and
s e t in t h e gard e n or fi e ld .

4 7 Gr af t i n g I f a hundre d appl e s e e ds
FI G 2 4 P i c root
. . e e-
. .

g r f ti g a n o f som e standard vari e ty w e re plant e d it ,

a, scio ; o root to k ;
n ,
is highly probabl e that non e o f t h e s e e d
s c e,

sc io d root to k joi d ling tr e e s would produc e fruit that would

n an s c ne

an d w r p p d w ith w x d
a e a e

ord for p rot t o

c b e lik e t h e par e nt i n color quality or t h e
ec i n , ,

s e ason o f rip e ning T h e flow e rs o f f ruit .

tre e s hav e b e e n cross pollinat e d from tim e imm e morial and t h e

-
,

s e e d poss e ss e s charact e rs f rom a long lin e o f anc e stors ; h e nc e

tre e s which grow from s e e ds rare ly show t h e d e sire d quality o f
t h e imm e diat e par e nts F ruit tre e s ar e commonly propagat e d
.

by gra fting but th ey may also be propagat e d by budding

,
.
 P L A NT P R O P A G A T I O N 43

G ra fting consists in making a twig f rom o n e tre e grow upon

t h e root or st e m o f anoth e r tre e .

O nly thos e plants wh ich ar e clos e ly r e lat e d botanically can be

mad e to grow r e adily upon anoth e r A ppl e s ar e grown upon .

appl e stock ( F igs 2 3 and . A ppl e s mak e a fe e bl e growth

upon p e ar or wild crab th e s e plants b e ing distantly r e lat e d to
,

t h e appl e E xc e pt und e r
.

t h e most skill f ul manipula

tion appl e s will not grow
,

on tree s not clos e ly r e lat e d ,

such as t h e p each plum , ,

oak or osage orange Th e

, .

p e ar grows b e st upon p e ar
stock but will also do w e ll
,

upon quinc e a clos e ly re lat e d

,

sp e ci e s D warf p e ar tre e s
.

ar e produc e d by gra fting or

budding upon quinc e roots .

A ppl e s may b e dwarf e d by

gra ft ing th e m upon t h e
Paradis e appl e tre e a nat ,

ural dwarf which com e s

f rom F ranc e A ppl e and
.

p e ar tre e s o f any siz e may

b e top gra ft e d in e arly spring
-

b e fore growth b e gins ( F i g FI G 2 5 T o p gr f ti g

.
. . a n

2 5
) B Y t h lS m e ans an O br h f t h y o g tr i l ft to m
ne an c o e un ee s e ,
an u

und e sirabl e vari e ty m ay be f t r f o d f or th tr w hil

ac u e th g r
o f t e ee e e a s ar e

g tti g t rt d W h th
e n w g r w th i w ll
s a e . en e ne o s e
C hang e d to a d e sirabl e o n e t rt d t h l d b r h i r m o d
s a e e o an c s e ve
,

B ridg e gra fting consists

in bridging ov e r inj ur e d plac e s as in t h e cas e o f tr e e s that
,

hav e b e e n girdl e d Th e girdl e d portion is bridg e d by using

.

long scions which ar e ins e rt e d b e n e ath t h e bark abov e and

, ,

b e low t h e wounds T h e scions should be two inch e s apart

.

all around t h e tr e e and all wounds should be s e al e d with

,

gra fting wax .

44 T HE ES S ENT I A L S OF A GR I C U L TUR E
48 . B u ddi n g . B udding
is a proc e ss much lik e that Fi
( g . 2 6)
o f gra fting I n gra fting a small twig containing s e v e ral buds
.
, ,

known as a scion is e mploy e d ; whil e in budding a singl e , ,

bud is r e mov e d from o n e plant and caus e d to grow b e n e ath t h e

bark o f anoth e r plant Th e ston e f ruits such as t h e p e ach plum.
, , ,

ch e rry apricot and n e cta rin e ar e propagat e d by budding inst e ad

, , ,

o f by gra fting O rnam e ntal plants lik e ros e s and lilacs ar e

.

FI G 6 B dd i g . 2 . u n

A , ba rk t to r i b d
cu how t B ; C b d f t
e ce v e u ,
as s n a ,
u as e n e d in p l a ce D, g row i ng bud ;
B F G h w i g m tho d f p r p ri g t h
, , ,
s o n e o e a n e bu d for i n se rt o
i n

o ft e n budd e d upon oth e r plants in ord e r to s e cur e gre at e r hardi

n e ss T re e s with thick bark lik e t h e nut tr e e s ar e propagate d
.
, ,

by budding .

I n budding a thre e point e d slit ( Fi g 2 6) is mad e and a pi e c e

,
-
.

o f bark b e aring t h e bud o f t h e d e sir e d kind o f plant is ins e rt e d

into this slit S om e tim e s a ring o f bark is re mov e d f rom th e

.

stock and a similar ring b e aring a bud is ins e rt e d in its plac e .

G r e at car e must be us e d to insure that t h e living bark o f t h e

bud and t h e living bark o f t h e stock ar e plac e d and h e ld in clos e
contact T h e re maind e r o f t h e proc e ss and t h e re sults obtain e d
.

a r e practically t h e sam e as in f ruit tr e e s .

46 THE ES S ENT I A L S OF A GR I CU LTU RE
4 . Neces s i t y of m oi s t u re
Pl ant t e n grain s o f corn b e tw e e n pi e ce s
.

o f c h e e s e clot h in s oil o r s and t h a t i s quit e dry Plant t e n grains .

b e tw e e n clot h s in moi s t s and E x am in e bot h lot s afte r tw e nty four

.
-

h ours an d again a fte r forty e igh t h ours noting an d e xpl ainin g progre s s
-
,

in ge rmi n ation .

5 Temper at u r e r equ i r em en t s by d iffer en t s eed s

. Plant t e n s e e d s .

e ac h o f corn w h e at r e b arl e y r ap e cowp e as c a bb age tom ato e s

y , , , , , , , ,

onion s an d b e an s b e tw e e n pi e ce s o f c h e e s e cloth in m oi s t s and an d

, ,

pl ace in a l aboratory ov e n o r in a h o m e m ade pl an t b ox h e ate d wit h -

a k e ro s e n e l a m p s o t h a t t h e t e m p e rature can b e k e pt b e tw e e n 0 an d
9
1 00 d e gre e s F Pre pare anot h e r s e t o f t h e s am e kin d s o f s e e d s but
.
,

k e e p t h e m in a roo m w h e re t h e t e m pe rature i s about 7 0 de gre e s F .

Anot h e r s e t m ay b e k e pt in a cool c e llar A fo urth s e t m ay b e k ept .

in an ice b o x K e e p a d aily re cord o f t h e progre s s in ge rm ination o f

.

t h e di ffe re nt kind s o f s e e d s an d e xpl ai n t h e re sult s, .

6 E ff ect of d ep t h of p l a n t i n g on s eed ger m i n at i on

. Plan t s e t s o f .

I ri s h potato and s e e d s o f ti m ot h y radi s h o nion corn an d s al s i fy o n e , , , , ,

t w o four an d e i g h t inc h e s d e e p r e s p e ctiv e ly in a b o x o f m oi s t s o il

, , , , .

O b se rve t h e numb e r o f plant s o f e ac h t h at app e a r above t h e g round .

7 Lay er s
. In e arly s pring b e fore t h e l e av e s com e o u t t h e ros e
.
, , ,

lilac an d ot h e r s m all s h rub s m ay b e laye re d S crape o ff t h e b ark

,
.

o n t h e unde r s id e a t t h e point w h e re t h e branc h i s t o b e buri e d .

O p e n a tre nc h four o r fi ve inc h e s d e e p an d a foot long b e nd th e ,

bran c h down into it an d re place t h e s oil A fe w inc h e s o f th e tip o f

, .

t h e branc h mu s t b e above ground By autu m n t h e l ay e r m ay u s u ally

.

b e cut o ff a n d pl ant e d e l s e w h e re O ld bra nc h e s s o m e tim e s re quire .

t w o s e as on s in w h ic h t o produce a go o d root sy s te m .

8 Moun d l ay er s
. M ound l ay e ring i s done in e arly s pring b e fore
.

growt h b e gi n s S e le ct a currant o r goo s e b e rry pl an t fo r t h i s e x p e r i

.

m e nt S crap e h al f o f t h e b a rk fro m t h e low e r t h re e inc h e s o f al l

.

S p rout s Pl ace s oil around t h e pl ant fi v e o r s ix i n c h e s h igh e r t h an

.

t h e wound s o t h at t h e wound e d p a rt s will b e m oi s t t h rou g h out t h e

,

s u mm e r In l at e autu m n t h e n e wly roote d plant s m ay b e tran s pl ante d

. .

9 Ha r dw ood cu tt i n gs — grape s
. In l ate fall s e l e ct a n e w branc h
.

fro m a grap e vin e cut it into pi e ce s a bout fo urt e e n inc h e s lo n g t h e

, ,

botto m cut b e ing j us t b e low a n o d e o r j oint E ac h cutting s h ould ,

.

contain at l e as t t w o nod e s pre fe rably t h re e T ie into a ne at bundle

,
.

and pack in f re s h s awdu s t f ro m g re e n logs o r in s lig ht ly m ois t s and ,

.
 P L A NT P R O P A G A T I O N 47

A l aye r o f packing m at e ri al a t le as t t wo inc h e s t h i ck s h o uld e n tire ly

s urround t h e cuttin gs S t o re in a c o o l ce llar w h e re t h ey will n o t
.

f re ez e o r bury t h e m o u t o f doors in a w e ll drain e d s o il

,
-
.

I n t h e s pring t h e cutti n gs s h ould b e pl ant e d in w e ll p re p are d so il -

s t anding t h e cuttings o n e n d an d p ackin g t h e s o il fi rm ly a gain s t t h e m .

O nly t h e t o p bud s s h ould be abo v e grou n d A fte r o n e s e as o n s g ro w th

’
.

t h e vin e s m ay b e tran s pl ant e d t o t h e ir p e rm an e n t lo cation .

1 0 S of tw ood cu t t i n gs
. S o ftwood c utti n g s s uc h as ge ra n iu m s an d
.
,

cole u se s ro o t b e s t in m oi s t s an d At fi rs t k e e p t h e cu tt i n g b o x in a
,
.
,

s h ad e d pl ac e a t a t e m p e r ature n o t b e l o w 4 0 o r 5 0 d e g ree s F
, an d .
,

pre fe rably about 7 0 d e gre e s C u t th e pl a n t s t e m s into pie ce s t h re e

.

a n d o n e h al f inc h e s l o n g
-
T ri m o ff al l l e av e s e xc e pt o n e o r t w o a t t h e
.

t o p o f t h e cut t i n g Plan t four i n ch e s d e e p S h ad e fro m t he s u n fo r a

. .

f e w d ay s wit h o l d p a p e r s In a w ee k o r t e n d ays care fully d ig u p I f

. .

n o t r oot e d plant in th e s an d agai n T h e s t e m s wit h ro o t s an i n ch

,
.

lon g s h ould b e s e t in t w o i n ch fl ow e r pot s in v e ry lo o se ric h s an dy

-
, ,

s o il
. I f t h e s c h oolroo m i s n o t k e pt ab o v e f re e zi n g at n ig h t t h e c u t ,

ti n gs m ay b e grown in a s i m pl e w o o de n plan t b o x h e ate d wit h a ,

com m on o il l am p .

1 1 App l e r oot gr aft s

.
-
In t h e fall o r W int e r m ix appl e s e e d s wit h
.

m oi s t sand in a b o x Pl a c e t h e O p e n b o x o n t h e grou n d o n t h e s h ady

.

s id e o f a buildin a n d l e t it r e m ain o u t a ll wint e r In v e ry e a rly s p ri n

g g .
,

b e fore t h e s e e d s b e gin t o S prout t h e y s h o uld b e pl an t e d s a n d an d al l

, , ,

i n a d e e p f e rtil e gard e n s o il C o v e r an inc h d e e p o r le s s C u ltiv at e

, . .

t h ro ugh th e s umm e r In autu m n a fte r a h e avy f ro s t h as cau s e d t h e

.
,

l e ave s t o fall dig u p t h e s e e dlings with t h e e n tire t a p ro ot S to re in

,
.

a co o l c e ll a r in gre e n s awdu s t In e arly No v e m b e r co lle ct f rom apple

.

tre e s o f s uitabl e v arie ti e s t h re e ti m e s as m any s cio n s as t h e re ar e s e e d

lin g roots S e l e ct only twigs t h at grow o n t he e n d s o f t h e lim b s T h i s
. .

i s t h e w o od t h at gre w t h e pre viou s sum m e r We ll m ature d w at er .

-

s p ro ut s t h a t g row up in t h e t r ee will d o T h e s cio n s m u s t b e S ix o r .

s e v e n inc h e s long P ack in gre e n s awdu s t In J anu ary o r F e bru ary

. .

g r a f t t h e s ci o n s o n t h e se e d li n
g ro o t s C u t t h e r o o t s i n t o pi e ce s
.

t h re e an d o n e h al f inc h e s l o n g
-
W it h a S h arp k n i fe s lo p e t h e u pp e r
.

e n d o f e a c h pi e c e O n t h e f ac e o f t h e cut S p lit t h e pi e ce d o w n f o r an
.
,

i n c h fro m t h e e n d t o fo rm t h e to n gu e O n t h e b as e o f e a c h s cio n .

m ak e a s l o p ing c u t an d t o n gu e e x actly as o n t h e ro o t s Fit t h e sci o n s

,
.

an d t h e ro o t s t o g e t h e r by c au s i n g t h e t o n gu e s t o i n t e rl o ck Th e .

ca m biu m s m u s t b e in c o n t ac t o n a t l e a s t o n e s i d e W ra p s e cure ly wi t h .
4 8 THE ES S ENT I A L S OF A GR I CU LTU RE
No . cotton knitting t h re ad P ack t h e fi ni s h e d graft s in s awdu s t
2 0 .

until s pri n g At gard ening time plant t h e grafts o n e n d i n rich s oil

.
,

p acking t h e s oil s e cure ly about t h e m O nly t h e t o p bud o f th e s ci o n .

s h ould b e l e ft above gr ou n d C ultivate t h e graft s t h rou g h t h e s umm e r

.
,

and by fall t h e tre e s s h ould b e l arge e n ough t o plant in t h e orch ard

o r t h e y m ay b e l e f t t o g row anot h e r s e a s on b e for e tran s pl anting .

T h e s e tre e s will b e ar t h e s am e ki n d o f f ruit a s t h e tre e s fro m w h ich

t h e s cion s w e re t ak e n .

RE F E RE NCES
B A I LE Y ,
lo p e d i a o f A m e ri can H orti cult u r e ( S e e B l b s p p 1 89
L H . . Cyc . u , .

1 9 5 ; C tt age p p 4 2 0 4 2 3 ; Laye ri n g p 8 9 4 ; G r af ta ge p p 65
— 6 6 5;
—
u , .
9 ,
.
, .

S e d ge pp 1 640
e a ,
T h e M ac m ill a C o m p a y
. n n .

B A I LE Y L H T h e N r s e ry B ook T h e M acm ill an C o m p a y

, . . u . n .

D U V EL J W T V it ality a d G r m i n atio n o f S e e ds B u l l et i 5 8 pp 8 7 90
,
. . . n e ,
n , .
—
,

B u r e u o f P l a t I d us try U it e d S t at e s D e p a rt m e t o f A g ri c u lt r e
a n n ,
n n u .

FULLER A S P ro p aga tio n o f P l an t s O r a ge J dd C o m p n y

, . . . n u a .
 C HA P T E R V

THE S OIL AND I TS MANAGE MENT

We t f l d r l o f r y thi g l ; b t t h l d b lo g
m ay b e w a s e u an ca e e ss eve n e se u e an e n s

to t h A g
e i t i o r b t f or t h b ri f p rio d w hi h m rk t h p
es — s u s u i gg e e e c a s e as s n en

r tio W
c a n . tr t hol d i g thi l d
e ar e us ees r d tr t f or g r tio y t n s an a s ac e us ene a ns e

un b or ; n d th h pp i
an th e o m f ort y t h
a ry xi t
n e ss, of e c — es, e ve e s e n ce ou r

chil d r hil d r
en s
’
c d t h m illio en w h w ill f ollo w i d p
an e d t p o th ns o , s e en en u n e

co i tio f
n sc e n i g w i d o m w ith w hi h w d i h rg thi ol m tr t
us, a r- s e e n s c e sc a e s s e n us .

W I LL I A M C B R O W N f or m rl y p r i d t N w York C tr l R il w y b f or
.
, e es en e en a a a , e e

P g Co ty ( I o w ) B o y A g ri lt r l C l b M y 9 0 ’
th e a e un a s cu u a u , a , 1 1

’
49 . Th e s oi l , m an
ss e t Th e nation s gre at e st ass e t
’
s ch i ef a .

is t h e soil U ntil re c e nt y e ars how e v e r f arm e rs gav e littl e

.
, ,

s e rious thought to t h e u s e of this gr e at w e alth M e n hav e .

r e c e ntly studi e d t h e soil and l e arn e d ways o f handling it which

hav e yi e ld e d gre at e r profits Th e farm e r who grows crops .

sci e ntifically nowadays consid e rs t h e valu e o f manure s humus , ,

soil bact e ria crop rotation and t h e cons e rvation of moisture

, ,

and plant food .

5 0 W h a t s oi l i s
. S oil I s t h e mor e or l e ss fin e ly brok e n rock
.

mat e rial which cov e rs t h e land are as o f t h e glob e plus organic ,

matte r r e sulting f rom d e cay o f plants and animals ( F ig .

A griculturally sp e aking t h e soil is t h e sur fac e lay e r o f this ,

mass Th e subsoil is that part o f t h e soil lying b e tw e e n t h e sur

.

fac e soil and t h e und e rlying rocks I t is und e rlain by rocks at .

d e pths varying from a fe w inch e s to many f e e t T h e organic .

mat e rial in various stage s o f d e cay giv e s to t h e surfac e soil its

dark color in contrast with t h e light color o f t h e und e rsoil or ,

49
50 THE ES S ENT I A LS OF A GR I CU LTURE

subsoil T h e surfac e soil vari e s in d e pth f rom a fe w inch e s to

.

s e v e ral fe e t and is u sually coars e r and more f riabl e and much

,

more productiv e than is t h e subsoil O th e r things b e ing e qual .

,

t h e d e e p e r t h e lay e r o f sur fac e soil t h e mor e productiv e it is

, .

5 1 How s oil i s f or m ed
. S oil is form e d by t h e br e aking o f
.

rocks through th e action o f t h e w e ath e r and wat e r No e xpos e d .

rock surfac e i s f re e f rom t h e e ffe cts o f w e ath e ring H ighly pol .

i s h e d granit e blocks los e th e ir lust e r a ft e r consid e rabl e e xposur e .

Th e min e rals which compos e t h e rocks ar e trans form e d into a

powd e re d mass and som e o f th e m may also und e rgo a mor e or
,

l e ss compl e t e ch e mical
change Th e action .

o f rain wat e r dissolv e s

som e o f th e s e mat e rials ,

whil e t h e fin e r particl e s
may be wash e d e ntire ly
away or carri e d down
into low e r lay e rs T his .

e xplains why t h e sub

soil in humid r e gions

is usually o f fin e r t e x
FI G 2 7 H w e g t tio h l p i s oil
. . o v e a n
ture than th e surfac e
e s n

b ld g ui in
soil .

Various w e ath e ring age nci e s ar e conc e rn e d in t h e proc e ss o f

bre aking down rocks ( F ig T h e change i n t e mp e ratur e
.

caus e s rocks to e xpand and to contract producing small cracks ,

in t h e rock surfac e into which wat e r e nt e rs W h e n t h e wat e r

,
.

f r e e z e s it e x e rts a strong f orc e which wid e ns th e s e cracks and ,

thu s hast e ns t h e br e aking down o f t h e rock C e rtain o f t h e .

m in e ral substanc e s i n t h e soil ar e a ffe ct e d by oxyge n as iron

oxidiz e s or rusts u nd e r t h e influ e nc e o f air and moisture Rain
, ,
.

wat e r tak e s up carbonic acid gas i n its passag e through t h e air

-
,

and this mak e s it v e ry much mor e e ffe ctive in its action upon
t h e rock min e rals than is wat e r containing no carbonic acid .

T his carbonat e d wat e r not only aids i n dissolving c e rtain

rock substanc e s but also brings about ch e mical action wh e re by
 TH E SOIL A N D I T S M A N A G E M EN T 51

c e rtain o f t h e min e rals ar e d e compos e d and n e w substanc e s ar e

f orm e d . F o r instanc e a min e ral call e d fe ldspar a common
, ,

part o f rocks is d e compos e d und e r t h e influ e nc e o f wat e r con

,

taining carbonic acid and forms clay and oth e r products M ost
, .

o f our clay soils ar e mad e in this way A S rocks bre ak down .

,

t h e solubl e mat e rial is dissolve d by wat e r and carri e d by str e ams

to t h e s ea wh e re it con
,

s ta n t l y h e lps to supply

t h e salts o f s e a wat e r .

Th e fact that littl e

actual br e aking down
of t h e rocks can be
obs e rv e d during a li fe
tim e go e s to show t h e
e xtr e m e slown e ss with

which th e s e w e ath e ring

proc e ss e s go on A .

ston e building stands in

t h e w e ath e r f or a hun
dr e d y e ars with only
a S light rough e ning o f
t h e rock su rfac e .

52 . Th e m i n er al m at
t er of s oi l s , The min F I G 8 H ow o l . 2 f or m d
. s i s ar e e

e ral matt e r O f a $ 011 I th

n e u
pp r p i t r l
e d g o f p rtl y d i
c u e, a t g r t d e e a is n e a e

li m to i how R oot
es ne s s g ro w g nth s ar e in In e c re v
mak e s up t h e large r i f t h ro k th
ce s o e i ti g w th ri g g i
c ,
.

us as s s n ea e n a enc es

t f 11 w ight t h i r d i g t h ro k to o l I t h low r p t r
p r
a O 18 e e n e uc n e c S i . n e e ic u e,

l y d lo m h b form d T h root p tr t
,
c a an a av e een e e s ene a e
organic matt e r b e ing
.

thro gh th t d p th of
u r lf t
ese o a e s eve a ee

usually l e ss than 5 p e r
c e nt o f t h e total w e ight F rom t h e min e ral m att e r most o f t h e
.

plant f oods ar e d e riv e d T his min e ral matt e r vari e s in t e xture

.

f rom coars e grav e l to fi n e clay T h e fin e s t o f th e s e clay par .

t i cl e s a r e so small as to b e visibl e only with t h e high e st pow e r -

microscop e s I t would r e quire

. o f th e s e minut e clay par

t i cl e s laid sid e by sid e to m e asur e 1 inch in l e ngth F o r sandy

, ,
.

soils or lo e ss it would ordinarily re quire f rom 500 to 1 000 soil

52 TH E E S S ENT I A LS OF A GR I C ULTUR E

particl e s to m e asur e an inch A s soon as t h e rock mass is .

brok e n fi n e e nough to support t h e low e r forms o f plants organic ,

1
or v e ge tabl e matt e r b e gins to accumulat e T h e low e r plants .
,

such as lich e ns and moss e s ar e f ollow e d by high e r forms , ,

whos e d e caying substanc e is t h e main sourc e o f t h e organic

matt e r o f n e w soils .

53 K i n d s of s oi l s
. S oils ar e classifi e d according to t h e way
.

in which th e y ar e f orm e d T h e re ar e two ge n e ral class e s .

s e d e n t a ry s oi l s or thos e which hav e not b e e n mov e d ; and

,

t r a n sp o r te d s o i l s or thos e which hav e b e e n mov e d by wat e r

, ,

wind or gravity S e d e ntary soils m ay b e divid e d into r e s i d u a l

,
.

s o i l s and cu m u l os e s o i l s .

R e sidual soils ar e thos e which r e main wh e re th e y w e r e f orm e d

f rom t h e br e aking down o f t h e rocks I f an e xcavation b e mad e .

in t h e soil mat e rial until be d rock is r e ach e d all sta ge s o f t h e ,

proc e ss o f w e ath e ring can be obs e rv e d A larg e part o f t h esoils .

o f t h e U nit e d S tat e s is o f r e sidual charact e r S om e o f th e s e are .

v e ry good agricultural soils som e are poor and b e tw e e n th e s e , ,

th e re are all possibl e gradations T h e y vary also from fi n e clays .

to coars e sands and grav e ls .

A lim e ston e soil is a good e xam pl e of a r e sidual soil L im e .

ston e rock is compos e d larg e ly of calcium and magn e sium “

carbonat e s with som e oth e r substa nc e s such as silica iron

, , ,

compounds and clay L im e ston e w e ath e rs by t h e dissolving

, .

and washing away o f a larg e part o f t h e carbonat e und e r t h e ,

i nflu e nc e o f wat e r containing carbonic acid Th e substanc e s .

r e maining f rom t h e rock f orm t h e soil .

S andston e is nothing more than sand which during g e ologic ,

age s was c e m e nt e d i nto a solid mass S andston e w e ath e rs by

, .

t h e dissolving away o f t h e c e m e nting mat e rial which holds t h e

particl e s toge th e r and by t h e action o f fr e e zing wat e r in t h e
pore s o f t h e rock T h e soil f orm e d consists large ly o f sand
.
,

and is known as sandy soil .

1
t rm lz m
Th e e u us is O ft e n u se d in spea ki ng of the org i m tt r i oil
an c a e n s s .

S tri tl y p k i g [ m
c s ea n , in u s is th t a pa rt o f org i c an ma tt r w hi h h s r e ch e d
e c a a an

ad van c d t g of d
e s a e e c ay .
54 TH E E S S EN T I A L S or A G R I CU LTU R E

th e application o f lim e and a potash fe rtiliz e r to mak e th e m

satis factory fo r crop production .

5 5 Tr an s p or t ed s oi l s
. T ransport e d soils ar e usually classi fi e d
.

as a l l u v i a l g l a ci a l wal l a ” and col l zw za l

’

.
, , ,

A lluvial soils ar e thos e laid down by wat e r along stre ams or

in lak e s and ponds T h e mat e rial f rom which such soils is
.

f orm e d is wash e d by rains f rom t h e high e r land Th e muddy .

wat e r ru nning f rom hillsid e s during h e avy rains and t h e muddy

wat e r s e e n in all stre ams during high wate r ar e t h e re sult o f t h e
washing away o f t h e soil o f t h e high e r lands D uring high wat e r .
,

as t h e stre ams spre ad ove r t h e bord e ring lowlands mat e rial is ,

d e posit e d forming t h e d e e p soils commonly known as bottom

,

lands A lluvial soils wh e n prop e rly drain e d ar e usually v e ry

.
, ,

f e rtil e b e caus e o f th e ir d e pth and t h e f act that th e y ar e f orm e d

,

f rom t h e rich surfac e soil o f t h e uplands T h e r e ar e large are as o f .

such soil along t h e main riv e rs o f t h e U nit e d S tat e s particularly ,

along t h e M ississippi t h e O hio and t h e M issouri Th e large

, , .

lowland re gion o f Louisiana bord e ring t h e M ississippi Riv e r ,

known as t h e d e lta r e gion is mad e up o f mat e rial carri e d by

,

t h e riv e r .

5 6 Gl aci al s oil s G lacial soils ar e f orm e d by t h e action o f

. .

moving i ce A consid e rabl e share o f t h e soils o f C anada and

.

t h e north e rn part o f t h e M ississippi Vall e y ar e o f glacial origin .

Th e M issouri and O hio riv e rs r e pr e s e nt approximat e ly t h e south

e r n e dge o f t h e ar e a o f glacial soils in North A m e rica T h e re .

ar e small ar e as in t h e R ocky M ounta ins but th e s e ar e not of ,

gr e at agricultural importanc e T h e s e glacial soils w e r e form e d

.

c e nturi e s ago wh e n t h e climat e o f North A m e rica was much

cold e r than it is now and wh e n t h e north e rn part o f t h e contin e nt
was cov e re d with a lay e r o f ice which mov e d slowly down f rom
t h e North grinding t h e rocks b e n e ath it l e v e ling t h e hills and
, , ,

filling t h e vall e ys A s t h e i ce m e lt e d it l e ft a mass o f pulv e r

.
,

ize d rock mat e rial which now f orms th e s e glacial soils Th e .

most important larg e body o f agricultural soil i n t h e U nite d

S tat e s that of t h e North C e ntral stat e s o ft e n known as t h e
, ,

corn b e lt is of glacial origin

, .
 T H E S O I L A N D I T S M A NA G E M E NT 55

57 . ZEol i an s oi l s o l ian
soils ar e d e posit e d by wind action
.
.

S oil may be dri ft e d by t h e wind j ust as snow is dri ft e d M ost , .

o f t h e prairi e soils in t h e W e st e rn stat e s hav e b e e n more or

l e ss a ffe ct e d in th e ir f ormation by t h e action o f t h e wind I n .

a fe w localiti e s a s e d e ntary soil has b e e n cov e r e d to a d e pth o f

s e v e ral fee t by fi n e sand which t h e wind has carri e d T h e re .

is an important typ e o f ae olian soil known as lo e ss soil which ,

is b e li e v e d to hav e b e e n form e d i n part by wind and in part by

wat e r A n int e r e sting e xampl e o f lo e ss may be s e e n along t h e
.

M ississippi and M issouri riv e rs and is f re qu e ntly call e d blu ff

soil I t i s y e llowish brown in color w e ll a e rate d v e ry d e e p and
' '

.
, ,

f e rtil e and th e r e fore particularly favorabl e fo r growing all kinds

,

o f f ruit T h e gr e at e st ar e as o f it occ u r in w e st e rn M issouri

.
,

w e st e rn I owa and e ast e rn Ne braska A v e ry important ar e a o f

,
.

lo e ss soil is f ound in C hina .

5 8 Col l u v i al s oil s
. C olluvial soils ar e thos e which hav e
.

b e e n mov e d but a short distanc e T h e y occur principally at t h e .

f oot of mountain S lop e s wh e re th e y hav e b e e n form e d by t h e

,

soil sliding or washing down t h e mounta in S id e T his soil is .

so S mall in are a as to be o f littl e agricultural importanc e in

N orth A m e rica but som e o f t h e important vin e yards o f E urop e
,

ar e o f this typ e .

5 9 S i gn i fi can ce of soi l t y p e Th e glaci e rs r e nd e re d a spl e n

. .

did s e rvic e to civilization not only i n grinding t h e rocks into

’
powd e r and l e v e ling t h e e arth s surfac e but also in transport ,

ing t h e fi n e soil mat e rial f rom t h e f roz e n North and spre ading
it ove r t h e wh e at and corn b e lts O f t h e s e d e ntary soils t h e lim e
.

ston e supports t h e high e st typ e o f agriculture S an dy soils ar e .

ge n e rous but do not hav e th e lasting pow e rs o f t h e lim e ston e

,

soils G ranit e soils ar e stingy and on account o f this th ey w e ar

.
,

w e ll A lluvial soils ar e t h e most productiv e o f t h e transport e d

.

soils and i nd e e d o f all soils but th e y ar e more or l e ss subj e ct

, , ,

to flood and f re qu e ntly re quir e drainage A s a rul e t h e bottom .

lands ar e not as satis factory plac e s i n which to liv e as are th e

uplands .
56 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

QUE S TI ONS AND P ROBLEM S

1 . In th e l
c ass i fi cati o n of s oil s g i ve n b e lo w w r ,
an s e e ac h of th e q e su tio ns

as k ed .

S an ds to f ro m w h t d ri
ne a e ve d
i
Re s d ua l Gr it
an f ro m w h t d ri d
e a e ve ?

L i m to f ro m w h t d ri
S e de n t ry
a
es ne a e ve d ?
H w f or m d
o e

Cumu lo se Wh f or m d ?
en e

P ri ip l
nc ?a u se

S OI L S H w f or m d
o e
A ll i l
uv a W h r f or m d ?
e e e

H w d i ti g i h d ?
o s n u s e

H w f or m d
o e ?

G l i l
ac a W h r f or m d ?
T r an s p ort ed
Wh
e e e

enm d ? a e

H w f or m d ?
o e

W h r f or m d
e e e ?

H w f or m d
o e

W h r f or m d ?
e e e

2 . Ho w d o e s rai n wa te r as s s i t in f or m i ng an d i n m d fy o i i ng s oil an d

subs oil ?
3 . H ow d o e s t h e
oxyge o f t h e ai r ai d i s oil f or m i g ?
n n n

4 H o w ca n y o u d i s ti g i s h s oil f ro m s b s oil ? C a n y o m a k e s i m il a r
. n u u u

d i s ti c tio s i f r e s hl y w h e d s an d or i b lo w s d ?
n n n as n n an

5 W h e r e d o e s t h e m i n e r al m tt e r i s oil c o m e f ro m ?
. a n

6 W h at
. e f t h e m i e r l m a tt e r i s m ad e b y t h e p l an t ?
us o n a

7 W h a t p ro p ortio o f t h e s oil d o e s m i e r a l m att e r c o s tit t e ?

. n n n u

8 W h a t i s t h e s o rce o f orga i c m a tt e r i n s oil s ?

. u n

9 I s s oil c rri e d by i r c rr e t ? C n y
. a a s w e r thi s b y p l aci g an
u n s a ou an n

oil e d gl as s s r face s o th at i t i s e x p o s e d t t h ai for a fe w ho r s ? W h y

u o e r u

u se an oil e d s r fac e ? u

E XE RCIS E S
1 . S t udy of s oil s i n t h e fi el d . C oll e ct l li m e s tone s and
s am p e s o f ,

stone a n d gran ite s oil s C an y o u

, . locate s oil s w h ic h cam e c h ie fly from
e ac h o f t h e se kind s o f rock ?

2 Cl a s s ifi ca t i on of n ei gh bor i n g s oi l s
. M ak e an e xcurs ion t o t h e .

fi e ld an d s tudy as m any kind s o f soil as po s sibl e S tudy soil s in t h e

, .

m aking along s tre am s blu ffs o r railroad cuts C l ass i fy t h e soils

, , ,
.

e x amin e d as t o t h e m e t h od o f for m ation s uch a s re s idual cumulo s e , , ,

 TH E SOI L A ND I T S M A N A G E M ENT 57

l a ci a l a lluvi al ae oli an o r colluvi al D e t e rm in e t h e d e p t h o f t h e s urfac e

g , , ,
.

s oil a n d t h e s ub s oil in e ac h c ase t h e c h a ract e r o f t h e drain a e

g ge n , ,

e ral t e xture c h aract e r o f s ub s oil an d prob able agricultura l v a lu e

, C om , .

pare t he s oi l in an o l d culti vate d fi e ld with t h at o f a ric h ga rde n o r a

f e nce ro w Not e the r e sp e ct s in w h ich t h e y di ffe r
. .

3 V egetat i on an d s oil s
. S tudy t h e c h aract e r o f t h e n ati ve tre e .

an d w e e d growth o n di ffe re nt s oi l s a n d s l o p e s a n d no t e h o w t h e y are

re l at e d t o t he agricultural v alu e o f t h e s oil .

4 Ch ar act er of l ay er s of s oi l
. Equip m e n t : s p ad e s o r s h ov e l s .
,

n ch au ge r with 3 f o ot g a s pip e e xt e n s ion a n d a T h a ndl e

I
§ i -
T w o
- -
.

s qu a re s o f oilcloth I 5 x I 5 inc h e s .

By m e an s o f t h e s oi l aug e r bore t o t h e d e pt h o f t h e s oil d e po s it , ,

ing th e borings care fully o n t h e oilclot h Note t h e diffe re nce in t h e .

color o f t h e s oil an d s ub s oil ; note th e l ack o f organ ic m atte r in th e

s ub s oil C omp are t h e t e xture o f s oil an d s ub s oil b e tw e e n t h e fi n g e rs
. .

T ak e s ampl e s o f t h e s oi l t o t h e l abora tory an d co m p are t h e m wit h

t he s t an d ard typ e s o f s a n dy s oil s lo am s s andy lo am s s ilt s an d cl ay s , , , , ,

in ord e r t o d e t e rm i n e more a ccurat e ly th e t e xture an d clas s i fi catio n .

I f your l aboratory po s s e s se s a micro s cop e o r e v e n s o m e go o d h a nd ,

le nse s e x am ine t h e s oils fro m diffe re nt d e pt h s unde r m agni fi cation

, .

R EF E RE NCE S

F LE T C HE R , S . W . S oil s ch p s i a d ii D o ub l e day P age C o m p y

,
a . n .
,
an .

H O P K I NS C G , . . S oil F e rtili ty a d P e r m n e t A gr i cu lt r e c h ap s i
i n a n u ,
.
-
v .

Gi a d C om
nn
p y n an .

K I NG F H T h e S oil ch ap s i a d iii T h e M cm ill a C o m p an y

, . .
,
. n . a n .

LY O N T L
, n d PIPP IN E O
. . P ri ci p l e s o f S oil M an age m e n t pp I 68
,
a ,
. . n , .
— .

Th e M acm ill n C o m p a y a n .

T HO R NE F a r m M an r e s c h ap I
. O r a ge J d d C o m p y u , . . n u an .

V I V I A N A F ir t P i ci p l e s o f S oil F e rtility c h ap
,
. s r n O ra ge J u dd ,
. v . n

Com p y an .

W HIT S O N a d W A LST O N S oil s n d S oil F e rtility W e bb P ubli s hi g

n . a . n

C ompa y n .
 C H A P TE R VI

THE P R OP E R TI E S OF S OILS

S meo a dv s e i to
to g th r rth o f d i ff r t q liti ; f or x m p l
m ix e e ea s e en ua es e a e,

li ght w ith h y d h y w ith li g ht ; f t w ith l

e av , an d l
e av w ith f t ; i a e an , an e an a n

lik me r d d w hit
an n e , re d wh t r h o tr ry q liti B
an e , an thi a eve as c n a ua es . e ca u s e s

m ixt r u t o ly
e no pp li w h nt i w ti g b
su t l o r d r
es t h oil w ith
a w hi h s an n u a s en e s e s c

an oth r i m ix d m or p o w r f l
e s e th t w h t i w or
e t b i g m ix d w ith
e u , so a a s n ou , e n e

a f rtil ki d o f rth b g i
e e n g i to ea rry ro p , if r w d d wh t i
e ns a a n ca c s as ene e , an a s

na u at r ll y b rr l y i f m ix d w ith oth r i o m m
a e n , as c a , r r i th e an e , n s e e as u e s e v e s n e

p lace o f m r T H E O
an u e H R A S T U.S — P

60 S oi l
. t ex t u r e T h e t e rm s o i l tex tu r e re fe rs to t h e siz e o f
.

t h e particl e s o f which soil is compos e d M ost soils consist o f .

particl e s vary i ng I n S i z e f rom coars e to fi n e although som e soils ,

contain only coars e and oth e rs only fi n e particl e s T h e coars e

, ,
.

particl e s ar e call e d fi n e grav e l or coars e sand and t h e n e xt fin e r , ,

m e dium sand ; th e n follow fi n e sand v e ry fi n e sand silt and , , ,

finally clay T h e re lativ e amounts o f th e s e di ffe r e nt grad e s vary

.

wid e ly in di ffe re nt soils A soil o f coars e t e xture is o n e in .

which t h e coars e r particl e s pre dominat e ; a soil o f fi n e t e xtur e

is o n e in which t h e fi n e particl e s pre dominate ( F ig .

S oils containing a larg e proportion o f sand are also call e d

sandy soils ; thos e containing a larg e proportion o f clay ar e call e d
clay soils ; thos e which ar e int e rm e diat e b e tw e e n coars e an d ,

fi n e ar e call e d loam soils A loam soil with a slight e xc e ss o f

, .

clay is call e d a clay loam ; a loam soil containing much silt is

call e d a silt loam Various oth e r nam e s ar e appli e d to soils o f
.

di ffe r e nt t e xture s such as coars e sandy loam fi n e sandy loam

, , ,

58
 THE P R O P E RT I E S O F S O I LS 59

grave lly loam and silty clay I n t h e re ports o f t h e state and

,
.

national soil surv ey s c e rtain prop e r nam e s ar e pre fix e d to

,

d e scrib e c e rtain typ e s o f soils as Hage rstown L oam M arshall , ,

S ilt L oam S al e m S and and M iami C lay L oam

, , .

61 Th e w ei gh t of s oi l s T h e coars e r t h e soil is t h e l e ss t h e
. .
,

por e spac e o f t h e soil and t h e gre at e r t h e w e ight p e r cubic f oot .

A cubic foot o f dry sandy soil w e ighs f rom 1 00 to I 1 0 pounds

o f loam f rom 8 0 to 9 0 pounds ; and o f clay soil f rom 60 to
, ,

F I G 30 . of 0 1. Te xt r u es 8 1 8

C ora s e s an d l ft ) fi
( at e ,
n e s an d ( i m i dd l )
n d ilt ( t ri ght) e d r th
,
an s a un e e s am e m agn ifi ca
tio n . P ar ti l of l y
c es c a ar e s o sm ll th t th y
a t i ib l
a d r th m
e are n o v s e un e e ag n i fi tio
ca n u se d
.

( P hotog r p h by Thro k m orto )

a s c n

70 pounds Th e farm e r how e v e r r e fe rs to a h e avy soil as o n e

.
, ,

which is hard to work such as a clay soil or a clay loam ,

.

T h e s e soils work hard b e caus e th e y ar e fi n e grain e d T h ey ar e .

plastic wh e n we t and b e com e v e ry hard wh e n dry A sandy .

soil on t h e oth e r hand would b e call e d a light soil by t h e farm e r

, ,

b e caus e it is e asy to work T h e re for e that which t h e farm e r .

,

knows as a light soil is r e ally o n e which has a h e avy w e ight p e r

cubic foot and what h e class e s as a h e avy soil is o n e which is
,

light pe r cubic foot I t is also tru e that t h e gr e at e r t h e amount o f or

.

gani e matt e r in a soil oth e r things b e ing e qual t h e l e ss it w e ighs

, ,
.
 0 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

62 . S oi l t ex t ur e t t o cr op gr ow t h
as Th e r e asons
r el a ed .

fo r t h e succ e ss of c e rtain crops on c e rtain soils ar e not ye t

f ully und e rstood T h e soil t e xtur e how e v
. er is o n e o f t h e , ,

most important factors d e t e rmining crop adaptation T ruck .

crops ar e e sp e cially adapt e d to sandy loam soils as potato e s , ,

m e lons and p e anuts F ruit tre e s r e quir e a d e e p w e ll aire d

,
.
,
-

soil C orn is b e tt e r adapt e d to a loam soil S mall grains

. .
,

such as wh e at oats and barl e y as w e ll as som e o f t h e most

, , ,

F I G 31 . . 8 01 1 i n g oo d p h y i l o d itio
s ca c n n

important grass e s as timothy and blu e grass ar e usually b e tte r

, ,

adapt e d to fe rtil e clay loams or silt loams Th e fact that crops .

ar e b e st adapt e d to c e rtain soils d o e s not m e an that th e y cannot

be grown on oth e r soils ; but wh e re t h e conditions ar e not e n

t ir e l y satis factory a plant must usually b e modifi e d to suit t h e
,

soil or t h e soil modifi e d to suit t h e plant b e fore t h e b e st r e sults

,

can be obtain e d O n t h e av e rage farm it is usually n e ce ssary to

.

grow a vari e ty o f crops but it is a part o f t h e farm e r s busin e ss to

,
’

s e l e ct crops which can be produc e d with t h e gre at e st n e t re turn

62 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

64 . Cau s es of t i on T h e r e are s e ve ral

p oor ph y s i cal con di .

caus e s of poor physical condition W orking t h e soil wh e n it .

is too we t bre aks down t h e crumb structure and compacts t h e

particl e s I f plow e d we t hard clods form wh e n it dri e s A h e avy
.
, .

b e ating rain falling upon a soil that has be e n work e d v e ry fi n e

o ft e n brings about a compact structure at t h e surfac e and if ,

such soil dri e s rapidly a hard crust will form ( F ig ,

W he n .

t h e supply o f organic matt e r is gr e atly r e duc e d as I s t h e cas e ,

with much old and improp e rly farm e d land it b e com e s compact ,

and los e s its f riabl e condition or its good tilth ,

.

65 How a p oor ph y s i cal con di t i on m ay b e i m p r ov ed T h e

. .

things which t e nd to bring a compact soil back into condition

ar e ( I ) fall plowing in t h e N orth e rn stat e s by which t h e soil ,
’
is e xpos e d to t h e wint e r s f re e zing ; ( 2 ) working into t h e soil
1
organic matt e r such as stabl e manure or gre e n manure ;
, ,

3) b e tt e r drainag e ( )
4 t h e addition o f larg e quantiti e s o f slak e d
lim e ; ( 5) s e e ding t h e land to grass f o r thre e or four y e ars .

T h e alt e rnat e w e tting and drying o f a soil re sulting f rom r e

p ea t e d rain f all is also impo r tant in loos e ning a compact soil .

T h e things which t e nd to k e e p soils in good physical condition

1 ) working th e m only und e r prop e r moistur e conditions ;
ar e
(
( )
2 maintaining t h e supply o f organic matt e r ; ( )
3 thorough
drainag e S oils o f fi n e t e xture ar e di fficult to k e e p in a f riabl e
.

condition S andy soils or sandy loams can be plow e d e arli e r in

.

t h e spring and work e d with much mor e wat e r in th e m than can

clay loams or clay soils S imilarl y soils conta ining much organic
.
,

matte r as sod land can be work e d e arli e r and with more wat e r
, ,

in th e m than can stubbl e land T h e e as e with which a soil can .

b e till e d is th e r e for e a matt e r both o f t e xture and o f condition .

Th e e as e o f tilling a soil is som e tim e s mor e important than

its fe rtility .

66 Col or a s an i n di cat i on of v al ue of a s oi l
. A black soil .
,

with fe w e xc e ptions is a f e rtil e soil T h e color indicate s t h e

, .

pre s e nc e o f pl e nty o f organic matt e r and this usually m e ans an ,

1 r
A g e e n - m an u e r c ro p is a c ro p, s uc h as r
y lo r or p
e, c ve , e as , t r
u n e d u n de r
f or th e pu p s e r o
en of ri hi
c ng th e s oil in org i an c m tt e r
a .
 TH E P R O P E RT I E S O F S O I LS 63

abundant supply o f availabl e plant food A soil with a bluish .

shad e indicat e s poor v e ntilation u sually d u e to poor drainage , .

T his bluish color is d ue to t h e f act that t h e iron compounds ar e

not w e ll oxidiz e d b e caus e o f lack o f air W h e n such soils ar e .

a e rat e d by thorough drainage t h e color change s to a dark brown ,

or r e d d e p e nding upon t h e amount o f organic matte r and iron

,

pre s e nt U sually re d or brown soils giv e up th e ir plant food

.

re adily to crops T h e y ar e th e re fore known as ge n e rous or r e

.
,

s p o n s iv e soils S uch soils ar e usually w e ll adapt e d to clov e r

,
.
,

wh e at and f ruits F o r t h e most part t h e r e d soils o f t h e

, .
,

country are lim e ston e soils conta ining consid e rabl e iron which , ,

has b e e n oxidiz e d to iron ru st through good drainag e and a era

tion Th e organic matt e r is r e adily d e pl e te d i n th e s e soils by
.

cultivation and th e y ar e lik e ly to n e e d organic matt e r and phos

,

p h a t e s B rown. soils contain mor e organic matt e r and a r e usually

som e what mor e fe rtil e than r e d soils T h e s o call e d chocolat e .

-

loams a re famous fo r th e ir agricultural valu e S oils o f a gray .

color are among t h e low e st in productivity .

67 P l an t gr ow t h as an i n di ca t i on of s oi l f e r ti l i t y
. On e of .

’
t h e b e st indications o f a soil s f e rtility and valu e is t h e charact e r
o f t h e gro wth upon it Rank dark gre e n plants usually indicat e
.
,
-

an abundanc e o f organic matt e r and availabl e nitrog e n V e ge .

tat io n o f a pal e gre e n color lacking in luxurianc e o f growth

-
, ,

ge n e rally indicat e s a lack Of organic matt e r and availabl e nitro

g e n
. T imb e r growth o f so f twood sp e ci e s as basswood walnut , , ,

and papaw indicat e s a fe rtil e soil w e ll adapt e d to grain crops

, ,

and clov e rs Large whit e oaks hickory and hard mapl e i ndicat e
.
, ,

soil o f m e dium f e rtili ty B e e ch usually indicat e s poor land as .

,

do pin e s and most oth e r con e b e aring tre e s S wamp or wat e r -

.

oaks and r e d mapl e indicat e poor drainage A n abundanc e o f .

l e gum e s indicat e s a soil which contains pl e nty o f lim e and is ,

w e ll drain e d T h e abs e nc e o f l e gum e s and t h e pre s e nc e o f

.

sorr e l dock and hors e tail indicat e lack o f lim e and poor
, ,

drainage T h e pre s e nc e o f shrubs lik e t h e huckl e b e rry blu e

.
,

b e rry and cranb e rry and o f such tre e s as t h e ch e stnut and

, ,

pin e indicat e s poor drainage and soil that is low in lim e

, ,
.
64 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

68 . Th e su ppl y of S oi l supply of wate r in th e

w at e r . The
soil is t h e most important of t h e factors controlling t h e yi e ld o f
crops W at e r is not only t h e chi e f food of plants but it is t h e
.

carri e r o f oth e r plant foods which com e f rom t h e soil Th e .

prop e r control o f soil wat e r th e r e fore is o n e o f t h e most impor

, ,

tant consid e rations in profitabl e soil manage m e nt I t is n e ce s .

sary to hav e a soil i n such condition that t h e e xc e ss wat e r will

r e adily drain away whil e t h e soil re tains t h e amount n e c e ssary
,

to t h e prop e r growth o f crops .

T h e pore spac e in t h e soil is f rom 30 p e r c e nt to 60 p e r c e nt

o f t h e volum e A bo ut 50 p e r c e nt o f t h e volum e o f loam soil
.
,

i f in good physical condition is por e spac e W h e n rain falls ,

.
,

t h e wat e r p e n e trat e s first into t h e larg e Op e nings such as cracks ,

and wormhol e s th e n into t h e fi n e r O p e nings b e tw e e n t h e par

,

t i cl e s. W h e n th e s e op e nings ar e fill e d with wat e r t h e soil is ,

said to be saturat e d T h e air is thus forc e d out o f t h e soil and

.
,

until a large part o f this wat e r drains into t h e subsoil so that ,

t h e air can again e nt e r t h e soil op e n ings agricultural plants will ,

not grow P lants on a saturat e d soil soon turn y e llow and if

.
,

t h e wat e r r e mains long e nough th e y will d ie , .

A fte r h e avy rains in t h e spring wat e r will o ft e n ris e in a ,

post hol e to a point only a f e w inch e s b e low th e surfac e T his .

shows that t h e soil is saturat e d with wat e r almost to its sur fac e .

Th e upp e r limit o f this standing wat e r in t h e soil is known as

t h e w a t e r t a bl e and it is only wh e n this wat e r tabl e sinks to a
,

d e pth o f thre e or more fe e t b e low th e sur fac e that t h e soil is in

t h e b e st condition fo r crops .

69 How w a t e r i s r e t a in ed i n t h e s oi l
. A ft e r t h e standing .

wat e r drains downward in t h e soil consid e rabl e wat e r is still ,

h e ld in t h e fi n e O p e nings as fi l m or cap i l l a ry wat e r I f a marbl e, , .

is dipp e d in wat e r and th e n r e move d it will be cov e re d with a ,

fil m o f wat e r T his r e pre s e nts t h e mann e r in which fil m wat e r

.

is h e ld around t h e particl e s o f soil I f o n e e n d o f a v e ry small .

glass tub e is dipp e d i n wat e r t h e wat e r will ris e to a consid e ra

,

bl e h e ight in t h e tub e T his is what is known as t h e capillary ris e

.

o f wat e r and t h e fi n e r t h e op e ning t h e high e r t h e wat e r will ris e

, ,
.
 TH E P R O P E RT I E S O F S O I LS 65

A strip o f cloth having o n e e n d dipp e d in wat e r draws t h e wat e r

up into t h e fi n e op e nings b e tw e e n t h e thre ads until it b e com e s
moist s e v e ral inch e s abov e t h e l e v e l
o f t h e wat e r T h e s e illustrations r e p
.

r e s e nt t h e mann e r i n which t h e cap il

lary wat e r o f t h e soil is h e ld and drawn
up through t h e fi n e op e nings e xist
ing b e twe e n t h e soil grains ( F i g 3 .

7 0 Th e eff ect of soil t ex t u r e u p on

.

t h e am ou n t of w at er r et ai n ed . Th e
fin e r t h e soil particl e t h e gr e at e r t h e
,

tota l amount o f e xpos e d surfac e ov e r

which t h e thin films o f wat e r may b e
spr e ad ; also t h e fi n e r t h e soil t h e ,

more fi n e op e nings th e r e will be in

which wat e r will be re tain e d by cap il
lary action C ons e qu e ntly fi n e soils
.

re tain mor e wat e r fo r plant u se than

coars e soils F o r th e s e r e asons fi ne
.

soils ar e o ft e n spok e n o f as moist

soils whil e coars e soils ar e spok e n o f
,

as dry soils H ow e v e r a soil may b e

.
,

so fi n e that much of t h e wat e r f all

ing as rain will run o ff and t h e rat e ,

o f mov e m e nt o f wat e r through it is

too slow to supply t h e n e e ds of th e

plants S andy soils on t h e oth e r
.
,

F I G 33 Th e 0f w at e r i n
hand whil e incapabl e of holding as r 15 ?

”
,
th e so
much wat e r as thos e o f fi n e r t e xtur e , 0

absorb wat e r and giv e it u p to grow g;

ing plants S O r e adily and Compl e t e ly Wtr
a e .

.
T h e wa t r ri
e ses s lowly .
in
th e
that th e y ar e t h e most productiv e
soils in r e gions o f limit e d rain fall .

71 . How w at er t r av el s in h e avy rains

the soi l . D uring
wat e r pass e s rapidly downward into t h e soil Th e wat e r which .

drains downward by gravity is call e d g r a v i ta t i on a l or f r ee wat e r , ,

.
66 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LTU R E

T his i s t h e wat e r which forms th e wat e r tabl e T h e we t s e e py .

,

plac e s on hillsid e s ar e usually caus e d by gravitational wat e r fl ow

ing along t h e top o f a h e avy lay e r o f clay b e n e ath t h e ground
u ntil it r e ach e s t h e sur fac e on a hillsid e .

A t all tim e s e xc e pt wh e n t h e soil is saturate d th e r e is more

, ,

or l e ss mov e m e nt o f t h e film or capillary wate r o f t h e soil I f

, , .

t h e subsoil contains l e ss moistur e than t h e sur fac e soil t h e cap i l ,

l ary mov e m e nt is downward I f t h e subsoil contains mor e wat e r

.

than t h e surfac e soil t h e mov e m e nt o f capillary wat e r is upward

, .

D uring t h e warm summ e r months t h e loss o f wat e r by e vapora

tion f rom t h e surfac e o f t h e soil is consid e rabl e e sp e cially ,

wh e re t h e sur fac e is not cov e re d with a crop and wh e re no car e

is tak e n to ch e ck e vaporation by prop e r tillage .

7 2 How t o s a v e t h e s oi l w a t er W h e re t h e sur fac e o f a soil

. .

is compact e d t h e capillary wat e r can mov e dire ctly to t h e surfac e

,

and e vaporat e into t h e air If how e ve r t h e soil is stirre d or

.
, ,

cultivat e d to a d e pth o f two or thre e inch e s t h e capillary ris e ,

o f wat e r will be ch e ck e d at t h e point wh e r e t h e cultivat e d and t h e

uncultivat e d lay e rs o f soil t OII ch and t h e loos e lay e r of sur fac e

'

soil will s e rv e as a blank e t to re tard t h e e vaporation o f th e wat e r

f rom t h e surf ac e T his is known as a soil mulch T h e principl e
. .

o f soil mulching is e mploy e d in t h e pr e paration o f land fo r grain

crops in all parts o f t h e country as w e ll as in th e cultivation o f

,

int e rtill e d crops .

7 3 P r e s er v i n g a s oi l m u l ch
. A soil mulch is d e stroy e d by
.

a rain which packs t h e sur fac e soil T h e mulch S hould i f pos

.
,

sibl e be re n e w e d by stirring as soon as t h e soil is dry e nough

,

to pulv e riz e I n ti m e a mulch s e ttl e s toge th e r without rain fall

.
,

an d it should b e stirr e d occasionally e v e n though no rain falls ,

.

T h e re ar e tim e s wh e n t h e sur fac e lay e r of t h e soil is porous and

dry and it b e com e s d e sirabl e to incre as e t h e ris e o f capillary wat e r .

T his may b e don e by rolling which compacts t h e soil and brings

,

more particl e s into contact thus drawing moisture n e are r t h e sur

,

f ac e by capillary action T his tr e atm e nt may be o f importanc e in

.

hast e ning t h e ge rmination o f grain I t is usually wis e to follow .

a roll e r with a harrow within a fe w days to form t h e soil mulch again .

 TH E P R O P E RT I E S O F S O I LS 67

74 . S oi l t empe r at u r e Few
s e e ds will ge rminat e at a t e m
.

at r e u nd e r 4 0 d e gr e e s F ; most s e e ds r e quir e a t e mp e ra
p e r u .

tu re abov e 60 d e gr e e s F M ost o f t h e b e n e ficial soil bacte ria

.

r e ach th e ir maximu m activity and us e fuln e ss b e tw ee n 80 d e

gre e s and 1 00 d e gr ee s F T hus t h e importanc e o f a warm soil
.

is appare nt .

’
T h e main sourc e o f a soil s warmth is t h e sun S oils which .

conta in much wat e r warm slowly b e caus e wat e r has a high ,

1
sp e cific h e at and b e caus e t h e e vaporation o f wat e r f rom t h e
surf ac e of t h e soil re quir e s h e at A sid e f rom t h e s e ason t h e .
,

wate r cont e nt o f a soil is t h e most important factor which d e t e r

min e s its t e mp e ratur e W e t soils ar e said to be cold ; dry soils
.

ar e said to b e warm W e t soils b e com e warm late in t h e spring

.

and are said to be lat e ; dry soils b e com e warm e arly in t h e

spring and ar e said to b e e arly T h e s e t e rms r e fe r to th e tim e .

wh e n soils can be plow e d and plante d to crops .

O th e r factors a ffe cting soil t e mp e ratur e ar e t h e S lop e o f t h e

land and t h e color o f t h e soil L ands sloping to t h e south ar e .

warm e r than thos e sloping to t h e north b e caus e o f t h e mor e ,

favorabl e e xposur e to t h e sun O th e r things b e ing e qual dark .

,

soils absorb more h e at than light soils .

T h e m e thods fo r modi fying soil t e mp e ratur e ar e mainly thos e

o f controlling t h e wat e r supply T h e draining o f cold we t lands .
,

warms th e m I ncre asing t h e cont e nt o f organic matt e r in warm

.
,

dry sandy soils thus causing th e m to re tain more wat e r t e nds

, , ,

to k ee p th e m cool e r T illage warms t h e soil at t h e surfac e by

.

e ntrapping t h e h e at i n t h e loos e blank e t o f sur fac e soil which

'

is a poor e r conductor o f h e at downward than is t h e u nloos e n e d

soil T h e loos e n e d s e e d be d pre par e d fo r S pring s e e ding is
.

th e re fore warm e d and t h e g e rmination o f t h e s e e d hast e n e d .

7 5 Lif e i n t h e s oil
. F e w p e opl e r e aliz e that t h e soil t e e ms
.

with livi ng organisms T h e y ar e m i cr o s c0p i c in siz e but th ey

.
,

ar e o f gr e at importanc e to soil f e rtility T h e soil is an e xc e ll e nt .

1 h g r t r m b r o f h t it
A m uc ea e nu e ea un s ar e r q ir d to r i t h t m p r
e u e a se e e e a

t r of p o d of w t r
u e a un d gr th a e on e e ee an are r q ir d to r i e t h t m p r t r
e u e a s e e e a u e

of q l w i ght o f s oi l o d g r
an e ua e ne e ee .
68 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

m e dium for th e growth of bacte ria and fungi particularly wh e n ,

it contains consid e rabl e quantiti e s o f organic matt e r Th e bac .

t e ria and t h e fungi e xisting in all soils ar e n e c e ssary to fe rtility .

To be sure th e r e a r e f orms o f bact e ria pr e s e nt which und e r

,
’
c e rtain conditions may work against t h e farm e r s i nt e re sts by
undoing what h e lp ful bact e ria hav e don e but in soils which ar e
,

w e ll drain e d and prop e rly cultivate d t h e action o f th e s e inj urious

f orms is u nimportant .

T h e f unctions which th e s e organisms p e r f orm ar e mainly i n

conn e ction with t h e d e cay o f organic matt e r T h e supplying o f .

plants with n itrog e n in a f orm adapt e d to th e ir n e e ds is almost

e ntir e ly d ue to t h e activity o f th e s e low e r organisms T h e y also .

p e r form a valuabl e s e rvic e in making availabl e oth e r n e c e ssary

plant foods such as phosphorus and potassium T h e ir e ffe ct in
, .

bringing about a loos e f riabl e or crumbly condition o f t h e soil

, ,

larg e ly through th e ir action upon organic matt e r is o f no Small

( )
importanc e .

T h e b e n e ficial organisms ar e gre atly stimulat e d in th e ir d e

v e l Op m e n t by thorough soil a e ration and warmth S inc e drainag e .

r e mov e s standing wat e r admits air and warms t h e soil it is o n e

, , ,

o f t h e most important me ans o f in flu e ncing t h e d e v e lopm e nt o f

b e n e ficial organisms A favorabl e d e gre e o f moisture in t h e

.

soil is n e c e ssary fo r t h e work of th e s e organisms j ust as it is

fo r agricultural plants T illag e th e r e for e e x e rts an important
.
, ,

influ e nc e upon t h e work o f th e s e organ isms b e caus e it a erat e s

and warms t h e soil cons e rv e s moistur e and has a b e n e ficial
, ,

e ffe ct in oth e r ways T h e addition o f organic matt e r and o f

.

lim e lik e wis e stimulat e s t h e d e v e lopm e nt and action o f t h e b e n e

’
fi c ial organisms I t is a part o f t h e mod e rn farm e r s e ducation
.

to und e rstand t h e handling o f soils so as to favor t h e d e v e lop

m e nt o f th e s e organisms ; also to maintain t h e prop e r d e gre e
o f moistur e and t h e most suitabl e t e mp e ratur e and t e xtur e o f

t h e soil fo r t h e high e st d e v e lopm e nt o f t h e crops h e s ee ks to

grow S oils which ar e cold may be mad e warm e r thos e which
.
,
”
ar e w e t may be mad e dry and thos e which are d e ad may
,
” ”
b e mad e aliv e .
7 0 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

s am e diam e te r an d l e ngt h al l s topp e re d at o n e e n d an d e ac h contain

,

i n g t h e s a m e amount o f w at e r ( 2 00 t o 3 00 c e nti m e t e r s in h e ig h t) pl ac e ,

o n e s ampl e o f s oil in e a c h tub e S h ak e w e ll s t an d in uprig h t po s i t i o n

.
, ,

an d ob s e rv e at i n t e rv al s t o s e e t h e w ay in w h ich t h e s oil se ttl e s in

,

e ac h c a s e W h ic h s oil s e ttl e s fi rs t ? Explai n

. .

3 P er col a t i on of w a t er t h r ou gh s oi l s of differ en t t ex t ur es
. .

M A TE R I A L : T hr e e b r as s g l as s o r g al v an iz e d iro n t u b e s f ro m I % t o
, ,
-

2 i n c h e s i n d i a m e t e r a n d f ro m 8 t o 1 0 i n c h e s lo n g s tr ai g ht l am p c hi m n e s
( y
m ay b e u se d) ; a r ac k o r s u p p ort t o hol d t h e t u b es i n p l ace ; 3 s m all b e a k e r s
o r cu p s ; a g r a d u a t e d cy li n de r .

Tie pi e ce o f clo th ove r o n e e n d o f e ach tube and fil l t h e tub e s l eve l

a

f ull with t h e fi n e ly s i fte d s o il s t h at ar e t o b e t e st e d U s e s an d in o n e .

tub e lo am in a s e co n d an d cl ay o r clay lo am in a t h ird C om pact al l

, ,
.

t o t h e s am e d e gre e by allowing e ac h t o drop t h re e ti m e s o n t h e t abl e

f rom a h e ig h t o f o n e inc h Place t h e tub e s in t h e s upport with t h e
.
,

b e ak e rs b e n e at h an d pour a k n own am ount o f wate r in at t h e t o p

, ,

b e ginning wit h t h e tub e containing t h e cl ay Note t h e tim e re quire d .

f or t h e w at e r t o b e gin drippi n g T h e n pour t h e s am e am ount o f w at e r

.

into e ac h o f t h e ot h e r tub e s an d n ote th e am ount o f w ate r t h at pas s e s

,

t h roug h in th e l e ngt h o f ti m e allow e d t h e cl ay tub e C alcul ate t h e .

re lative rate s o f w at e r p e rcolation t h rough t h e s e s oils .

4 E ffect of t ex t ur e on cap i l l ar y ri s e of w at er i n s oi l
. .

M A T E RI AL : F i v e g l ass t u b e s f ro m t o 1 2 i n c h e s i n s i d e d i am e t e r a n d
1 -

2 f e e t lo n g ; a p a n f or w at e r ; a s u pp ort f o r t h e t u b e s .

T ie acloth ove r o n e e n d o f e ac h tub e F ill o n e wit h fi n e ly s i fte d .

an d pulv e rize d cl ay o r cl ay lo am s o il a n ot h e r wi t h fi n e ly s i ft e d s andy

-
,

lo am s o il an d a t h ird with s and Jar e ac h ge ntly an d in th e s am e

,
.

m ann e r in ord e r t o s e ttl e t h e s oil e qu ally Pour four i n c h e s o f fi n e ly .

s i ft e d s a n dy lo a m into t h e f ourt h tub e a n d i n s e rt e nou g h fi n e ly cut ,

s traw t o fi l l it f o r t w o inc h e s and p ack t h e s traw wi th a s tick

,
F ill t h e .

tube wit h th e fi n e s andy loam In t h e fi ft h tub e p u t clod s in st e ad o f

.

s traw t o s e rv e a s a b a rri e r t o t h e ri se o f t h e c apill ary w at e r but d o ,

n o t co m p act wi th t h e s tick S up p ort e ac h tub e u pri g h t wit h t h e

.

clot h c ove re d e n d in a p an o f w at e r a n d ob s e rv e t h e h e ig h t to
-

w h ic h t h e w ate r h as ri se n in e ac h s oil a t th e follo wing int e rval s : fi ve ,

te n t h irty an d S ixty minut e s ; t w o t h re e tw e nty four forty e i g h t

, , , ,
-
,
-
,

s e v e nty t wo a n d n in e ty S ix h ours
-
,
Plot curv e s o f e ach to S h ow re sult s
-
. .

Explain re s ult s .
 TH E P R O P E RT I E S OF SO I LS 7 1

5 . Det erm i nat i on of w at er i n t h e s oi l .

M A TE R I A L : S oil a ge r I % i c h e s i d i am e te r ; p i t M as o n f r it j ar s ;
-
u n n n u

a sma ll p i e ce of oil cloth ; a b al an ce s e s iti v e t o g r a m i

; p e p an s n .

C are fully re mov e a core o f soil tw e lve i n c h e s d e e p wit h t h e s o il auge r -

,

a n d tran s fe r it t o a pi e c e o f oilclo th a n d t h e n quickly t o a pi n t M as o n ,

j a r,
s cr e wing on t h e t o p pro m ptly t o pr e v e nt t h e lo s s o f m oi s ture .

Ins e rt t h e auge r in t h e s am e h ole an d re m ove a co re o f th e n e xt

twe lv e inc h e s o f soil pl acing it in anot h e r M a son j ar in t h e s am e ,

m anne r .

T ak e both j ar s t o t h e l aborato ry a n d tran s f e r t h e s oil o f e ac h t o

a w e i g h e d p i e p an W e ig h moi s t s oil an d p an U s e a p air o f s cale s
. .

f o r t h i s purpo s e s e n s itiv e t o gr a m D ry in t h e a ir pre fe rably .

,

in a w arm pl ace such as ov e r a radi ator o r n e ar a s tov e fo r se v e ral

, ,

d ays until t h e s oil ce ase s t o lo se w e igh t

,
.

C alcul at e t h e p e r c e nt o f w at e r lo s t f rom t h e s oil o n t h e b as i s o f

a ir dri e d s oil
-
.

A s su m in g t h at an acre foot o f s oil w e ig h s p o und s cal -

,

culate t h e n um b e r o f ton s o f w ate r in t h e s urface foot an d s e cond

foot in e ach ca s e .

RE F E RE NCE S

B UR K E TT , C . W . S oil s ,
c h ap s . 11 , IV , xv n , xv iii ,
an d x xi . O ran ge J udd
Com p an
y .

F LE T C H E R , S . W . oil s ch ap s
S ,
. 11, i v— ix D o ub l e d y P age
. a ,
o
C m p an y .

HOP KI NS , C . G . S oil F e r ti lity an d Pe r m a e t Ag ri c ltu r e

n n u ,
c h ap s . v -
vi .

G i nn an d o
C m p an y .

H UN T, T H OS . F How t o
. c hoo se a Fa m , r c h ap . iv . T he M acm ill an
o
C m p an y .

K I NG , F H . . I r r i gatio n an d D rai n a ge , c h ap s ii iii.

— . T he M acm ill an
o
C m p an y .

K I NG , F H The S . oil c h ap s v xi T h e M acm ill an C o m pa y

.
, .
-
. n .

LY O N T L a d F I P P I N E O
,
. .
, S oil s p p 1 33 2 1 0
n T h e M acm ill an
, . .
,
.
— .

C o m p an y .

V I V I A N A F irs t P ri ci p l e s o f S o i l F e rti lity c h ap s v i vi i O ra ge J u dd

, . n , .
— . n
‘

C o m pa n y .

M a ag e m e t o f S oil t o c o e r e M oi s t r e F a r m er B u l l et i n 2 66 U n it e d
n n ns v u ,
s
’
,

S tat e s D e p ar t m e n t o f A gri cu lt u r e .
 C H A P TE R VI I

P LANT FOOD I N THE S OI L

T h r
e e ar e f o r thi g th t r d e r l d b a rr
u n s a th w ent of j ic s e
an ry en e an u e n ce ssa

f or t h e n o ri s h m e t o f p l t ; t h h i g b d j i
u n an s th t t d to h rt d
e av n a u ce s a en u an

d e s tro y p l t ; th b i g
an s e oli d to hi d r t h e t d r root f ro m xt d
e n so s as n e en e s e en

i g th m l e s i
n e se v r h o f th ir f oo d ; d t h b e i g p oro s d p o gy
n sea c e an e n so u an s n

as to b il y h rt by r i h e t or c ol d V E R G I L
e e as u a n, a , .
—

76 . Th r ee i m p or t an t el em en
ts of pl an t f ood T h e thr e e e l e .

m e nts of plant food which must b e giv e n most att e ntion by t h e

farm e r ar e nitrog e n phosphorus and potassium T h e s e ar e i m
, ,
.

porta nt b e caus e th e y ar e most lik e ly to be lacking in availabl e

f orm in a soil which has b e e n cropp e d f o r som e tim e and b e caus e ,

plants u s e th e m in som e what large r quantiti e s than th e y u s e

t h e oth e r soil e l e m e nts e xc e pt calcium T h e s e ar e th e r e for e .
, ,

t h e thre e e l e m e nts which ar e commonly us e d in comm e rcial f e r

t il ize r s and t h e on e s most commonly m e ntion e d in discussions
,

o f soil f e rtility I t is to th e s e e l e m e nts that t h e farm e r must

.

giv e most car e ful att e ntion i n maintaining soil fe rtility .

7 7 A v ai l ab l e an d u n a v ai l abl e p l a n t f ood
. P lants tak e th e ir .

food f rom t h e soil dissolv e d i n t h e soil wat e r A s t h e roots

,
.

p en e trat e t h e soil and tak e in wat e r th ey also tak e i n plant food

i n solution .

P lant f ood mat e rial which will dissolv e in wat e r and may be
-

tak e n into th e plant is known as availabl e plant food and t h e ,

f ood that is insolubl e or i n solutions which cannot b e tak e n up

is known as unavailabl e A s most o f t h e plant food in t h e soil
.

72
 P L A NT FO OD IN TH E S O I L 73

is i n an insol ubl e f orm it is n e c e ssary that this food be gradually ,

mad e solubl e i f t h e plants ar e to s e cur e e nough fo r prop e r growth .

T h e r e are various proc e ss e s o f making th e s e mat e rials solubl e

i n t h e soil som e of which ar e und e r t h e control o f t h e farm e r
, .

I t is his busin e ss to handl e t h e soil so as to bring e nough o f

th e s e plant f ood mat e rials into solution to supply crop n e e ds -
.

7 8 Th e am ou n t of f ood us ed by pl an ts T h e f ollowing tabl e

. .

shows t h e amount o f nitroge n phosphorus and potassium r e , ,

mov e d from an acre o f land by good yi e lds o f crops :

C RO P NI T R O G E N P H O S P H O RU S 1 P O TA S S I U M 1

P ou n d s

C or n, g r i 75 b h l
a n, us e s

s to r ve to ,
2 ns

Oa t s, g r ia n, 60 b u s h l e s

s tr wa , to ns

T ot l ro p
a c

W he at , g r i
a n , 30 bu s h l e s .

s tr w a , to ns

i oth y 5 to
T m , I . ns

C lo r to
ve , 2 ns

C ow p h y to
ea a , 2 ns

Alf lfa 6 to a, ns

These mat e rials ar e r e quire d in approximat e ly th e s e propor

tions what e v e r t h e yi e ld I f t h e soil is in such condition that .

only two thirds o f t h e phosphorus fo r instanc e is availabl e fo r , ,

a s e v e nty fi v e bush e l corn crop approximat e ly two thirds o f this

- -
,

1 Th eo m p o itio o f f rtiliz r i
c ll y x p r d i p
s n t o f p ho
e e s s u sua e e s se n er cen s

p h o ru sp toxi d (
enP 0 ) ( o m p o d o f peho p hor i 2
orr
5
tl y all d c un s us, nc ec ca e

p ho p hori
s i d ) d
c ac i p t o f ll d p ,ot h
an ( K O ) ( n o m p o d
e r ce n o f s o- c a e as
2
a c un

p ot i m
as s u ) N ith r o.f th o m p o d et ll y xi
e t h i f rtiliz
ese c r un s ac ua e s as suc n e e s .

Th y e i m p ly m
ar e s o f x p r i g t h q titi o f p ho p hor e an s d p t
e e ss n e u an es s u s an o as

i m pr
s u t I t i m h i m p l r to p k o f th p l t f oo d
e sen . s uc p ho p hor
s e s ea ese an s as s us

an d p ot i m d th r i
as s u i r i g t d y to
, an th e e i m p l r t rm
s an nc e as n en en c use ese s e e s .

Th e c or p l
2
t w itho t t h
n an u e e ar .
 4 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

crop is all that will be produc e d I f th e re is su ffi ci e nt phosphorus

.

availabl e for only hal f o f this crop only hal f t h e crop can be
,

s e cure d T h e sam e rul e will hold for t h e oth e r e l e m e nts I n

. .

oth e r words plants must hav e a balanc e d food supply j ust as

, ,

animals must hav e a balanc e d ration i f th e y ar e to mak e a satis

factory growth T h e tabl e shows that crops lik e clov e r al fal fa
.
, ,

and cowp e as re quire large quantiti e s o f nitroge n though part o f ,

th e ir nitroge n may through t h e m e dium o f bact e ria be tak e n

dire ctly from t h e air which is in t h e soil .

7 9 Th e am ou n t of p l an t f ood i n s oil s T h e total amount o f

. .

plant food e l e m e nts is large i n som e soils and comparativ e ly

-

small in oth e rs T h e amount of phosphorus is usually l e ss than

.

that o f e ith e r nitroge n or potassium but phosphorus is us e d by

,

crops in small e r quantiti e s than is e ith e r o f t h e oth e r plant foods .

S oils containing consid e rabl e clay contain much potassium whil e ,

sandy soils contain littl e V e ry fe rtil e soils conta in in th e top

.

f oot—
t h e ar e a f rom which t h e bulk o f plant food is tak e n
e nough n itrog e n to produc e about 8 0 corn crops o f 7 5 bush e ls

e ach,
e nough phosphorus to produc e abo u t 2 00 such crops ,

and e nough potassium to produc e 1 000 such crops T his is .

assuming that both corn and stov e r ar e re mov e d f rom t h e land

and that nothing in t h e way o f f e rtiliz e rs is re turn e d .

I t cannot be assum e d how e v e r that all o f t h e plant food in

, ,

a soil can e v e r b e r e mov e d by crops b e caus e t h e yi e lds would

,

b e com e so low as to be unprofitabl e long b e fore t h e plant food

was e ntire ly e xhaust e d O n t h e oth e r hand it must be born e in
.
,

mind that plant roots p e n e trat e d e e p e r than o n e foot and that

t h e und e rsoil also contains larg e quantiti e s o f plant food e sp e ,

c i al l y o f phosphoru s and potassium I n soils whos e topography

.

is such that t h e surfac e is gradually b e ing wash e d away n e w soil ,

lay e rs a re slowly brought within t h e root zon e O ft e n e sp e cially .

,

i n clay soils this is su ffi ci e nt to maintain t h e potassium S upply

, ,

b e caus e o f t h e large amount o f potassium contain e d i n t h e

subsoil but it will not k e e p up t h e phosphorus supply I t will
, .

be n e c e ssary to add phosphorus to our soils i f th e y ar e to be

k e pt productiv e .
 P L A NT F O O D I N T H E SO I L 75

80 How m uch pl an t f ood i s av ai l ab l e i n a s eas on ? T h e pro

.

duction o f 50 bush e ls o f corn , which is doubl e t h e av e rage acre

yi e ld in t h e U nit e d S tat e s re quire s approximat e ly 7 4 pounds o f
,

nitrog e n I I pounds o f phosphorus and 3 5 pounds o f potassium

, , .

I t is e stimat e d that about 2 p e r c e nt o f t h e nitroge n and I p e r

c e nt o f t h e phosphorus and o n e fourth o f I p e r c e nt o f t h e
1
pota ssium in t h e soil may be availabl e in a s e ason fo r t h e u s e
o f crops . T h e re f ore to produc e 50 bush e ls o f corn at l e ast
37 00 pounds o f nitrog e n 1 1 00,
pounds o f phosphorus and ,

pounds o f potassium must b e within t h e r e ach o f t h e

plant roots .

O u r b e st soils originally contain e d f rom 6000 to 8 000 pounds

o f nitrog e n f rom 2 000 to 3000 pounds o f phosphorus and f rom
, ,

to pounds o f potassium to t h e acr e in t h e first

twe lve inch e s but continuous cultivation h e avy cropping sur
, , ,

fac e washing and l e aching hav e r e duc e d t h e store o f plant food

,

in most soils much b e low th e s e amounts Re asonably produc .

tiv e soils a ft e r having b e e n i n cultivation a g e n e ration or mor e

contain as littl e as 3500 pounds o f nitrog e n 1 2 00 pounds o f ,

phosphorus and ,
pounds o f potassium I t is e vid e nt that .

if most soils ar e to produc e h e avy yi e lds e ith e r t h e food th e y ,

contain must b e mad e availabl e mor e rapidly than it is in t h e

av e rage soil or t h e crops must be h e lp e d with a manur e .

81 How p h os ph or u s an d p ot a ss i u m a r e m a de a va i l ab l e t o
.

p l an t s. P hosphorus and potassium ar e min e ral e l e m e nts d e riv e d

f rom t h e min e ral part o f t h e soil T h e y ar e mad e availabl e to
.

plants partly through t h e action o f t h e w e ath e r upon t h e soil

and partly also through t h e e ffe cts o f d e composing organic matt e r .

A mong t h e products se t f re e i n d e composing organic matt e r ar e

nitric acid and carbonic acid as w e ll as oth e r and more compl e x
,

organic acids T h e s e acids particularly t h e carbonic acid are

.
, ,

tak e n up by t h e soil wat e r and e x e rt a much gr e at e r solv e nt action

upon t h e undissolv e d soil compounds than do e s pure wat e r thus ,

gr e atly incre asing t h e solution o f t h e soil min e rals M ore ov e r .

,

t h e phosphorus and potassium stor e d in t h e organic matt e r ar e

1 H o ki oil rtilit r m t ri lt r
p S F
n s, e
y d P an A
e g p 07
an e n cu u e, . 1 .
7 6 TH E ES S ENTI A LS OF AG RI C U LTUR E

set fr e e through d e cay I t is th e re fore large ly through t h e

.

d e cay o f organic matt e r in t h e soil that t h e phosphorus and

potassium ar e mad e availabl e to plants .

82 How n i t r ogen i s m ad e av ai l ab l e T h e supply o f nitrog en

. .

is found large ly in t h e organic matt e r o f t h e soil Th e nitroge n o f .

organic matt e r cannot b e us e d by plants until t h e organic matt e r

und e rgo e s d e cay T his d e cay is brought about by soil organisms
.

mainly by bact e ria I n t h e d e cay o f organic matt e r o n e o f t h e

.
,

first compounds f orm e d is ammonia t h e odor o f which is notic e d ,

wh e re stabl e manure is d e caying T his combin e s with carbonic .

acid to f orm ammonium carbonat e Th e bact e ria which s e t t h e .

ammonia fr e e ar e call e d a m m on ify i ng bact e ria and t h e proc e ss ,

is known as a m m on ifi ca t i e n A s soon as this group o f bact e ria

.

has act e d upon organic matt e r and ammonium carbonat e is

f orm e d oth e r bact e ria known as n i t mf y i ng bact e ria act upon
, , ,

this ammonium carbonat e O n e group o f th e s e nitri fying bac

.

t e ria produc e s nitrous acid th e n a s e cond group trans forms t h e

,

nitrous acid into nitric acid B oth t h e soil and t h e manure .

conta in substanc e s which combin e with t h e nitric acid to f orm

nitrat e s such as calcium nitrat e or sodiu m nitrat e T his proc
, .

e ss by which t h e ammonium carbonat e is trans f orm e d into

nitrat e s is call e d n i t r ifi ca t i on I t is in t h e f orm o f nitrat e s

.
,

which compounds are solubl e in wat e r that plants tak e up most ,

o f th e ir nitrog e n .

8 3 Con di ti on s t h at f a v or n i t r i fi ca t i on T h e d e cay o f organic

. .

matt e r and t h e trans f ormation o f nitroge n f rom t h e compl e x

organic compounds to solubl e nitrat e s ar e d e p e nd e nt upon
various conditions F irst a r e asonabl e amount o f h e at is n e c e s
.
,

sary S inc e th e s e proc e ss e s do not go on rapidly in cold soil

, .

S e cond oxyge n is n e c e ssa ry T his is suppli e d by t h e air within

, .

t h e soil I n soils which a re full o f wat e r so that t h e air is e x

.
,

clud e d th e re is littl e or no d e cay o f organic matt e r I n fact

, .
,
’
und e r such conditions a group o f bact e ria known as a e n i t nfi x
i ng bact e ria may bre ak down t h e nitrat e s alre ady in t h e soil
and r e nd e r t h e nitrog e n unavailabl e to plants T his is j ust .

th e Opposit e proc e ss f rom t h e o n e t h e farm e r d e sir e s T hird .

,
78 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

that th e s e bact e ria had t h e pow e r to p e n e trat e t h e root causing ,

t h e nodul e s to f orm and th e n to tak e up f r e e nitrog e n gas

, ,

which compris e s four fi fths of t h e volum e o f t h e air and com ,

bin e it with oth e r e l e m e nts in a f orm which t h e plant could us e .

I t is th e re fore possibl e through l e gum e crops to maintain and

, ,

e v e n to incr e as e t h e quantity o f nitrog e n in t h e soil .

8 5 Ot h er f r ee n itr ogen ga t h e r i n g b act er i a I f a soil on which

.
- -
.

no l e gum e s ar e allowe d to grow r e mains uncropp e d fo r a fe w

ye ars and if t h e amount of nitroge n in it is care fully d e t e rmin e d
,

F I G 35
. . Re d c lo r i r
ve nc e as e s th e ava il b l
a e n itro g en of th e s oil
at the b e ginning and t h e e n d o f this tim e t h e nitroge n supply ,

o f t h e soil will be f ound to hav e incr e as e d slightly T his incr e as e .

is mainly d ue to t h e action of c e rtain bact e ria which hav e t h e

prop e rty o f fixing fre e nitroge n f rom t h e air i nd e p e nd e ntly ,

o f l e gum e s S uch bact e ria ar e f ound in most soils but u nd e r

.
,

ordinary conditions th e amount o f nitroge n suppli e d to t h e soil

by this m e ans is not large .

86 I n ocul a t i on f or l egu m e s
. No t all soils ar e suppli e d with
.

t h e bact e ria which caus e t h e nodul e s on t h e roots o f l e gum e s .

T his is particularly tru e wh e re l e gu m e s ar e introduc e d which

hav e n e v e r b e e n grown on t h e soil b e fore H ow e v e r if a n e w .
,
 P L A NT F O O D I N TH E SO I L 79

l e gum e is re p e at e dly grown on t h e land t h e bact e ria may e v e n

,

t u al l y caus e t h e nodul e s to f orm on its roots I t has b e e n found

.

that t h e typ e o f bact e ria which grows w e ll on clov e r roots for ,

instanc e do e s not grow w e ll on oth e r l e gum e roots I n oth e r

, .

words di ffe re nt l e gum e s hav e di ffe r e nt typ e s o f th e s e bact e ria

,

e sp e cially adapt e d to th e ir roots W h e re a n e w l e gum e is intro

.

d u ce d it is usually n e c e ssary to supply t h e bact e ria suit e d to it

, ,

i f t h e crop is to succ e e d S upplying t h e prop e r bact e ria is known

.

as inoculation and usually it is accomplish e d by working into

,

t h e soil thr e e or f our hundr e d pounds p e r acr e o f soil tak e n

f rom land wh e re t h e l e gum e i n qu e stion has b e e n grown Re .

c e n t l y th e r e has com e into u se a m e thod o f inoculation o f t h e

,

soil with pr e pare d cultur e s o f t h e d e sir e d bact e ria T h e s e ar e .

proving f airly satis factory I n most parts o f t h e U nit e d S tate s

.

soils rare ly n e e d inoculation for clov e r but f o r oth e r l e gum e s

, ,

e sp e cially i f th e y hav e not b e e n grown b e for e inoculation is ,

o ft e n n e c e ssary fo r a satis factory crop .

87 How a ch e m i cal an al y s i s Of t h e s oi l h el p s
. A ch e mical .

analysis shows how much o f e ach o f t h e e l e m e nts o f plant food

a soil conta ins I t is important that t h e farm e r hav e this knowl
.

e dg e in ord e r that h e may giv e sp e cial att e ntion to maintaining

,

or incr e asing t h e amounts o f thos e e l e m e nts that ar e pre s e nt in

t h e small e st quantiti e s B u t a ch e mical analysis fails to S how
.

how much o f e ach of th e s e e l e m e nts is imm e diat e ly availabl e

fo r t h e crops I t is not possibl e th e re for e to d e t e rmin e by
.
, ,

m e ans o f a ch e mical analysis t h e crop to which a particular soil

is adapt e d or what f e rtiliz e rs will give t h e b e st r e sult A fi e ld
,
.

t e st is t h e only way in which th e s e qu e stions can b e accurat e ly

answ e r e d .

88 W h a t t h e p l an t f ood i n ou r s oi l i s w or t h
. I f ask e d to .

nam e t h e most valuabl e min e rals o f th e U nit e d S tat e s most ,

p e rsons would promptly sugge st gold silv e r iron l e ad zinc and

, , , , ,

copp e r Y e t t h e A m e rican farm e r min e s mor e w e alth f rom t h e

.

soil in a singl e ye ar than has b e e n tak e n f rom t h e gold min e s

o f t h e U nit e d S tat e s in all t h e y e ars sinc e C olumbus discov e r e d

A m e rica I t is lit e rally tru e that our most importa nt min e ral
.
80 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT UR E

d e posits ar e t h e e l e m e nts o f plant food conta in e d i n our soils .

T h e soil is t h e only min e known which und e r prop e r manag e

”
m e nt will not ru n out B ut too many farm e rs ar e ye t min .

”
ing th e ir soil by taking e ve rything out and putting nothing
back A city built n e ar a min e is abandon e d wh e n t h e min e
.

c e as e s to yi e ld its min e ral A nation built upon agricultur e will .

p e rish wh e n t h e soil can no longe r yi e ld its harv e st .

Q UE S TI ONS AND P ROB LE M S

1 . W h at ar e the thr e e l
l t f oo d i w hi ch t h e far m e r i s
e emen s t of p an n

m o s t i t e r es t e d ? W h y a e
n o f s c h i m p ort rc ? th e se u an e

2 H o w d o y o u e x p l a i t h e f c t th t s oil s ar s o m e ti m s
. n i d to co t i
a a e e sa n a n

l rge q a titi e s o f a ail b l e p l t f oo d ?

a u n un v a an

3 H o w m ay t h e f a r m e r i c r e as t h e m o
. t Of a il b l e p l t f oo d i n
n e a un va a an

t h e s oil ?

4 O f t h e thr e e e l e m
. t itro g p ho s p hor s d p ot s s m w hi h i s
en s, n en , u ,
an a iu ,
c

li k ly t o b e e xh a s te d fi r s t ? H o w m ay thi l e m e t b e r p l e i s h d ?
e u s e n e n e

5 D e sc ri b e t h p ro ce e s w hi c h v g e t b l e m att r m u t u d rg o b f or e
. e ss e a e s n e e

i t i s o f v a l e t o t h e l a d a d c ro p
u n n s .

6 W h at
. e th e fo r e s
ar ti l c o d itio s i t h e s oil fo s cce s s f l
u s en a n n n r u u

am m o n ifi c ti o a a d itri fi c tio n ?
n n n a

7 A s orga i c m a tt e r u d e r g o e s th e s p ro ce s se s h o w d o e s it h e l p t h e
. n n e ,

s oil ?

8 S e cu r e t h e r e c or d s f ro m o m ag ri c lt r l e x p e ri m e t t atio w h r e
. s e u u a n s n e

th ey h a e g ro w t h e s am e ki d f ro p fo m y y ar s p o t h e am e l a d
v n n o c r an e u n s n ,

an d s e e w h t r e lt s f ollo w e d
a su .

9 W h y i a s u b oil s ll y i fe rtil e f o fa r m c ro p s ?
. s s u ua n r

E XE RCI S E S
1 . Th e effec t of or ga n i c m att er u po n s oi l f ert i l i t y .

M A TE R I A L : Tw o o n e-g a llo n p ot s .

F ill t w o gallo n fl owe r pots wit h a fi nely s i fte d cl ay s ub soil until

o n e- ,

a ft e r b e ing s e ttl e d w e l l by j arri n t h e s ub s o il co m e s t o wit h in a n i n c h

g ,

an d a h al f o f t h e t o E m ty e a c h o t s e p a ra t e ly up o n a pi e c e o f
p p p .

oilclot h o r p ap e r .

S e cure a qu an tity o f l e af m o ld an d rub t h roug h a o n e fo urt h -

inch s i ev e To o n e batch o f sub soil add about h al f its bulk of t h is

.
 P L A NT F OO D I N T H E SO I L 81

fin e le af mold an d mix t h o rough ly S pre ad o u t e ac h b atc h o f so il .

a n d add w a t e r c are fully un t i l t h e s oil i s m oi s t e n o u g h t o r m in t

g e a e

s ee ds ,
but n o t t oo w e t R e plac e t h e s o il in t h e po ts a n d s e ttl e by .

j ol t ing Pl an t fi ve k e rne l s o f corn in e ac h p o t a n d w e i gh Add e noug h

.
, .

w at e r e ve ry o t h e r d ay t o re place t h at lo s t by e v apo ration as s h ow n ,

by re p e at e d w e ig h ings K e e p in a w ar m s unny wi n do w an d fo r t h re e .
,

w e e k s contin u e t o o b s e rve t h e growt h o f corn in e ach p o t No t e an d .

e xpl ain re s ul t s .

2 Pl ant t w o s e t s o f corn g rai n s in p o t s o f s a n d W ate r o n e e ac h

. .

d ay wi th w at e r w h i c h h a s b e e n all o w e d t o run s l o wly t h roug h s o m e

d e cayi n g m anure W at e r t h e o th e r p o t with t h e sam e am ount o f pure
.

w ate r No te an d e xplai n re s ult s

. .

3 C a re fully d ig up a s w e e t clov e r r e d cl o v e r o r al fal fa pl ant a n d

.
-
,
-
,

lo cate o n th e ro ot s t h e n o dul e s in w h ic h t h e b act e ria live C om p are .

t h e nodul e s o n t h e di ffe r e nt kind s o f l e gu m e s in y o ur loc ality .

REF E RE NCE S

B URK E TT oil s c h ap s v i ix C a d . i O r a n ge J d d C o m p
W . S y ,
.
—
,
xv , n xv . u an .

HO P K I NS C G S oil F e rtility,
d P e rm .e t A g ri c lt r e
. c h ap s ii iii an an n u u ,
.
, ,

a d nii G i n a d C o m p y
. v . n n an .

K I NG F H Th S oil pp 7 1 1 53 T h e M cm ill an C o m p a y
,
. . e ,
.
— . a n .

LI P M A N J G B a t e ri a i R e l atio n t o C o
, . try Li fe c h p xxi xxiii T h e
. c n un ,
a s .
— .

M cm ill n C o m p y
a a an .

LY O N T L a d F I P P I N E O
,
. S oil pp
. 2
,
6 7 2
9 1 n T h e M acm ill a ,
. . s, .
— . n

C om pa y n .

V I V I A N A F ir s t P ri ci p l s o f S oil F e rtility c h p s ii a d i O r a ge
,
. n e ,
a . n v . n

J dd C o m pa y
u n .
 CH A P TE R VI I I

MAI NTAI NI NG S OI L F E R TI LITY

T h wh us , en a fi ld i
e s poor it i , to m i t d o f m ri g it to p low i
s a cu s ,
n s ea an u n , n

a c ro p o f l p i u nes b f or
e e th p od
e s a pp r o m ti m
ea — s ro p o f be b f or es a c e an s e e

th e p od s ar e s o far a d v an c e d a s to r d r t h f r it fit f or b i g g th r d
en e e u e n a e e .

V A R RO

89 . How t h e
s oi l i s w a st ed S oil productivity may be d e .

cr e as e d through tillage by t h e r e moval o f plant food through ,

cropping or by l e aching or by washing away o f t h e sur fac e soil .

U nd e r t h e syst e ms o f agriculture common to t h e gr e at e r part o f

t h e country all thr e e o f th e s e m e ans o f wasting t h e soil are
,

importa nt I t is impossibl e e ntir e ly to e xhaust t h e plant food o f

.

a soil und e r any syst e m o f agricultur e sinc e profita bl e culture ,

c e as e s long b e fore a compl e t e stat e o f e xhaustion is r e ach e d .

9 0 Ti l l age w a s t e s t h e s oi l
. S oils cov e re d with natural v e ge .

tat io n slowly incr e as e i n organic matt e r and in n itroge n T h e re .

f ore soils in th e ir virgin stat e contain t h e maximum quantity

o f organic matt e r and this in turn s e ts f r e e abu ndant suppli e s
,

o f nitrat e s an d mak e s t h e oth e r plant f oods availabl e T his is .

why n e w soils ar e usually v e ry productiv e I n t h e rapid d e cay .

o f organic matt e r how e v e r larg e quantiti e s o f nitrog e n are lost

, , ,

1
partly through t h e l e aching O f nitrat e s ( e sp e cially f rom porous
soils) but principally through t h e e scap e o f nitroge n into t h e
,

1 A s wa t r p
e d ow thro gh
as s e s n u th e s oil it rri
, ca es w ith it ol b l
s u e pl t an

f oo d , a pa rt o f w hi h m y b p r m
c a e e an e n tl y lo d g d i e n b oil
th e s u s d , an ap rt a

le hac e d ou t i th
n dr i g w t r
e a na e a e .
 M A I NT A I N I N G S O I L F E R T I L I T Y 83

air as fre e nitroge n E xp e rim e nts hav e shown that in t h e first

.

two or thr e e d e cad e s a ft e r n e w land is brought into cultivation ,

t h e loss o f nitrog e n f rom th e s e two caus e s may be two or thr e e

tim e s as large as th e loss through t h e re moval of t h e crops
grown on t h e land .

9 1 Or gan i c m at t er an d n i t r ogen
. Th e organic matt e r and .

t h e nitrog e n o f t h e soils o f t h e corn b e lt hav e b e e n d e cr e as e d

approximat e ly o n e third and in many cas e s o n e hal f si nc e th e y
w e re first put into cultivation mainly through int e nsiv e tillage

F I G 36 . . H ow oil w h
s s as

Th e g r t t w t of oil f rt ility i t h
e a es as e s e s e w as t of t h oil it l f H y r i f lli g p o
e e s se . e av a n a n u n

s oil from whi h t h g t tio h b

s c e ve e a n as een r m o d w h w y m h of t h b t oil
e ve as a a uc e es s .

( P hotog r p h from B r
a of S o l
u e au i s
,
Un it d S t t D p rtm t of Agri lt r )
e a es e a en cu u e

incid e nt to t h e growing o f corn I nd e e d t h e loss of organic .

,

matte r is r e sponsibl e fo r t h e d e cre as e d productivity of most so

”
call e d worn or d e pl e t e d soils T his is probably b e caus e a soil .

which is low i n organic matt e r is usually i n poor physical con

dition ; t h e bact e rial activity in such a soil is l e ss e n e d and t h e ,

”
soil los e s its li fe as t h e farm e r says
,
.

92 Rem ov al Of p l an t f ood i n cr op s T h e loss o f plant f ood

. .
-

e l e m e nts through t h e r e moval o f t h e crops grown on t h e soil

can be re adily u nd e rstood I f crops ar e continually re mov e d

.

and nothing is re turn e d t h e supply o f a v a i l a bl e food is soon

,

d e pl e t e d and finally t h e to t a l amount o f plant food in t h e soil

,
84 T H E ES S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

may be appre ciably d e cre as e d T h e C hin e s e p e opl e ar e farm .

ing lands that have b e e n cultivat e d fo r f our thousand y e ars and ,

th e y are maintaining many o f th e m in a high stat e o f fe rtility ;

but th e y have found it n e c e ssary to k e e p up th e supply o f organic
matt e r and to r e turn to t h e land e ach y e ar t h e e quival e nt o f t h e
,

plant food r e mov e d I t is only i n t h e old e r s e ctions of t h e U nit e d

.

S tat e s that th e re is anything lik e a w e ll e stablish e d syst e m o f -

F I G 37. . Te rr
f r m i g p r e ts e ro io
ace a n ev n s n

W h e re s oil i s no t f roz d ri g t h w i t r
en u n d r i fr q t t h lo from ro io
e n e an a n s are e u en ,
e ss e s n

is g r t
ea . In s uc h r g o ro o i o ft p r t d b y t rr i g ( Photog r p h fro m
e i ns e si n s en e v en e e ac n . a

Bu r of S oil U it d S t t D p rt m t f Ag ri lt r )
e au s, n e a es e a en o cu u e

re tu rning to t h e soil t h e compl e t e e quival e nt o f t h e plant food r e

mov e d T h e maj ority o f A m e rican farm e rs ar e d e p e nding large ly
.

upon t h e virgin fe rtility o f t h e soil and ar e pursuing m e thods ,

o f farming which a r e d e structiv e o f t h e store o f plant f ood .

93 W a st e t h r ou gh s u rf a ce w a s h i n g T h e r e i s no accurat e
. .

way to e stimat e t h e loss o f fe rtility through sur fac e washing or ,

e rosion ; but t h e loss is gr e at F i T h amount o f e rosion

( g e .

occurring wh e n lands ar e cov e re d by v e ge tation is small ; but

86 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

K e e ping t h e land cov e re d with a crop during t h e fall wint e r , ,

and S pring months i s a v e ry practical m e thod o f ch e cking e rosion ,

as w e ll as o f pre v e nting t h e loss o f plant food f rom l e aching .

C ri mson clov e r rye winte r wh e at wint e r oats and barl e y ar e

, , , ,

crops us e d fo r this purpos e .

94 Cr op r ot a ti on
. A small grain crop such as oats or wh e at
.
, ,

or a grass crop such as timothy or blu e grass is l e ss e xhaustiv e

, ,

to t h e soil than a cultivat e d crop lik e corn C ons e qu e ntly , .

,

cultivate d crops S hould be alt e rnat e d with small grain an d grass

crops I t is also important to includ e i n t h e rotation a l e gum e
.

crop such as clov e r al fal fa cowp e as or fi e ld p e as b e caus e of

, , , , ,

t h e ability o f l e gum e s to fix nitrog e n f rom t h e air T his policy .

may not always be fe asibl e ; but it sugge sts t h e first gre at

principl e o f maintaining fe rtility that o f crop rotation ,
.

T h e f ollowing is a tabl e showing t h e e ffe ct o f di ffe r e nt crop

’
rotations upon soil fe rtili ty as m e asure d by t h e soil s ability to ,

produc e corn

E X P E RI M E N T S C R O P R O TA T I O N

Y LDIE OF C O RN AT E ND
RO TAT I O N OF PERIO D
C or n, c o ti o ly 2 8 ye ar s
n nu us 2 2 h e l s p e r acr e
bu s
C or n ,
o at s 2 8 y e a r s
, 36 b s h e l s p e r ac r e
u

C or n, o at s clo e r 2 8 ye ar s
,
v , 59 b u s h e l s p e r a cre

Pas t u r e 1 8 ye ar s ; cor
,
o ts n, a ,
c lov e r ,

10 y e ar s 7 5 bus hels p e r ac e r

C or n c o n ti n u o u s ly 1 7 ye ar s
,
I b us he ls per r
ac e

C orn w h e a t clo e r I 7 y ar s
, ,
v , e b us hels per ac r e

C or n o at s w h e a t c lo ve r a d ti m oth y 1 7
, , , ,
n ,

ye ar s bus hels per ac e r

C or n o a ts w h e at cl o v e r an d ti m oth y
, , , ,

m an u r e d 1 7 y e ar s ,
b us hels p e r ac e r
It should be born e in mind that th e s e r e sults w e re obta in e d
with all crops e v e n t h e cornstalks r e move d f rom t h e land
, ,
.

1 lli oi E x p ri m t S t tio
I n s e en a n, Ci r cu l a r 95 .

2
M i o ri E x p e ri m e t S t tio
ss u n a n. lt
Re s u s n o t ye t p ub li h
s ed .
 MA I NTA I NI NG S O I L F E RTI LI T Y 87

95 . Ess en t i al s Of t p r ofi t abl e
A profitabl e crop cr op r o at i on .

rotation for a ge n e ral farm should includ e a cl e ansing crop ,

that is a cultivat e d crop to rid t h e soil o f w e e ds ; a S O call e d

,
-

”
re sting crop such as a l e gu m e or grass crop which t e nds to
, ,

incr e as e t h e supply o f organic matt e r and nitroge n and a small

grain crop such as wh e at oats barl e y or rye which is usually
, , , , ,
”
a mon e y crop Naturally t h e rota tion adopt e d will d e p e nd
.
,

upon many conditions I n th e corn b e lt an d in many s e ctions .

o f t h e E ast wh e r e t h e practic e o f rota tion i s b e st e stablish e d ,

such rotations as corn oats and clov e r or corn oats wh e at and, , , , , ,

clov e r or potato e s wh e at and clov e r ar e common I n t h e

, , , .

S outh e rn stat e s it may be such rotations as cotton oats and , ,

cowp e as or cotton c orn oats and cowp e as I n ord e r to carry

,
'
, , , .

out such a r o tat io ii flit is n e c e ssary to hav e as many fi e lds as

'

th e r e ar e y e ars i n t h e rotation e ach crop b e ing re pr e s e nt e d on ,

o n e o f t h e fi e lds e ach y e ar and all fi e lds f ollowing t h e ro t tion

a ,

r e gularly W h e re a crop fails it is u sually wis e to plant in t h e

.
,

sam e s e ason a crop having an e ffe ct upon t h e soil which is

similar to that o f t h e failing crop T hus i f clov e r fails anoth e r .
, ,

l e gum e adapt e d to t h e r e gion should b e substitut e d i f possibl e .

96 Th e i m p or t an ce of l egu m es i n m ai n t a i n i n g f er t i l i t y
. It .

is possibl e to S upply nitroge n to t h e land through l e gum e s at a

cost o f f rom 3 to 5 c e nts a pound wh e re as in a comm e rcial fe r ,

t il ize r it costs f rom 1 5 to 2 0 c e nts a pound T h e r e for e e v e ry .

succ e ss ful rotation on t h e av e rage f arm must contain a l e gum e

crop ( F i g 39 ) if t h e nitroge n supply is to be maintain e d ch e aply
. .

Th e tim e may com e wh e n a ch e ap comm e rcial sourc e o f nitro

g e n as a f e rtiliz e r will larg e ly tak e t h e plac e o f l e gu m e s in
supplying this e l e m e nt ; but such a ch e ap substitut e is not
now availabl e M or e ov e r organic matt e r must be maintain e d
.
, ,

and t h e l e gum e crops furnish o n e o f t h e most r e ady m e ans

o f supplying this I n cas e a man buys and us e s much fe e d
.

and appli e s t h e r e sulting manur e to t h e land or in th e com ,

p a r at iv e l
y f e w cas e s wh e r e barnyard manur e can b e obta in e d
f rom t h e city in larg e quantiti e s t h e n e c e ssity for l e gum e s ,

is l e ss e n e d .
88 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

97
. Th e u s e of gr een m an u r e
A gre e n manure crop is o n e
.
-

which is grown and turn e d und e r fo r t h e purpos e of e nriching

t h e soil in organic matt e r T h e most profitabl e crops fo r this
.

purpos e ar e usually t h e l e gu m e s b e caus e o f t h e nitroge n th e y

,

s e cure f rom t h e air I n t h e cas e o f clov e r about two thirds o f

.

t h e total nitroge n o f t h e plant is in t h e tops which ar e r e mov e d ,

as hay if t h e crop is harv e st e d whil e o n e third is in t h e roots

,

F I G 39
. . o
C w p e as i nrot tio w ith g r i ro p h l p m i t i
a n a n c s e a n a n s oil f rtility
e

P hotog r p h from M i o ri E xp ri m
a ss u t S t tio e en a n

and stubbl e O n ave rage soils t h e clov e r plant ge ts about o n e

.

third o f t h e nitroge n f rom t h e soil and about two thirds from

t h e air . H e nc e wh e re a clov e r crop is r e mov e d f rom t h e land
,

f o r hay and only t h e stubbl e and roots ar e l e ft as a fe rtiliz e r ,

t h e gain o f nitrog e n by t h e soil is small I f t h e crop is fe d .

and th e manur e is care fully sav e d and appli e d to t h e soil about ,

7 p0 e r c e nt o f t h e nitrog e n i n t h e hay can b e thus r e turn ed ,

and t h e soil will be mad e rich e r in nitroge n than b e fore th e

clov e r was grown upon it Th e gre at e st gain to t h e soil from
.
9 0 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT UR E

E XE RCI S E S

1 . U s ing rotation s sugge st e d in th e t ext draw up a

on e of th e ,

plan f o r a f arm S h owing ( 1 ) t h e numb e r o f fi e lds ( 2 ) w h at e ac h fi e ld

, ,

wil l h ave growing o n it fo r e ac h o f t en y e ars ( 3) t h e total acre age o f ,

e a ch crop e ach y e ar as s u m ing e a c h fi e l d t o cont ain t h irt y a cres , .

2 Would s uc h a pl an b e practic abl e o n a farm u se d for dive rs i fi e d

.

f arming ? Would t h e re b e e nou g h o f e ac h crop e ac h y e ar t o m ak e

e co n o m ic a l u se o f m a c h in e ry an d ot h e r e quip m e nt ? W ould it produce
t h e prop e r proportion s o f e a ch crop y e arly t o furni s h f e e d fo r a l iv e
s tock fa rm o r would t h e re b e a n e xc e s s o f c e rt ai n crop s in s o m e
,

ye ars ? W rit e o u t a li s t o f t h e principle s t o b e o b s e rv e d in planni n g

a crop rotation .

3 I f your local re gi on contain s an illu s tration o f b adly wa s h e d

.

s oil s vi s it t h e pl ac e a n d pl an a w ay o f s topping t h e e ro s ion

, ,
I f th e .

owne r will allow y o u t o try th e e xp e rime nt carry o u t your pl an an d , ,

watch t h e re s ults .

4 T ry t o ge t a f arm e r w h o p as ture s his clov e r until plowing tim e

.

t o l e av e o n e acre u n p a s ture d plowing und e r al l t h e clov e r o n t h i s ,

acr e . Watch t h e e ffe ct o n t h e ne xt crop .

REF E RE NCE S

AGE E A LV A,
ro ps an d M e tho d f o r S oil I m p ro v e m e n t c h ap xv Th e
. C ,
. .

M acm ill an C o m p an y .

F LE T C H E R S W S oil c h ap s
,
.i x D o ub l e day P ag e
. C o m pa y ,
. x — u .
,
n .

HO P K I NS C G S oi l F e rtility an d P e r m a e n t A g i c lt u r e c h p s xi i v
, . . n r u ,
a .
— x .

G i n n a n d C o m p an y .

LI P M A N J G ,
B ac t e ri a i n R e l a ti o n t o C o un try Li fe c h ap x x i v
. . T he , . .

M acm ill an C o m p an y .

S N Y D E R H A R R Y S oil s an d F e rti liz e r s p p 2 5 5 2 84 C h e m i ca l P u b li s h

,
.
, .
— .

i ng Co mpa y n .

T H O RN E C E ,
F ar m M an u r e s c h ap
. . i , . xi .

V I V I A N A F ir s t Pr i n ci p l e s o f S oil F e rti lity ch ap s iii i x an d x O r an ge

,
.
, .
, , .

J dd C o m pa y
u n .

V O O RH E E S E B Fe rtiliz e r s c h p i T h e M acm ill an C o m p a y

,
. .
,
a . . n .

Re o a tio n o f W or n o t S oil F r m er U it e d S ta te s ’
n v B u l l et i 2 45 -
u ,
a s n ,
n

D e p ar t m e t o f A g ri cu lt u r en .

Le gu m i n o u s C ro p s f or G r ee M an u r e F a r m e r B u l l et i 2 7 8 U n it e d ’
n s n ,
,

S ta t e s D e p a rt m e t o f Ag ri cu lt u r e n .

C o n se r a tio n o f S oil R e s o u rce s F r m er B u l l et i n 3 42 U n i t e d S tat e s

’
v ,
a s ,

D e p art m e n t o f Agri cu lt u r e .
 C HA P T E R IX

B AR N AR D M ANUR E Y
Th e x c r m t o f f ow l i t h b t d o f th p i g o x r m t i t h
e e en s s e es an e se e n e c e en s e

mo t s x ll t b
e ce it i w r m t d f r m t t h
en , e ca u s e rth A l l o f thi
s a es , an e en s e ea . s

ki d ho l d b tr w d p o t h fi l d d t l i d i h p lik t h m r
n s u e s e e u n e e , an no a n ea s e e an u e

f ro m ttl H or m r i t h w or t ki d ; b t it i
ca e . se o ly w h
an u e p p li d
s e s n u s so n en a e

to or fi l d ; f or it i t h b t f or m d ow
c n e s i th t o f l l w ork
s e ttl th t
es ea s , as s a a ca e a

ar e f d w ith b rl y b
e it p ro d
a
pl ty o f g r
e , C SS U S
e cau s e uce s en as s . A I

98 . Th e i m p or t an ce Of b ar n y ar d m an u r e . T h e f arm e rs be
for e t h e tim e o f C hrist consid e r e d t h e application o f manure
o n e o f t h e principal O p e rations i n agricultur e and plac e d it n e xt

to plowing King A uge as e xplain e d t h e u se o f manur e to t h e

.

G r e e k farm e rs and H om e r m e ntions a king who stre w e d

,

manure with his own hands I taly immortaliz e d t h e man who .

taught t h e R oman farm e r how to u s e manure E v e n in that .

day th e y had progre ss e d so far as to pre s e rve th e ir manure in

pits with concre t e bottoms to pr e v e nt t h e wast e o f its valuabl e
ingre di e nts T o day among t h e p e asants and small farm e rs o f
.
-
,
’
som e E urop e an countri e s a man s prosp e rity is j udge d by t h e ,

amount o f manur e h e u s e s on his farm but it is only in t h e ,

parts o f t h e U nit e d S ta t e s that hav e b e e n farm e d longe st that

t h e valu e o f manur e is appr e ciat e d by t h e A m e rican f arm e r .

I t is e stimat e d that t h e farm manure produc e d in t h e U nit e d

1

S tat e s in a singl e y e ar is worth mor e than two billion dollars or ,

mor e than t h e e ntire corn or wh e at crop T his manure contains .

1 F a r m er s B u l l et i n ’
2 1 , Un it ed S t t a es D e pa rt m t o f A g ri lt r
en cu u e .

1
9
9 2 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT UR E

t e n fold mor e plant food than all t h e comm e rcial fe rtiliz e rs us e d

in a y ear L ittl e att e ntion is giv e n to t h e care o f this manure
.
,

and i n t h e country as a whol e n e arly hal f o f it is wast e d Ne xt .

to t h e wast e o f t h e soil its e l f this is probably t h e gre at e st waste

,

on A m e rican f arms .

99 W h a t i s m an u r e ?
. A ny mat e rial which contains con
s i d e r ab l e quantiti e s o f mor e or l e ss availabl e nitrog e n phos ,

p h o rus ,
or potassium and ,
which is add e d to t h e soil f o r t h e

purpos e o f incr e asing crop yi e lds is call e d a manur e or fe rtiliz e r

, .

S uch mat e rials usually are not appli e d in su ffi ci e nt quantiti e s to

supply t h e e ntire n e e ds o f t h e crop but e nough is appli e d to sup
,

pl e m e nt t h e availabl e plant food alre ady in t h e soil F arm manur e .

,

commonly call e d barnyard manur e is d e rive d f rom t h e farm ,

its e l f as t h e manure f rom farm animals or t h e r e fus e f rom crops

, .

C omm e rcial f e rtiliz e rs ar e thos e sold on t h e ge n e ral mark e t and

consist o f conc e ntrat e d and solubl e forms o f t h e thr e e e l e m e nts

o f plant f ood nitrog e n phosphorus and potassium

, ,
.

1 00 Val u e Of b ar n y ar d m an u r e
. Th e valu e o f barnyard
.

manure is t h e plant f ood it contains t h e organic matt e r ,

which it suppli e s to t h e soil and t h e b e n e ficial action its

,

pre s e nc e e x e rts upon t h e soil organisms Th e plant food in .

manure com e s from that tak e n f rom t h e soil by t h e crops .

W h e n crops ar e fe d to animals approximat e ly thre e fourths

,

o f t h e nitrog e n phosphorus and potassium go e s with t h e

, ,

manure and may be re turn e d to t h e land T h e s e plant foods .

ar e th e n i n a f orm to b e com e quickly availabl e through d e cay

Of t h e manur e .

1 01 Val u e of m an u r e f r om diff er en t an i m al s T h e valu e o f

. .

manure wh e n t h e fe e d re mains th e sam e d e p e nds upon t h e

kind and age o f t h e animals by which it is mad e G rowing ani .

mals tak e more nitroge n f rom th e ir food for t h e production o f

muscl e and more phosphorus for th e production o f bon e than
grown animals that ar e at work or that ar e m e re ly fatt e ning .

1 02 Val u e of m an u r e p er on e t h ou s an d p ou n d s li v e w ei gh t
.

Of an i m al s I n t h e following tabl e t h e valu e s ar e bas e d on

.

t h e amount o f t h e principal e l e m e nts o f plant food pr e s e nt in

94 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT UR E

1 04 . Loss e s i n m an u r e If
manure is pil e d wh e re it is
.

unprot e ct e d f rom t h e w e ath e r a large shar e o f t h e f e rtilizing

,

constitu e nts will be l e ach e d out by t h e rain ( F igs 40 The .

,

brown liquid o fte n s e e n running f rom manur e pil e s is carrying

away its most valuabl e constitu e nts E xposur e to t h e w e ath e r .
,

in pil e s caus e s d e composition o f t h e organic matt e r and loss

,

in we ight W ith t h e e xc e ption o f manur e to be us e d on gard e n

.

F I G 40
. . A o m m o m tho d o f w ti g m r
c n e as n an u e

P hotog r p h f ro m C or ll E x p ri m
a ne t S t tio e en a n

or truck crops it is b e tt e r to hav e d e composition tak e plac e a ft e r

t h e manur e has b e e n appli e d to t h e soil .

A pil e o f hors e manure w e ighing four thousand pounds was

e xpos e d to t h e w e ath e r f rom A pril 2 5 to S e pt e mb e r 2 2 T h e fo l .
u

lowing tabl e shows t h e loss e s which occurr e d i n this e xp e rim e nt

A P RI L 2
5 S E PT E M B ER 2 2 L O S S P E R C E NT

4000 p o un ds po un ds
po u n ds po un ds
po u n ds po un ds
2 9 8 po u n ds po u n ds

$2 3 8
 B A R NY A R D M A NU R E 95

W hil e th e s e loss e s may be high e r than would occur i n mix e d

’

manur e s it is e vid e nt that it is v e ry e asy fo r manur e to los e

,

o n e hal f its f e rtilizing valu e wh e n e xpos e d i n pil e s around

t h e barnyard .

1 05 F er m en t a ti on Of m an u r e
. M anur e pil e d i n loos e h e aps .

f e rm e nts rapidly T his is particularly tru e o f pil e s containing

.

hors e manure from which much ammonia e scap e s A dvantage .

FIG 41. i ff r
. E du ca tio n ma k es th e d e e n ce

Th e b u ild g how h r d i F ig 4
in s s n th
e m f rm W h
e an n thi y o g m
. 0 ar e o n e sa e a . en s un an ,

a g r
ad u a e ot f gri lt r l oll g m i to p o
an a cu io of thi f rm h h l d to t h
u a c e e , ca e n sse s s n s a e au e e

fi l d 6 lo d of
e s m l t d m
00 r fro m t h b r d b r y rd
a s accu u a e an u e e a n an a n a

is tak e n of this fact i n making hot b e ds for forcing v e ge tabl e s .

W h e n fe rm e ntation go e s on rapidly large quantiti e s o f am ,

m o n i u m carbonat e e scap e into t h e air and t h e nitroge n is thus

lost inst e ad o f b e ing trans form e d into n itrat e s fo r t h e u s e o f
,

plants T h e pre s e nc e o f air stimulat e s bact e rial growth whil e

.
,

th e abs e nc e of air r e ta rds it I f manur e is k e pt moist and w e ll.

compact e d fe rm e ntation is h e ld i n ch e ck Th e fact that cow

, .

manur e is usually we t and compact e xplains its rath e r slow rat e

o f f e rm e ntation in comparison with hors e manur e .
9 6 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

1 06 . Car e of m an u r e For
ge n e ral u se manure is n e ve r b e tt e r
.

than wh e n fr e sh ; th e re for e t h e id e al m e thod o f handling it

is to apply it to t h e fi e lds without allowing it to stand U n for .

t u n at e l y this is not always practicabl e S inc e t h e introduction .

o f t h e manur e S pr e ad e r F i how v r this m thod is

( g e e e .
,

coming into much m ore ge n e ral u se I n som e parts o f th e .

country t h e fe e ding o f animals dir e ctly on t h e fi e lds is a m e thod

which accomplish e s t h e sam e e n d .

W h e re manure cannot be dir e ctly appli e d to t h e fi e lds care ,

1
should be tak e n to store it prop e rly T h e prim e e ss e ntials in .

F I G 42
. . A m an u r r
e s p e ad e r oos n p ay s f or it e l fs on a s to k f rm
c a

storing manure are first that it be k e pt e ith e r und e r cov e r or

,

i n a wat e r tight pit to pr e v e nt t h e loss f rom l e aching by t h e

-
,

rain ; and s e cond that it be k e pt compact and moist so that

,

fe rm e ntation is re tard e d .

T h e u s e o f a manur e pit with a wat e r tight bottom in which -

,

manure can be store d is common i n som e re gions I n this

, .

cas e t h e manur e should be tramp e d i n so as to e xclud e t h e

air as compl e t e ly as possibl e I f t h e manur e contains pl e nty .

1
l
o l t d r g io f or h y g i i r o it m y b d ir b l to
I n de n se y p pu a e e n s, en c e as ns a e es a e

tr t m r w ith p ot i m or p ho p h t lt ( w hi h
ea an u e as s u f or b l to t h
s a e sa s c a re u n av a e e

g ro w th o f d i rry i g org ni m
s e a s e - ca n h t h l m o f fli ) or to k p
a s s, suc as e ar v es ee

th e m r i fl y ti g ht o t i r
an u e n -
c h o r t m r b ox
n a ne s , suc as c nc e e an u e es .
9 8 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

third r e c e iving no phosphat e T h e s e various lots o f manure

.

w e re th e n compar e d as to th e ir e ffe ct upon t h e yi e ld of corn ,

wh e at and clov e r grown i n rotation through a s e ri e s o f s e v e ral

,

y e ars t h e manure b e ing appli e d at t h e rat e o f 8 tons p e r

,

acr e on clov e r sod b e fore plowing fo r corn T h e f ollowing tabl e .

shows t h e mon ey r eturn p e r ton o f manure in an av e rage

round o f t h e rotation

MA NU R E A ND
V LU C
T R E A T M E NT
P INC A E OF RO REA SE

PE R TO N OF MA N U RE
S tall m an ur e w itho u t p ho sp h at e
S t all m a nur e w ith ro c k p ho s p h te a 4 -53
S tall m an u r e w i th aci d p ho s p h at e
Y a r d m an u r e w itho u t p ho s p h ate
Y a r d m an u r e w ith ro ck p hos p h at e
Y ar d m an u re w ith aci d p ho s p h a te

Th is xp e rim e nt not only shows a good mon ey r e turn f rom

e

add in g phosphat e to t h e manur e appli e d to a soil n e e ding phos

h ru s but also shows that t h e stall manur e which r e c e iv e s
p o

prop e r car e is more valuabl e than t h e yard manur e which is

e xp os e d to t h e w e ath e r .

As a r e sult o f such e xp e rim e nts as this it i s b e coming a ,

co mmon practic e in som e parts o f t h e country particularly in ,

t h e q eo r n b e lt to apply f rom 60 to 1 00 pounds o f phosphat e to

,

each rt o n o f manur e b e for e scatt e ring it on t h e land P hosphat e .

mayz b e appli e d from tim e to tim e as manure accumulat e s or it ,

m ay be add e d to t h e manur e in t h e S pre ad e r ( F i g

,
plowing .

it u nder fo r corn or oth e r cultivat e d crops .

10 8 Appl i ca t i on of m an u r e M anur e is usually appli e d b e for e

. .

plan ting a cultivat e d crop such as corn and is plow e d und e r

, , ,

alth ough f re qu e ntly it is appli e d as a top dre ssing to m e adows -

or wh e at T h e rat e o f application d e p e nds upon many condi

.

tion s but 8 tons p e r acr e onc e in four or fi ve y e ars may be

;

t e rme d a good applicati on for plowing und e r and f rom 4 to 6

tons an acre for top dre ssing O n truck farms applications o f
-
.

1 5 tons or mor e ar e common T h e tim e o f plowing manur e

.

und e r d e p e nds mainly upon conv e ni e nc e and t h e crop to follow .

 B A R NY A R D M A N U R E 99

manure is coars e it should be plow e d und e r as long in

I f th e ,

advanc e o f planting as possibl e so that it may hav e ampl e tim e ,

in which to d e cay and thus mak e availabl e t h e plant food which

it contains ; but i f it is w e ll rotte d e arly plowing i n is not so ,

important A manure spre ad e r is re comm e nd e d for e v e ry stock

.

farm as it sav e s labor and spr e ads t h e manur e e v e nly thus

, ,

causing t h e manure to go farth e r and bring a large r r e turn .

Q UE S TIONS AND P ROB LE M S

1 . U s i n g t h e dat a i n
thi s ch ap te r as a b as i s cal c l a te t h e s upp o s e d v a l e
,
u u

o f t h e m an u r e f ro m t h e s to c k o s o m e p arti c l a r f a r m i
n yo u r lo ca lity
u n .

2 W h a t a e t h e p r e aili n g m e tho ds o f d i s tri b u ti n g m an u r e o n t h e

. r v

fa r m s i n y o u r l o cality ?
3 W h at ar e t h e ad a t ages o f d i s tri b u ti n g m an u r e b y use o f a s p r e ade r ?
. v n

4 W o u l d it b e a g oo d i n v e s t m e t f o r a far m e r t o b y ro c k p ho s p h a t e
. n u

o r a c i d p ho s p h at e t o sca tt e r w ith m a n r e ? u

5 H o w m an y o f t h e b ar y a r d s o r f e e d ya r d s o f t h e n e i gh b orhoo d ar e
. n -

lo ca te d o n hill s i d e s w h e r e t h e l e achi gs f ro m t h e m a n u r e a d t h e m an u r e
n n

it se l f ar e car ri e d aw ay by e ach r ai n ?
6 E x p l ai n t h e lo ss i n v al u e b y t h e e x p o su r e o f m an u r e t o t h e w e ath e r
. .

7 H o w m ay m an u r e b e k e p t s o as t o r e t ai i t s v al e ?
. n u

8 W h at ar e t h e adv an t age s o f app lyi g m u r e w hil e i t i s fre s h ?

. n an

9 I n cas e t h e fe e d i s t h e s am e w hi c h m a u r e i s m or e v al uab l e th at
.
,
n ,

w hi c h c om e s f ro m yo n g gr ow i n g a n i m al s o r th a t f ro m g ro w n an i m al s
u ,

w hi c h a e fa tt e n i g ?
r n

1 0 H o w d o e s t h e m a u r e f ro m an i m al s f e d o n c o r n an d ti m othy h ay
. n

c o m p ar e i n v al u e w ith th a t f ro m s i m il ar an i m al s f e d o n c or n c ott o n see d ,

m e a l an d c lo v e r h ay ?
,

1 1 How d o e s t h e m an u r e f ro m d i ffe r e n t k i n ds o f farm an i m al s c o m p ar e

.

i n am ou n t p ro d u ce d c i al u e p e r t o d c i n v al u e p e r ye ar ?
( )
a
( ) ,
n v a n
( ) n ,

E XE RCIS E S
1 . T h e rein round numb e rs 6 o o o o o o farm s in t h e U nite d
are , ,

S t ate s W h at i s t h e valu e p e r f a rm o f t h e m anure produce d e ach

.

ye ar ? I f h al f th e m anure produce d i s was te d w h at is t h e annu al lo s s ,

p e r f ar m fro m t h i s s ource ?
2 D o e s h al f o f t h e m anure in your communi t y go to wast e ?
.
1 00 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

3 M ak e a pl a n s h owing t h e loc ation o f t h e b a rnyard a n d f e e d yard

.
-

wit h a vi e w t o t h e con se rvation o f m anure an d t o t h e conv e nie nce

o f f e e ding .

4 H o w m any farm e rs in t h e n e ighbor h ood u s e m anure S pre ad e rs

.
-
,

a n d h o w m any S pre ad t h e m anure as it i s produc e d ? H o w m any

a llow it to accumul at e und e r t h e e av e s o f t h e barn ?

R E FE RE NCE S

HO P K I N S ,
C . G . S i ol t lity
Fer i an d P e r man e n t Agri cu ltu r e , c h ap . xx x .

G i n n an d o
C m p an y .

R O B E R TS , J .rtility o f t h e La d c h ap v iii T h e M acm ill a

P T he Fe
. n , . . n

C o mpa y n .

S N Y D E R H A R R Y C h e m i s try o f S oil s an d F e rtili ze r s c h ap v C h e m i ca l

,
.
,
. .

P b li s hi n g C o m pan y
u .

T H O R NE C E ,
F a r m M an r e s c h ap s i v iii a d x
. . O r a ge J u d d
u , . v— ,
n . n

C o m p an y .

V A N S L Y K E L L F e rtiliz e r s a d C ro p s c h ap s xvn x v iii O r ge J u dd

,
. . n , .
— . an

Co m pa y n .

V I V IA N A F ir s t P ri n ci p l e s of S oil F e rtili ty ch ap s xi
,
. a d i O r a ge , .
— xv , n xv . n

J u dd C o m pa y n .

W H E E LE R H J M an r e s an d Fe rtiliz e r s c h a p s iii an d v T h e M ac
, . . u , . .

m ill an C o m p a y n .

B a r ya r d M a r e F a r m er s B u l l et i 1 92 U ite d S ta t e s D e p rt m e n t o f
’
n nu ,
n ,
n a

Ag ri cu lt u r e .
 il j HE ESSENTI A LS
’

’
ro z .
“
OF AG R I C U LT U R E

u se Of comm e rci al fe rtiliz ers has b e e n confin e d large ly to t he

E ast e rn and S outh e rn stat e s but as t h e land o f t h e corn b e lt ,

b e com e s mor e worn incr e asing amounts o f comm e rcial fe rtiliz e r

,

ar e b e ing us e d .

1 1 1 Ni t r ogen ous f e rt i l i z e rs
. F e rtil iz ing mat e rial containing
.

nitroge n may b e divid e d into two ge n e ral class e s animal prod ,

u ct s and plant products A mong t h e common animal products

.

ar e wast e s f rom t h e slaught e rhous e s such as dri e d blood and ,

tankage W ith th e s e may b e class e d t h e guanos mad e up of

.
,

t h e e xcr e m e nt o f s ea f owls gath e r e d f rom islands o f t h e w e st

,

coast o f A frica Th e common mat e rials d e riv e d f rom t h e plant

.

world ar e cotton s e e d and cotton —s e e d m e al lins e e d m e al and , ,

castor pomac e O th e r products as sodium nitrat e and ammoniu m

.
,

sulphat e ar e quit e large ly us e d

, .

1 1 2 Ni t r at e Of s oda
. T h e mos t wid e ly known nitroge nous
.

f e rtiliz e r is nitrat e o f soda which is f ound in t h e rainl e ss r e gion

,

o f C hil e .A s it com e s on t h e mark e t it contains about 1 6 p e r

c e nt o f nitroge n I t is e ntire ly solubl e i n wat e r and th e re fore is
.

imm e diat e ly availabl e fo r plant u s e I t S hould b e appli e d only .

wh e re plants can mak e imm e diat e u s e o f it ; oth e rwis e it may

l each out o f t h e soil and be lost .

1 1 3 S ul p h at e of a m m on i a Th e principal sourc e o f sulphat e

. .

o f ammonia is coal it b e ing a by product of t h e manu facture

,
-

o f gas and cok e I t contains about 2 0 p e r c e nt o f nitroge n

.
,

and is e ntire ly solubl e in wat e r H ow e v e r t h e nitroge n must be .

,

large ly trans form e d to a nitrate by nitri fying bact e ria b e fore it

can be us e d by plants .

1 1 4 Dr i ed b l ood O n e o f t h e most important sourc e s o f ani

. .

mal nitroge n is dri e d blood Th e nitroge n it conta ins must b e .

trans form e d to a nitrat e by bact e ria b e fore it is availabl e to plants .

Re d blood contains f rom 1 3 to 1 4 p e r c e nt o f n itroge n and ,

black blood f rom 6 to 1 2 p e r c e nt .

1 1 5 Tan k age T his is a t e rm appli e d to various misc e llan e

. .

ous wast e mat e rials o f t h e S laught e rhous e s which ar e dri e d

and ground I t contains from 4 to 1 2 p e r c e nt o f nitrog e n and
.

f rom 1 % to 5 p e r c e nt o f phosphorus .
 C O M M E R C IA L F E R T I L IZ E R S I 03

1 1 6 Low gr a de n i t r ogen ou s f er t i l i zer s

.
-
are a numb e r of . T h e re
m ate rials containing e ith e r a low p e rc e ntage o f nitroge n or nitro
n in a f orm which b e com e s availabl e v e ry slowly wh e n appli e d
g e

to t h e soil as l e ath e r m e al wool and hair waste horn and hoo f

, , ,

m e al T h e s e ar e commonly us e d in making low grad e fe rtiliz e rs

.
-
,

but th e ir u s e as a sourc e o f plant food is not r e comm e nd e d .

1 1 7 Ni t r ogen f r om t h e ai r
. T hrough large e l e ctric furnac e s .

op e rat e d at low cost by wat e r pow e r it is possibl e to combin e t h e ,

nitroge n of t h e air with oth e r substanc e s at su ffi ci e ntly low cost

to be us e d for f e rtilizing purpos e s T h e re ar e two such prod .

uct s on t h e mark e t — calcium cyanimid e and calcium nitrat e T h e .

f orm e r contains about 2 0 pe r c e nt o f nitroge n which must be ,

trans form e d into a nitrat e by soil bact e ria b e fore it is availabl e .

Th e latt e r contains about 1 2 p e r c e nt o f nitrog e n i n a r e adily

availabl e f orm .

1 1 8 Wh er e n i t r ogen ous f ert il i z er s a r e u s ed

. T h e us e of .

nitroge nous fe rtiliz e rs is confi n e d large ly to re gions wh e re h e avy

f e rtilization of t h e soil is practic e d I n g e n e ral t h e mor e solubl e .
,

f orms S hould b e appli e d at such tim e s and i n such quantiti e s

as to be o f imm e diat e u s e to t h e plants as oth e rwis e th e y will ,

l e ach f rom t h e soil and be lost O n t h e oth e r hand thos e f orms .

,

coming f rom animal and plant products ar e more slowly avail

abl e sinc e t h e nitrog e n must be act e d upon by bact e ria in t h e
,

soils ; h e nc e th e s e f orms may be us e d with l e ss dange r of t h e

nitroge n b e ing lost by l e aching .

1 1 9 P h os p h ati c f er t i l i z er s P hosphatic fe rtiliz e rs ar e obta in e d

. .

f rom two main sourc e s animal and min e ral A m ong t h e animal , .

phosphate s ar e t h e bon e m e als wast e products o f t h e slaught e r ,

hous e s and fish scrap Th e important min e ral phosphat e s ar e

, .

rock phosphat e basic slag and acid phosphat e , , .

1
P hosphorus f rom min e ral sourc e s is but slightly solubl e in
wat e r W h e n tre ate d with an acid lik e sulphuric acid how e v e r
.
, ,

1 I t h e p b li c tio
n uf e rtilize r s p ho p horu i s e x p r e s e d i t rm s o f
a ns on , s s s n e

s o ca ll d
p ho s p hori c c i d I thi s te xt it i s g i e p ho p hor i ac c or d
-
e a . n v n as s us, n

an c e w ith t h e b e s t T o c o v e rt v a l e s f or p ho s p horu s i to v l e f or
usa
ge . n u n a u s

p ho p hori c a i d m lti p l y b y
s c , T o c o n v e rt p ho s p hori c a c i d v a l e s i to
u u n

p ho s p horu s v l e m lti p l y b y 4 3
a u s u . .
1 04 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

a part of t h e phosphorus is change d to a f orm that is slowly

solubl e in soil wat e r which contains carbonic acid P hosphorus .

in e ith e r o f th e s e f orms is consid e re d availabl e to plants

F
( gi . I t is known comm e rcially as availabl e phosphorus

and commands a high e r pric e than do e s phosphorus in an

unavailabl e f orm .

1 2 0 B on e m eal
. T h e re ar e two typ e s o f bon e m e al on t h e
.

mark e t raw bon e and st e am e d bon e Raw bon e is t h e f re sh

,
.

F I G 43
. . Re s po o f d lo r to d ff r t oil tr t m t
n se re c ve i e en s ea en s

A, l e gu m e s , li m e, p ho p hor
s d p t i m B l g m li m
u s , an d p ho p hor
o as s u ,
e u es , e , an s us ;
C tr tm t ; D l g m
,
no ea d li m
en ,
e u e s an e

bon e fin e ly ground S t e am e d bon e is bon e a ft e r th e fat and

.

ge latin hav e b e e n e xtract e d by st eam Raw bon e contains about .

4 p e r c e nt o f nitroge n and 9 p e r c e nt o f phosphorus S t e am e d .

bon e contai ns about 1 p e r c e nt o f nitroge n and 1 0 to 1 2 p e r c e nt

o f phosphorus I t is more fin e ly ground than t h e raw bon e and
.
,

t h e phosphorus is som e what mor e r e adily availabl e than in raw

bon e T h e phosphorus in both th e s e products is large ly insolubl e
.
,

but it is much more r eadily availabl e than that in rock phosphat e .

1 06 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT UR E

crud e salts f rom t h e min e are dissolv e d and re crystallize d thu s ,

s e curing pure r forms o f potash salts fo r t h e fe rtiliz e r trad e .

1 2 6 P ot a ss i u m ch l or i de Potassiu m chlorid e oth e rwis e known

. .
,

as muriate o f potash is t h e most common of th e purifi e d potash

,

salts and contains about 4 2 p e r c e nt of pota ssium I t has a som e

,
.

what inj urious e ffe ct upon t h e quality of potato e s and tobacco ,

but for oth e r farm crops it is a v e ry satis factory form to u s e ,

.

F I G 44
. . W h e at un de r d i ff r e t ki d o f oil tr t m e t
e n n s s ea n

Th e fi lde at th e right h d a no s oil tr tm t ; th t t t h l ft rop of l g

ea en on a a e e a c e u me s was
p low d e un de r d p ho phor
,
an s d li m w r
u s an d e e e u se

1 27 . P ot as s i u m s ul p h at e
Potassium sulphat e is anoth e r form .

o f potash salt s e cur e d by puri fying t h e raw salt f rom t h e potash

min e s I t contains about 4 3 p e r c e nt of potassium in its com

.
‘

m e r cial f orm I t is e xt e nsive ly us e d as a fe rtiliz e r and as an

.

ingre di e nt of mix e d fe rtiliz e rs I t has no inj urious e ffe ct upon .

t h e quality o f any O f t h e f arm crops and is t h e principal o tas

p
siu m fe rtiliz e r us e d on potato e s and tobacco .

1 2 8 W ood a s h es
. W ood ash e s on account of th e ir abun
.
,

danc e and ch e apn e ss w e re form e rly much us e d in t h e E ast e rn

,

stat e s F r e sh hardwood ash e s contain about 30 p e r c e nt of lim e

. .

T h e pota ssium is in t h e f orm o f carbonat e which is alkalin e , ,

and this with t h e lim e t e nds to k e e p t h e soil sw e e t U s e d in large .

quantiti e s how e v e r ash e s are inj urious to ge rminating s ee ds

, , .
 C O MM E R C IA L F E RT I L I Z E R S I 07

1 29 . Th e us e Of
P otash f e rtiliz e rs ar e us e d in t h e
p ot a s h .

U nit e d S tate s mainly in mix e d f e rtiliz e rs and on sp e cial crops ,

such as potato e s and tobacco which r e quire much potassium ,

in th e ir growth I n E urop e an countri e s n e ar t h e potash min e s

.

th e y are us e d more e xt e nsiv e ly on ge n e ral crops T h e f orms .

having t h e wid e st u s e are t h e chlorid e and sulphat e o f potash ,

which ar e p e rfe ctly solubl e and t h e potassium r e adily availabl e

to plants Th e rat e o f application of e ith e r o f th e s e vari e s fo r
.

di ffe re nt u s e s f rom tw e nty fi ve to two hundr e d pounds p e r acre

-
.

FIG 45. .rtiliz d d f rtiliz d g r d

Fe e an un e e a en c ro p s

Th e c rop s at the ri ght w r f rti li d tho t th l ft w r

e e e ze ,
se a e e e e n ot . ( P hotog r p h froma

Rho d I l d Ag ri lt r l C oll g )
e s an cu u a e e

1 30 . M i x ed fert i l i zer s quantiti e s o f fe rtiliz e r ar e

. L arge
plac e d on th e mark e t as m ix e d fe rtiliz e rs W h e n fe rtiliz e rs .

conta in nitroge n phosphoru s and potassium th e y ar e known

, , ,
” ”
as compl e t e fe rtiliz e rs I t is common to s e ll fe rtilize rs o f
.

”
this sort und e r such nam e s as grain grow e rs potato fe rti ,
” ”
liz e rs,
lawn fe rtiliz e rs and wh e at grow e rs
“

,
A s a rul e “
.
,

t h e proportions o f t h e e l e m e nts contain e d i n such f e rtiliz e rs ar e

plann e d in an atte mpt to bring t h e large st mon e y re turn f rom
th e s e r e sp e ctiv e crops wh e n grown on poor soils ( F i g .

F e rtiliz e rs ar e also o ft e n sold und e r trad e nam e s such as ,

A nchor B rand ”
O x B rand
,
or W e st e rn B rand S inc e
”
,
“
.

it is impossibl e for t h e sam e f e rtiliz e r to be b e st fo r all soils ,

and sinc e farm e rs o ft e n do not know t h e n e e ds o f th e ir soils ,

I OS T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

nor t h e m e aning o f fe rtiliz e r formulas th e re is much f e rtiliz e r ,

us e d that is not suit e d to t h e soil or crop .

1 31 Wh at a f er t il i z er f or m ul a m ean s
. O n e o f t h e most .

common typ e s o f f e rtiliz e r on t h e mark e t is o n e having a

composition o f about 2 p e r c e nt ammonia 8 p e r c e nt o f s o ,

call e d availabl e phosphoric acid and 2 p e r c e nt o f wat e r solubl e

,
-

potash I t is common in t h e trad e to S p e ak o f such a fe rtiliz e r

.

”
as two e ight two
-
I n t h e sam e way o n e containing 3 p e r c e nt
-
.
,

o f ammonia 1 0 p e r c e nt o f availabl e phosphoric acid and 5 p e r

, ,
”
c e nt o f wat e r solubl e potash is call e d a thre e t e n fi ve
- - -
.

F e rtiliz e rs usually contain a larg e amount o f in e rt ma tt e r ,

commonly known as a fill e r along with a comparativ e ly small

,

amount o f plant f ood S inc e it is n e c e ssary to hav e a c e rtain

,

bulk i n ord e r to apply t h e f e rtiliz e r e v e nly .

1 32 S t at e s con t r ol t h e s al e Of f ert i l i z e rs A ll stat e s i n which

. .

f e rtiliz e rs ar e us e d to any e xt e nt hav e laws r e gulating t h e sal e

o f comm e rcial f e rtiliz e rs Th e manu factur e r i s r e quir e d to stamp
.

t h e composition o f t h e f e rtil iz e r on e ach bag and p e nalti e s ,

ar e provid e d f o r f als e branding F orm e rly it was t h e custom

.

among manu factur e rs to mak e t h e stat e m e nts o f analys e s more

complicat e d than is n e c e ssary .

T h e important things ar e t h e ammonia ( which contains th e

n itroge n ) th e availabl e phosphoric acid and t h e potash and t h e
, , ,

stat e m e nt should indicat e cl e arly t h e amounts o f th e s e things .

1 33 How t o com pu t e f er ti l i z er v al u e s T h e mark e t valu e o f

. .

a f e rtiliz e r is bas e d upon t h e p e r c e nt and availability o f t h e

plant food e l e m e nts it contains I n calculating valu e s it is com
-
.

mon among fe rtiliz e r d e al e rs to sp e ak o f units o f plant food .

A unit r e pr e s e nts 2 0 pounds o f a giv e n e l e m e nt p e r ton or ,

1 p e r c e nt N itroge n can b e d e liv e re d to t h e farm e r in quickly

.

availabl e f orm for 2 0 c e nts a pound or $ 4 a unit O n t h e ,

.

sam e basis availabl e phosphoric acid is worth 6 c e nts a pound ,

or a unit I nsolubl e phosphoric acid is worth 2 c e nts a

.

pound or 4 0 c e nts a unit and wat e r solubl e potash is worth

, ,
-

6 c e nts a pound or ,
a unit T hus t h e valu e o f a fe rtiliz e r
.

of known composition woul d b e d e t e rmin e d r e adily as f ollows

1 10 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LTU R E

poor soils a lib e ral application ( from 300 to 4 00 pounds p er

acre of a high grad e compl e te fe rtiliz e r) is b e st Th e sam e is
-
.

tru e o f cotton Potato e s and tobacco r e quire a fe rtiliz e r high i n

.

potassium O ats and rye ar e similar to wh e at in th e ir fe rtiliz e r

.

r e quir e m e nts ( F ig but t h e e conomic re turns are l e ss

. .

1 37 Li m e
. L im e is not r e gard e d as a f e rtiliz e r i n t h e tru e
.

s e ns e o f t h e word as it is not add e d for t h e pu rpos e of sup

,

plying plant f ood C alcium t h e importa nt constitu e nt of lim e

.
, ,

F I G 46
. ro w i g or by
. G n co f f rtiliz e r
n u se e s

T hi or
s c n, g row n on t he f rm of G org i S t t C oll g p rod d
a e a a e e e, u ce 1 00 b u s hl
e s p e r ac r e

is an e l e m e nt of plant f ood but almost all soils contain ,

e nough o f this e l e m e nt in prop e r f orm fo r plant u se I f appli e d .

in large quantiti e s lim e improv e s t h e m e chanical condition o f

,

soils by making sti ff h e avy soils lighte r and more m e llow and by
, ,

making sandy soils mor e compact L im e also promot e s favor .

abl e ch e mical change s by favoring t h e d e v e lopm e nt o f b e n e ficial

bact e ria by pre v e nting phosphorus f rom u niting with iron and
,

aluminium ( in which combination it would be s e cure ly lock e d

f rom crops fo r a long tim e ) and by h e lping to mak e t h e potash ,

i n t h e soil availabl e I t is also n e c e ssary in th e changing o f t h e

.

nitroge n o f ammonia to nitrat e s L im e is th e most e ffe ctive .

age nt with which to improv e sour or acid soils , , .

 C O M M E R C IA L F E RT I L I Z E R S I I I

1 38 Wh at s oi l s n eed l i me Land that has b e e n h e avily

. .

cropp e d fo r a long tim e is lik e ly to n e e d lim e T h e soils o f .

re gions o f h e avy rain fall are more apt to be d e fici e nt in lim e

than ar e thos e o f dri e r re gions b e caus e o f t h e l e aching e ffe ct of
,

t h e rai ns S oils upon which l e gum e s thriv e e sp e cially al fal fa or

.
,

r e d clov e r are c e rtai n to hav e pl e nty o f lim e

, O n t h e oth e r hand .
,

land that produc e s r e dtop sorre l or dock and on which l e g

, , ,

um e s do not thriv e is v e ry apt to n e e d lim e or drainage or both

, , .

F I G 47 . . fe c t o f li m i
Ef ng a l f l f oil ( P hotog r p h f ro m Rho d
a a s s . a e Is l an d

E x p ri m
e t S t tio )
en a n

1 39 . Th e ki n ds of l i me t o in us e . M any of t h e fe rtiliz e rs
common u s e as wood ash e s phosphat e rock basic slag and
, , , ,

marl contain a consid e rabl e quantity o f lim e ; but most o f t h e

,

agricultural lim e is d e rive d f rom lim e ston e and is appli e d in t h e

form of quicklim e f r e shly burn e d lim e ston e or in a raw stat e
, ,

a ft e r having b e e n fin e ly ground ( F ig Quicklim e has almost .

doubl e t h e swe e te ning powe r of groun d lim e ston e 56 pounds ,

o f t h e f orm e r b e ing e qual to 1 00 pounds of t h e latt e r Quick .

lim e also haste ns t h e d e struction of t h e organic matt e r i n t h e

soil and by this m eans as w e ll as in its action upon t h e soil
, ,
1 12 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

min e rals mak e s t h e plant food availabl e T h e re for e on stingy

,
.

soils quicklim e may be t h e form n e e d e d on f ri e ndly soils lim e

ston e may be mor e satis facto ry and is always sa fe r .

1 40 How a n d w h en t o app l y l i m e
. Q uicklim e is usually
.

thrown into small pil e s in t h e fi e ld and cov e re d with moist soil .

I n t h e cours e o f a fe w days it absorbs su ffici e nt wat e r from t h e

soil to slak e it and f alls to a fi n e powd e r a ft e r which it can be
,

scatt e r e d I n som e s e ctions t h e quicklim e is ground to a m e al

.
,

scatt e re d with a sp e cial spre ad e r and allow e d to slak e on th e

,

soil L im e i n any form is appli e d on plow e d land and should be

.

thoroughly mix e d into t h e soil Quicklim e is appli e d at t h e rat e

.

o f f rom 2 0 to 4 0 bush e ls o f 7 5 pounds e ach and ground lim e ,

ston e is appli e d at t h e rat e o f f rom I to 3 tons p e r acr e 2 tons ,

b e ing t h e usual amount I n a rotation lim e is usually appli e d

.

j ust b e fore s e e ding to wh e at T his is e sp e cially to be re co m

.

m e nd e d i f clov e r is to be sown on t h e wh e at t h e following spring .

1 4 1 DO comm e r ci al f er t i l i z er s an d l i m e h ur t t h e s oi l ? Quick
.

lim e has long b e e n r e gard e d as a soil stimulant i n t h e s e ns e that

it h e lps to r e l e as e plant food contain e d in t h e soil I t S hould not .

be us e d e xc e pt in a rational syst e m o f crop rotation and wh e re

manure s hav e a promin e nt part ; oth e rwis e it is lik e ly to be ,

positive ly hurt ful to t h e soil T his id e a is w e ll e xpr e ss e d in

.

t h e Ol d saying Th e u s e o f lim e e nrich e s t h e fath e r and

”
impov e rish e s t h e son but this stat e m e nt appli e s l e ss to lim e
,

ston e than to li m e .

I t is a common notion that comm e rcial fe rtiliz e rs too act as , ,

soil stimulants and that th e ir continu e d u s e is inj urious to t h e

land T h e y ar e how e v e r i n no s e ns e soil stimulants and th e ir
.
, , ,

valu e li e s not i n unlocking food alre ady contain e d in t h e soil ,

but i n t h e plant food th ey th e ms e lve s supply I f t h e farm e r is .

car e ful to maintain a prop e r supply o f organic matt e r in t h e soil

through t h e us e o f barnyard an d gre e n manure h e may sa fe ly ,

us e com m e rcial f e rtiliz e rs ind e finit e ly T h e rational u s e of

.

comm e rcial fe rtiliz e rs re quir e s that th ey be us e d in conn e c

tion with and not as substitut e s fo r gr ee n crops and barnyard
, ,

manur e s .
1 14 TH E E S S ENT IA LS O F A GR I C U LT UR E

re pl acing in th e p o t Add j u s t e nou g h rain wate r t o e ac h p ot to

.

moi s te n th e s an d Pl ant four ke rn e l s o f corn in e ac h p ot Place in a

. .

wa rm window an d k e e p e ach p o t we ll moi s te ne d Ob s e rve t h e g rowth .

o f t h e corn in e a ch p o t f o r f our w e e k s .

RE F E RE NCE S

A GE E AL V A . C ro p s an d M e tho ds of S oil I m p ro v e m e n t c h ap s , . x vi , xv u ,

an d xv iii . ill a C o mp a y
T h e M ac m n n .

B UR K E TT ,
C . W S oil s c h ap s x x iv x
.
,
.
,
xv , an d xxv i . O r an g e J u dd Com

p an y .

H O P K I NS , C . G oil F e rti lity

. S an d P e rm an e n t Agr i cu ltu r e ,
c h ap . xxv u .

G in n an d C om pa y n .

L Y ON ,
T L . .
,
an d FI P P I N, E O . . S oil s , pp .
31 9
—
35 0 . T h e M ac m ill an Com
p an y .

SN YD E R ,
H A RR Y . S oil s an d Fe rtiliz e r s ,
c h ap i x
s . an d x . C h e m i cal Pub
l i s h i n g C m p an y o .

V AN SL YK
E, L L Fe rtiliz e r s an d C ro p s c h p s xx xxi x xxiii xxi v
. .
,
a .
, ,
xu , , ,

a d
n O r a ge J u d d C o m p an y
x xv . n .

V I V I A N A F ir s t P ri i p l e s f S oil F e rtility c h p s
, . nc x iii xi xx xxi
o ,
a . x vn ,
v ,
x, , ,

an d x xii O r an g e J dd C o m p a y
. u n .

V O O R H E E S E B F e r tilize r s c h ap s iii i a d v T h e M acm ill a C o m

, . .
, .
,
v, n . n

p a n y .

F a r m er s B u l l et i n 2 5 9 U n it e d S tat e s D e p art m e t o f A g ri c lt r e
’
,
n u u .

S o u r ce s o f C o mm e r c i a l F e rtiliz e r s ( i c l u d e s i ll u s tr a t e d m att e r r e l ati v e t o n

se aw e e d s as s o u r ces o f f e rtiliz e r s ) U it e d S ta t e s C o n g r e s s io n l H o u s e . n a

D o cu m e t 1 8 1 5 5t h C o n g r e s s 3d S e s s io n
n , ,
.
 C HA PT E R XI

R E LATI ON OF TY P E OF FARMI NG TO S OI L FE R TI LITY

i n cr
Th e o f to ke as e s c an d i m p ro e m t o f
th e v en th e l d
an ar e t wo e v e n st
th t m t g h d i h d
a us o an n an , an d o f w hi h t h c e o n e c an n ow h re e muc h o tr
u un

the oth r A D A M S M I T H i
e . n W lth o f N tio
ea a ns

1 42 . Ret ur n i n g t h e f er t i l i t y r e m ov ed
syst e m in cr op s . No
o f agricultur e is p e rman e nt that do e s not r e turn to t h e soil

as much plant f ood as is r e mov e d by t h e crops grown F rom .

t h e r e sults o f t h e e xp e rim e nts conduct e d by t h e I llinois and

M iss ouri e xp e rim e nt sta tions it was s e e n that und e r a good
cropping syst e m t h e productive n e ss o f t h e land was main
t ai n e d on a much high e r plan e than wh e r e corn was grown
continuously Th e e xp e rim e nts also show e d that wh e r e manure
.

was add e d to t h e rotation much large r yi e lds w e re obtain e d

,
.

C rop rotation th e n is only o n e o f t h e st e ps n e c e ssary in

, ,

maintaining t h e productive n e ss o f soils ; and t h e prop e r u s e of

manur e s or fe rtiliz e rs is j ust as important I t is tru e that if t h e .

supply of organic matt e r and nitroge n is maintain e d by gre e n

manure s and by crop r e sidu e s it will r e quir e many ye ars for ,

good soils to S how a mat e rial d e cre as e in fe rtility B ut in th e .

e n d any syst e m o f f arming that do e s not provid e f o r t h e re turn

to t h e soil o f as much plant food as is re mov e d by t h e crops

will d e pl e t e t h e f e rtility o f t h e soil .

1 4 3 F eedi n g t h e cr op s t o l i v e s t ock O n e v e ry practical way

. .

o f r e turning to t h e soil a larg e part o f t h e plant f ood r e mov e d

in t h e crops is to fe e d t h e crops to live stock taking car e that ,

1 1 5
1 16 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

the manure is sav e d and prop e rly us e d ( F ig Th e manure .

contains about o n e third o f t h e organic matt e r contain e d in t h e

crops fe d t h e r e maind e r b e ing disorganiz e d in t h e dige stiv e
,

proc e ss e s of t h e animal I f we should fe e d t h e e ntire crop

.

grai n and straw or fodd e r to stock and apply t h e manure we ,

S hould los e two thirds o f t h e organic matt e r and t h e supply in ,

t h e soil could not be maintain e d U nd e r av e rage conditions

.
,

how e v e r only about hal f t h e total w e ight o f t h e crop produc e d

,

is fe d to animals t h e re maind e r b e ing us e d as b e dding or

,

b e ing l e ft on t h e ground in t h e form o f stubbl e or stalks to

be work e d into t h e soil .

1 44 Li v e s t ock f a r mi n g an d s oi l f ert i l i t y
.
-
I t is possibl e .

with a crop rotation o f corn oats and clov e r for instanc e

, , , ,

wh e re t h e crops are fe d to stock and t h e manure is r e turn e d

to t h e land to maintain t h e suppli e s of nitroge n and organic
,

matt e r in t h e soil ( F i g F o r e xampl e assum e an acr e yi e ld

.
,
-

o f sixty bush e ls o f corn fi f ty bush e ls o f oats and o n e and o n e

, ,

hal f tons o f clov e r hay fo r t h e first cutting with a s e cond clov e r ,

crop o f thre e quart e rs o f a ton L e t us assum e furth e r that

.
, ,

t h e e ar corn is harv e st e d and t h e cornstalks r e main in t h e

fi e ld ; that t h e grain o f corn and oats as w e ll as t h e first crop

o f clov e r is f e d ; that t h e oat straw is us e d as b e dding in t h e

f e e d sh e ds and stabl e s ; and that t h e s e cond crop o f clov e r

-

re mains on t h e land Th e gain or loss of plant food on an

.

acre o f soil fo r o n e roun d o f t h e rotation may be shown in

t h e tabl e s on pag e 1 1 8 .

I t will be obs e rv e d that th e re is an actual gain of 4 5 pounds

o f nitrog e n and a loss o f n e arly 6 pounds o f phosphorus and

o f almost 1 0 pounds o f potassium I n this e stimat e no loss o f

.

nitroge n is charg e d to t h e clov e r crop as t h e nitroge n i n t h e ,

tops or hay o f clov e r is about e quival e nt to that s e cure d from

, ,

t h e air C ons e qu e ntly t h e nitroge n in t h e manur e f rom t h e

.

clov e r hay as w e ll as that in t h e s e cond crop can be consid e re d

, ,

as a dire ct gain to th e soil Th e nitroge n add e d by clov e r should

.

be ch e ck e d against som e loss e s occurring through nitroge n

passing o ff into th e air and by l e aching .
1 1 8 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT UR E

LO S S I N C RO P S 1

C RO P P O TAS S I UM

C or 60 b h l
n, us e s

O t 50
a s,b h l us e s

C lo r h y ( fir t c ro p
ve a s , 1 ; 5 to ns )

R E T U R N E D TO S O I L

NI T R O G E N P H O S P HO R US P OTA S S I UM

P ou n d s

M an u r e f ro m 60 b h e l s o f c or
us n

M an u r e f ro m 50 b s h e l s o f o t
u a s

M an u r e f ro m 1 5 to o f c lo e r ns v

Sec o nd c ro p o f lo e r t o n
c v ,

Ga i or lo to oil
n ss s

U nd e r such a syst e m th e r e fore th e supply o f nitroge n and , ,

organic matt e r of t h e soil can be maintain e d or e v e n incr e as e d .

Th e loss e s ar e i n phosphorus and potassium which must be ,

s e cur e d f rom outsid e sourc e s such as fe rtiliz e rs or purchas e d ,

f ee ds U nd e r such a syst e m o f stock f arming particularly on

.
,

soils naturally w e ll suppli e d with lim e phosphorus and p otas , ,

sium it would re quire many y e ars to show a d e cre as e i n soil

,

f e rtility .

1 45 Gr ai n f ar mi n g an d s oil f er t il i ty
. I t is possibl e through .

t h e u s e o f gree n manur e and comm e rcial f e rtiliz e rs to maintain

soil fe rtility und e r a syst e m of grain farming wh e r e all t h e grain ,

is sold off t h e land e xc e pt what littl e is us e d to fe e d working

stock T his plan n e c e ssitate s first t h e growing o f c e rtain l e gum e
.
, ,

1 Th e fig r
u es on thi s p ag e are base d on a r t r o f 7 0 p c t o f t h itro
e u n er en e n

ge n , 7 5 p e r c e n t o f th e p ho p hor
s u s , an d 85 per ce n t o f t h p ot i m o ta i d
e as s u c n ne

i n t h e c p fe d,ro such as i p o ib l
s ss e un de r th e be s t y t m of h
s s e d li g m
s r an n an u e .
 F A R M I NG A N D F E R T I L I T Y I 1 9

crops to be turn e d und e r in ord e r to maintain t h e supply o f ,

nitroge n and organic matt e r ; and s e cond t h e purchas e of , ,

phosphorus and som e tim e s o f potassium to r e plac e that re mov e d

i n crops I t r e quir e s furth e r that all straw an d corn stov e r be
’

.
, , -

re turn e d to th e land T his may b e illustrat e d with a rotation o f

.

corn oats and clov e r all grai n b e ing sold and t h e corn stov e r
, , , ,

and oat straw b e ing re turn e d to t h e land T h e first crop o f clov e r .

must be cut som e what e arli e r than usual and l e ft to l ie on t h e

ground th e s e cond crop coming up through it and b e ing cut fo r
,

t h e s e e d t h e thr e sh e d clov e r straw b e ing r e turn e d to t h e land

,
.

1 46 B al an ce of gai n an d l oss Th e e ffe ct o f such a syst e m on

. .

an acre o f soil during o n e round o f t h e rotation is shown b e low :

LO S S I N C RO PS

CRO P NI T R O G E N P H O S P HO RUS P O TA S S I U M

C or 60 b h l
n, us e s

O t 50 b h l
a s, us e s

C lo r d b h l
ve see , 2 us e s

T ot l a

R E T UR N E D TO SOIL

C RO P P O TA S S I U M

Fir t ro p o f lo r 5 to
s c c ve , 1 ns

S o d ro p o f lo e r tr w thr h
ec n c c v s a , es e d,

ton

T ot l a

Ga i or lo to oil
n ss s

U nd e rthis syste m th e nitroge n supply is n e arly main

tai n e d by t h e clov e r if we assum e that t h e clov e r growing in
,

t h e oat stubbl e during t h e first y e ar is ch e ck e d against t h e

loss of this e l e m e nt through l e aching and t h e loss through t h e
120 T H E ES S E NT IA LS OF A GR I C U LT UR E

e scap e of som e nitroge n into t h e air T his l e av e s all of th e first .

crop of clov e r on t h e ground a circumstanc e which adds much ,

more organic matt e r than if it w e re fe d to stock and t h e manure ‘

r e turn e d to t h e land .

Th e loss in phosphorus and po tassium is larg e r than und e r

live stock f arming and on poor soils or und e r p e rman e nt sys
-
,

t e ms o f agriculture th e s e must be purchas e d in comm e rcial

fe rtiliz e rs S om e such syst e m o f grain farming and gr e e n
.

manuring can be mad e r e mun e rativ e wh e r e prop e rly handl e d .

O ld e r countri e s mak e much wid e r u s e o f such syst e ms than

do e s t h e U nite d S tat e s .

1 4 7 Th e b u s i n es s s i de of m ai n t ai n i n g s oi l f ert i l i t y
. I t is .

e asi e r to plan a syst e m o f soil building than it is to put this

plan into e ffe ct T h e o n e r e quire s knowl e dge t h e oth e r knowl

.
,

e dge and busin e ss j udgm e nt T o handl e worn out soil so as .

-

to build up its f e rtility and mak e a living from it at t h e s am e

tim e is a v e ry di fficult matt e r B oth capital and tim e ar e .

r e quire d E v e n with abundant capital and tim e th e r e ar e still

.

many probl e ms whos e solution re quire s k e e n int e ll e ct and t h e

b e st o f busin e ss j udgm e nt T o o o ft e n how e v e r t h e farm e r
.
, ,

n e gl e cts to provid e t h e gre e n manure crop or fails to purchas e

t h e r e quir e d amount o f comm e rcial f e rtiliz e r A syst e m o f liv e .

stock and grain farming is sa fe st and most profitabl e for most

r e gions o f t h e U nit e d S tat e s .

QUE S TIONS AND P ROB LE M S

1 . W h at
ro
p p ortio n o f t h e or g i c m att e r m ay b e r e t u r n e d t o t h e s oi l
a n

w h e n t h e c ro p s ar e f e d t o l i e s to c k ? v

2 W h a t p ro p ortio n m ay b e r e t r e d t o t h e s oil w h e n a sys t e m o f g rai n

. u n

f a r m i g i s f ollo w e d ?
n

3 E x p l ai f lly h o w i t i s p o ss i b l e to m ai n ta i t h e fe rtility o f t h e s oil o n

. n u n

a li e s to ck f a r m
v -
.

4 E x p l a i n f lly t h e m e a s n e ce s s a ry to e s t ab li s h a p e r m a e t sys t e m
. u n n n

o f ag ri cu lt r e ou a g rai n f rm n a .

5 W h t p e r c e n t ag e o f t h e e l e m e n t s f p l a t f oo d c o t ai e d i n t h e fe e d
. a o n n n

m ay b e r e t u r n e d t o t h e s oil i n li e s to c k fa r m i n g ? i n g r a i n f a r m i g ?
v -
n
 CH A P TE R XI I

DRAI NAGE , I RRI GATI ON, AND DR Y FARM ING

I . D RAI N A G E

1 48 . Eff ect s Of dr ai n age S oils

in which wat e r stands n e ar
.

t h e sur fac e f or a consid e rabl e tim e during t h e growing s e ason

a r e b e n e fit e d by drainag e S uch soils ar e usually e ith e r so l e v e l
.

that wat e r do e s not flow o ff t h e surfac e or so fi n e grain e d that -

wat e r cannot flow out re adily a ft e r h e avy rains T h e standing .

wat e r shuts out t h e air and f urnish e s a condition that is not

f avorabl e to t h e growth o f roots ( F i g I t also hind e rs t h e
.

bact e riological proc e ss e s n e c e ssary to a productiv e soil I t mak e s .

t h e soil cold and d e lays its pr e paration fo r a crop .

T il e laid b e n e ath t h e sur fac e r e mov e t h e e xc e ss wat e r and

bring in air whil e at t h e sam e tim e th e y admit air to t h e lowe r
,

ar e as o f t h e soil through t h e op e nings o f t h e til e th e ms e lve s .

W at e r falling as rain upon t h e soil displac e s t h e air and as it ,

drains out f r e sh air com e s i n P robably t h e most important natu

, .

ral caus e of soil a eration is t h e di ffusion o f gas e s and t h e most ,

important m e ans by which t h e farm e r can furth e r soil a eration

ar e cultivation addition o f v e ge tabl e matt e r and til e drainag e
, ,
.

1 4 9 Ki n ds of d r ai n age T h e r e ar e two g e n e ral m e thod s o f

. .

draining land sur fac e drainage and til e drainage S urfac e

—
.

drains are us e d as a ch e ap m e ans o f ridding th e land o f t h e

surfac e wat e r T il e drains ar e pip e s laid at a d e pth o f thre e
.

or four fe e t to re mov e t h e standing wat e r from t h e soil Th e .

122
 D R AI NA G E , I R R I G AT I O N ,
A ND D R Y F A R M I NG 12 3

disadvantag e o f sur fac e drains is that th e y occupy consid e rabl e

land favor surfac e washing and in fi n e grain e d soils lik e clay
, ,
-

do not low e r t h e wat e r tabl e to t h e d e pth requir e d by growing

crops T il e drains hav e t h e disadvanta ge o f b ei ng e xp e nsiv e
.
,

but th ey ar e e ffici e nt Re d burn e d clay til e ar e commonly us e d

.
-

for draining land and in r e c e nt y e ars concr e t e til e hav e com e

,

into limit e d u se .

T h e d e pth at which
til e ar e laid vari e s from
two to four f ee t thr e e ,

fe e t b e ing t h e usual
d e pth T h e more porous
.

t h e soil t h e d e e p e r an d
t h e farth e r apart t h e til e
may b e laid S o m e o f
.

t h e e ss e ntial things i n
t h e laying o f til e drains
are to hav e a f r e e outl e t

into a d rainage chann e l ,

to hav e til e that ar e hard F I G 50 R e lts o f g oo d d p oor d ra i ge

. . su an na

burn e d and t O hav e O l ft or l t d i t h i

g g oo d d r i g ;
’
p n e p ,
c n an e n o av n a na e

th e m care f ully laid W ith ri ght or p l t d i p t h i g poor d r i g

on ,
c n an e n o av n a na e .

B oth p ot h d t h m k d of 0 1 d r d th
u n if o r m f all su ffi ci e nt to
s a e sa e in $ 1 an e ce i v e e

m mo t f w t r sa e a un s o a e

carry away t h e wat e r .

Th e usual fall is f rom four to S ix inch e s p e r hu ndr e d f e e t ,

although a fall o f only two inch e s is allowabl e ( F ig .

O rdinarily t h e til e us e d ar e a foot in l e ngth and ar e laid e n d

to e n d Th e wat e r e nt e rs through t h e cracks or j oints b e tw e e n
.
, ,

t h e til e and do e s not pass through t h e sid e s o f t h e til e Th e .

diam e t e r of t h e til e us e d is commonly f rom f our to six inch e s ,

although wh e r e s e v e ral lin e s of small e r til e e mpty into a main til e ,

t h e main til e should be f ro m e ight to sixt e e n inch e s in diam e t e r .

1 5 0 Lan ds n eedi n g t il e dr ai n a ge T il e ar e most e xt e nsiv e ly

. .

and most profitably us e d on t h e prairi e lands o f I llinois and I owa

and on t h e l e v e l land o f W isconsin I ndiana O hio and Ne w , , ,

York S om e l e v e l lands how e v e r ar e so fi n e grain e d that wat e r

.
, ,
-
 124 TH E E S S ENT IA LS OF A G R I C U LT U R E

will pass through th e m to t h e til e v e ry slowly O n such lands .

it is n e c e ssary to lay a larg e r numb e r o f lin e s o f til e to a giv e n

are a than on mor e porous lands T il e are som e tim e s laid on .

rolling lands to aid in pr e v e nting surfac e washing and e rosion .

T h e y are also o ft e n laid

across hillsid e s which ar e
we t b e caus e o f wat e r s e e p
ing out on t h e sur fac e
in draining f rom high e r
l e v e ls Lands on which .

til e pay b e st ar e usually

thos e which ar e porous
e nough to drain w e ll but ,

which ar e we t b e caus e th ey
ar e l e v e l .

T h e cost o f tiling vari e s

f rom $ 5 to $ 4 0 an acre ,

according to t h e siz e o f til e

us e d t h e distanc e t h e lin e s ,

a r e apart and t h e d e pth at ,

which t h e til e ar e laid .

I I I R R I G AT I O N
.

1 51 . Th e Ob ect Of
j i rr i
F IG .
5 1 tio o f til d r i
. Sec n d tool g a t
a i on I n re gions Of littl e
e a n , an s

f or l y i g d r i a
rain fall it is n e c e ssary to
n a ns

A d it h r d y f
,
c l y i g til
ea or til i p l ; supply wat e r artificially If
a n e, on e e n ac e

th e gr di g la n d p r ght m
ine ri g ti k
an u i e as u n s c

m k it p o
a e bl t ssir t h d ir d
e o s e cu e
C I O p S a r e toe
b e g
es
r oe
w n
e ve n n e ss
‘

i f ll f t h d it h B
n a o e t l hook f
c : l y g t h e conomically T h e proc e ss
,
a i e or a in e

t l ; C g dmg h g t h b otto m
.

i e a ra f fi
i f t hi si h
co o nis in e
O f bringing wat e r to t h e
,

l c

land from ponds riv e rs , ,

or w e lls is known as i rr ig a t i on I rrigation is ordinarily most .

profitabl e wh e re t h e rain fall is l e ss than sixt e e n inch e s C o n .

s i d e r abl e ar e as i n t h e w e st e rn part o f t h e U nit e d S tat e s

particularly in t h e Rocky M ounta in r e gion and t h e high plains

—
have b e e n brought und e r syst e ms o f irrigation ( F ig .
1 2 6 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

W h e re su ffi ci e nt wat e r is availabl e fo r irrigation in t h e arid

parts o f t h e country farming und e r irrigation is v e ry profitabl e as
, ,

it e nabl e s o n e to control th e moisture supply i n t h e soil to b e tte r

advantage than wh e r e o n e must d e p e nd upon rain fall E v e n .

wh e n all t h e availabl e wat e r is us e d only about 1 0 p e r c e nt o f ,

t h e tota l ar e a o f t h e d ry lands o f t h e U nit e d S tat e s can e v e r b e

irrigat e d .

III . D RY FA R M I N G

1 53 . Wh at i s d r y f ar m i n g f is appli e d Th e t e rm ’
a ry a r m i ng

to a syst e m i n u se in r e gions wh e re t h e moistur e supply is l e ss

than that ordinarily us e d in crop growth P lants cannot be grown .

i trib ti g w t r
F I G 53. . D s u n a e

Pa rt of t h e w t r i di
a e s rt d thro gh l t r l d it h to t h fi l d
ve e u a e a c es e e s ( Photog rap h
. from
O ffi ce of E x p ri m t S t tio U it d S t t D p rt m t
e en a ns, n e a es e a en o f A g ri c u lt u re )

without wat e r but it is possibl e to grow th e m with a limit e d

,

supply wh e n drought re sisting vari e ti e s ar e s e l e ct e d and wh e n

-
,

t h e rain that falls is caught and cons e rv e d in t h e soil I n som e .

are as t h e rain fall is not su ffi ci e nt to grow a profitabl e crop e ach

s e ason e v e n wh e n th e s e pr e cautions are tak e n I n such cas e s
, .

t h e moistur e that falls through two y e ars is stor e d in t h e soil

fo r t h e growth o f o n e crop D ry farming has b e e n practic e d in
.
 D R A I NA G E , I RR I GAT I O N ,
A ND D R Y F A R M I NG 1 2 7

som e parts of t h e world for hun dre ds of y e ars I n C hina wh e at .

,

has b ee n grown fo r many c e nturi e s without irrigation und e r a

ye arly rain fall o f l e ss than 2 0 inch e s I n t h e U nit e d S tat e s .
,

dry farming was first e stablish e d in U tah wh e r e it has b e e n ,

succ e ss fully practic e d fo r t h e last fi fty y e ars .

1 5 4 Dr y f ar m i n g ar ea s W i t h a rai n fal l o f l e ss t h an 30 inch e s

.
-
.
,

e sp e cially wh e r e t h e s e asons ar e long and e vaporation is high

,

lack o f moisture is usually t h e factor that d e t e rmin e s t h e yi e ld

o f crops N e arly o n e hal f o f t h e U nit e d S tat e s r e c e iv e s l e ss
.

F IG .
54 . Pum p i ng wa t r f or irri g ti
e a ng ri ce in J a p an

than 2 0 inch e s o f rain fall annually and o n e t e nth o f t h e U nit e d ,

S tat e s r e c e iv e s b e tw e e n 2 0 and 30 i nch e s T h e re ar e thr e e .

distinct dry farming are as : first t h e Paci fi c coast re gion r e p

-
,
-
,

r e s e nt e d by t h e state s o f C ali fornia O re gon and W ashingt on ; , ,

s e cond t h e I nt e rmountain r e gion r e pr e s e nt e d by t h e stat e s o f

, ,

I daho Ne vada M ontana W yoming U tah C olorado A rizona

, , , , , , ,

and Ne w M e xico third th e G re at Plains r e gion r e pr e s e nt e d by

, ,

t h e stat e s o f North D akota S outh D akota Ne braska Kansas , , , ,

O klahoma an d T e xas I n t h e C olumbia R iv e r basin with a

, .
,

rain fall o f from 1 0 to 1 2 i nch e s annually it is e stimat e d that ,

12 8 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

ov e r acre s are now in dry farms He r e t h e common .

practic e is to sow o n e hal f o f t h e farm to grain and to allow t h e

oth e r hal f to l ie in fallow I n t h e G re at Plains re gion a .

large r s e asonal rain fall is re quire d fo r succ e ss ful farming than

in most o f t h e Rocky M ountain stat e s du e to a longe r growing ,

s e ason and a high e r rat e o f e vaporation .

1 5 5 Rai n f al l an d ot h er cl i m at i c con di t i on s
. T h e mann e r .

in which t h e wate r is distribut e d through t h e di ffe re nt s e asons

o f t h e y e ar is important as a ffe cting f arming und e r dry land -

conditions O n t h e Pacific coast t h e rain falls almost e n

.

t i r e l y during t h e wint e r .

I n t h e I nt e rmountain
r e gion t h e gre at e st p r e
c i p i t at io n occurs during

t h e lat e wint e r and e arly

spring I n t h e south .

e rn part o f th e ar e a ,

particularly in A rizona ,

t h e rain fall is divid e d

into two p e riods Th e .

first rainy s e ason occurs

during t h e wi nt e r and
F I G 55 A t m till g e to p r t b low i g ,
. u u n a e ve n n
h
.

a d to hol d m oi s t r e
n
t e
u
s e cond which is
large r during July and ,

August I n t h e G re at Plains re gion th e rain fall occurs during

.

t h e late spring and e arly summ e r and t h e wint e r is usually ,

v e ry d ry .

T h e rat e at which e vaporation tak e s plac e has a mark e d i n

fl u e n ce upon t h e amount o f rain fall r e quire d for succ e ss ful dry
farming I n t h e south e rn part o f t h e dry land are a wh e re t h e
.
-
,

s umm e rs ar e warm and particularly in t h e south e rn part o f t h e

,
-s

G re at Plains r e gion wh e r e hot dry winds accompany t h e warm

, ,

w e ath e r t h e rat e o f e vaporation is much high e r than in t h e

,
—

north e rn part of t h e re gion wh e re t h e we ath e r is cool e r and th e air

,

more humid T h e e vaporation from a f re e wat e r surfac e at Gard e n

.
-

C ity Kansas is twic e as gr e at as at W illiston North D akota

, , , .
1 30 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

f allowing consists o f allowing t h e ground to go uncropp e d fo r on e

s eason fo r t h e purpos e o f storing moisture S umm e r fallowe d .
-

ground is usually plow e d d e e p soon a fte r t h e rainy s e ason be

gins A t that tim e t h e ground is moist and plows w e ll and t h e
.
,

d e e p plowing provid e s a rough Op e n surfac e that absorbs wate r ,

re adily T h e fallow is cultivate d f re qu e ntly e nough to pre v e nt

.

w e e d growth and to k e e p t h e surf ac e f rom crusting I t has b e e n .

shown that land alt e rnat e ly cropp e d to wint e r w h e at and

summ e r fallow e d contain e d on an ave rage o f
-
inch e s more

F I G 56. . L it
s ed s oil ca ct h e s an d hol d s w i t r m oi t r
n e s u e

wat e r in t h e upp e r S ix fe e t o f soil at s e e ding tim e than did land

that was cropp e d e ach y e ar T h e summ e r fallow e d ground pro.
-

d uce d as an av e rage o f f our y e ars

, bush e ls o f wh e at p e r ,

acre whil e t h e continuously cropp e d ground produc e d but I

,

bush e ls A noth e r e xp e rim e nt show e d that as an av e rage o f

.
,

thre e ye ars land summ e r fallow e d fo r wh e at has produc e d

,
-

bush e ls p e r acre whil e e arly fall plow e d continuously cropp e d

,
- -
,

land has produc e d bush e ls and lat e plow e d continuously ,

-
,

cropp e d land has produc e d bush e ls p e r acre A lt e rnat e .

cropping and fallowing is n e c e ssary only wh e re th e rain fall is

v e ry light O ve r much o f t h e dry land are a it is n e c e ssary to
.
-
 D R AI NA G E , I RR I G A T I O N ,
A ND D R Y F A R M I NG I 3I

summ e r f allow only onc e i n from thre e to fi v e or six y e ars i f a

-

suitabl e rotation o f crops is carri e d out S umm e r fallow has .

prov e d more profitabl e fo r wint e r wh e at than for t h e spring

grains or fo r corn or sorghum .

1 5 8 Cr op s ad ap t ed t o dr y f ar m in g T hre e important f actors

. .

must be consid e r e d in s e l e cting plants to grow und e r dry land -

conditions : first t h e plant should hav e t h e ability to fe e d upon

,

moisture store d in t h e low e r subsoil s e cond it should mak e its ,

gre at e st growth during t h e s e ason o f gr e at e st rain fall ; and third ,

it should be abl e to u s e wat e r e conomically W h e at is t h e most .

succ e ss ful dry land crop I t mak e s its gr e at e st growth during

-
.

t h e spring and t h e e arly summ e r wh e n t h e larg e st part o f t h e ,

pre cipitation falls and it has t h e ability to obtain wat e r from

,

d e e p e r in t h e subsoil than most oth e r f arm crops Th e T urk e y .

W h e ats ar e b e st adapt e d to dry land conditions T h e s e W he ats -

.

origi nat e d in E urop e and hav e b e e n grown fo r c e nturi e s in ,

are as o f light rain fall T h e sorghum crops ar e also suit e d to .

d ry farming T h e s e crops w e r e d e v e lop e d und e r s e m iarid con

.

d it i o n s and whil e th e y mak e th e ir gr e at e st growth during t h e

,

hott e r and dri e r portion o f t h e growing s e ason th e y hav e gre at ,

ability to withstand drought and th e y u s e wat e r v e ry e conomi .

cally O ats barl e y and spring wh e at ar e grown succ e ss fully in

.
, ,

t h e north e rn part o f t h e dry land ar e a Potato e s also giv e good -

.

re sults e sp e cially wh e n plant e d upon summ e r fallow e d ground

,
-
.

Q UES TI ONS AND P ROB LE M S

1 . A t w h at d e p th ar e th e til e d r ai s o f yo u r lo cality us u ally p l ace d ?

n

2 I f y o u h av e an O p p ort u n i ty o b s e rv e t h e r e s u lt s o n c ro p s o f d r ai n e d
.
,

an d u n d r ai n e d s oil .

3 I f o n e o f t h e f a r m e r s o f y o u r v i c i n it y h as p l ace d hi s til e d r a i n s f o u r
.

f e e t d e e p a d a n oth e r thr e e f e e t d e e p c o m p a r e t h e r e s u lt s o n th e i r c ro p s
n ,
.

4 I f y o r s c hool i s lo cate d i n a r e g io n w hi c h fa r m s b y irri ga tio n

. u ,

s e cu r e s t a ti s ti cs r e ga r d i g t h e n u m b e r o f ap p li c a tio s o f w a t e r t h e a m
n oun t n ,

o f w at e r u s e d i t s c o s t a n d t h e p ro d u c ts o f th e s e f a r m s i n co m p a ri s o n w i th
, , ,

t h e p ro d u c t s o f tho s e i n n o irri g at e d d i s tri c t s n .

5 W h e r e an d h ow lo n g h a s d ry fa r m i n g b e e n p r ac ti ce d ?
.
1 32 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E
6 . W h at th re e di s ti n c t d ry far m i n g ar e as o f th e U n ite d S tate s ?
ar e the -

7 I n g e n e r al w h at i s t h e an n u al ra i fa ll r e qu ir e d i n d y fa r m i n g a r e as ?
.
,
n r -

Ho w d o e s thi s c o m p a r e w ith t h e an n u al r ai n fall i n y o u r lo cality ?

8 H o w d o e s t h e m a e r i n w hi c h t h e r ai n fall i s d i s tri b u t e d affe c t d ry
. nn

f ar m i g ? H o w d o e s e ap or a ti o n affe ct d ry fa r m i n g ?
n v

9 D i sc ss t h e d i ffe re n t m e tho d s fo r p r e p ari g t h e s oil t o ab s or b an d

. u n

hol d m oi s t u r e .

1 0 C o m p ar e t h e r e s lts o f a lt e r n a t e c ro pp i n g o f w h e a t w ith t h e re s u lt s
. u

o f c o n ti n u o u s c ro p p i g n .

1 1 W h y ar e ce r tai n c ro p s b e s t ad ap t e d t o d y fa r m i n g ?
. r

RE F E RE NCES

DA VI D SON J Agri cu lt ur al E n g i n e e ri n g W e bb P u b li s hi n g C o m p an y
,
. B . . .

E LLI O TT C G P r acti cal Fa r m D rai n age J oh n W il ey S o n s

, . . . .

M A C D O NA L D W I LLI A M D ry F a r m i n g T h e C e n t u ry C o
,
. . .

S H A W T HO M A S
,
D ry Lan d F ar m i n g T h e P io n e e r C o m p an y S t f P au l
.
-
.
, ,

Min n .

S M Y T HE W I LLI A M E , C o n qu e s t o f A r i d A m e r i ca T h e M acm ill an

. .

C o m p an y .

W A RI N G G E T il e D r ai n age O r an ge J u dd C o m p an y
, . . . .

W A R I N G G E D r ai n i n g fo r P ro fi t an d for He a lth O r an ge J u dd C o m p an y
,
. . . .

W I D T S O E J A T h e P ri n ci p l e s o f I rri gatio n P r ac ti ce Th e M acm ill an

, . . .

C o m p an y .

W I D TS O E J A D ry F ar m i n g Th e M acm ill an C o m p an y
, . . . .

A gri cu ltu r e i n th e Ce n tr al Pa rt o f t h e S e m i A ri d P ortio n o f t h e G re at -

P l ai n s F a r m er s B u l l et i n 2 1 5 B u r e au o f P l an t I n d u s try U n ite d S tat e s

,
’
, ,

D e p art m e n t o f A gri cu lt u r e .

D ry F a r m i n g i n Re l atio n t o Rai n fall an d E v a o rati o n F a r m e r s B u l l et i n ’

p ,

1 88 B u r e au o f P l an t I n d u s tr U it d S t t D rtm t f A i lt r
, y n e a e s e p a e n o g r c u u e , .

D ry F a r m i n g i n t h e G r e at B as i n F r m e r s B u l l et i n 1 03 B u r e au o f P l an t ,
a
’
,

I n du s t ry U n it e d S tates D e p art m e n t o f Agri cu ltu r e

, .

W at e r R e qu ir e m e n ts o f P l an t s F a r m ers B u l l e t i n 2 84 B u re au o f P l an t ,
’
,

I n d us try U n ite d S t ate s D e p ar t m e n t o f A gri cu lt u r e

, .

T il e D r ai n age o n t h e F ar m B u l l et i n 5 2 4 U n it e d S t a t e s D e ar t m e n t
p , ,

o f A g ri cu lt u r e .

D r ai n age o f Fa r m Lan d s B u l l et i n 1 87 U n it e d S tat e s D e artm e n t o f

p , ,

Agri cu lt u r e .

I rri gati o n i n F i e l d an d Ga r de n B u l l eti n 1 3 8 Un ite d S ta te s D e p ar t m e n t , ,

o f A g ri cu lt u r e .
 CHA PTER XIII

COR N

W e re l
rti I d i
a s a e s m an or b y to
w m r o ti g i t
ad v e se n an c n a ne na e, ec un n s

ac uat l m rit w hil i g io l y o

e s li g i t i d tity ith r h i w or d w o l d
e n en us c n ce a n s en , e e s s u

be d i r d it d or h
sc e wo ld h
e li m it d d m d f or t h
e u d o f thi
av e an un e e an e see s

su ppo d o
se lty H E N RY
n ve .
—

1 59 . Hi st or i ca lis ge n e rally thought to be a native o f

. C orn
A m e rica and was probably first cultivat e d in M e xico about t h e
,

b e ginning o f t h e C hristian e ra C olumbus f ound t h e I ndians .

growing t h e crop I t is b e li e v e d that h e first introduc e d corn

.

into E urop e wh e nc e it soon S pre ad into A f rica C hina and

, , ,

A sia M inor .

1 60 Cor n an d t h e col on i st s
. T h e Virginia colonists b e gan .

raising corn und e r t h e instruction o f t h e I ndians in 1 608 and ,

t h e Ne w E ngland colonists in 1 6 2 1 T h e soil f arm e d by t h e .

P ilgrim F ath e rs was v e ry poor and t h e I ndians taught th e m how ,

to fe rtil iz e t h e land by planting a fi sh about a foot long and

w e ighing n e arly a pound i n e ach corn hill A bout two thousand .

fish w e r e r e quir e d to fe rtiliz e an acre T h e fi s h suppli e d t h e .

n e e d e d n itroge n and phosphorus although t h e nature o f this ,

n e e d was not th e n und e rstood Tam e grass e s and clov e rs .

,

which ar e so ge n e rally us e d now i n raising l iv e stock had not ,

y e t b e e n introduc e d into this count ry and t h e colonists had ,

littl e oth e r f odd e r fo r th e ir animals than that produc e d by t h e

corn plant T hus t h e corn plant may hav e b e e n t h e m e ans o f
.

saving som e o f th e e arly s e ttl e rs f rom starvation .

1 34
TH E J U D G M E NT O F E X P E R I E NC E
1 36 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT UR E

Th e b e st corn soils ar e w e ll drain e d fe rtil e loams which contain -

,

a consid e rabl e v e ge tabl e matte r Corn is a h e avy f e e d e r lik e .

,

wis e a h e avy produc e r and to produc e large yi e lds it is n e ce s

,

sary to k e e p t h e soil in a high stat e o f fe rtility by t h e f r e qu e nt

addition o f barnyard or gre e n manur e and by t h e u se o f l e gum e s
i n a crop rotation C omm e rcial f e rtiliz e rs ar e e xt e nsiv e ly ap
.

pli e d in t h e S outh and E ast but on most of t h e corn b e lt soils ,

-

it has not ye t b e com e n e c e ssary to u s e comm ercial fe rtiliz e rs .

F IG .
58 . W e e kl e y ’
s Imp ro ved t or ( P hoto g r p h f ro m
D en c n . a N orth
Ca roli na A g ri lt r l C oll g )
cu u a e e

1 64 . Ty p e s
r T h e r e are six typ e s o f corn : d e nt flint
of co n . , ,

sw e e t pop so ft and pod corn Th e first f our only ar e o f

, , , .

comm e rcial importa nc e i n A m e rica ( F ig .

1 65 Den t cor n
. Probably 9 0 p e r c e nt o f t h e corn o f t h e
.

world is o f t h e d e nt typ e ( F igs 57 and T h e hard fl i n ty .

,

portion o f t h e k e rn e l is at t h e sid e s and t h e so ft sta rchy part , ,

is at t h e crown or across t h e upp e r portion and in t h e c e nt e r o f

t h e k e rn e l I n rip e ning t h e starchy portion shrinks l e aving a
.
, ,

d e nt at t h e summit o f e ach grain T his group is th e o n e com .

m o n l y cultivat e d in all parts of th e corn growing r e gion o f t h e -

U nit e d S ta te s e xc e pt in t h e North .

1 66 F l i n t cor n
. Th e small amount of whit e or so ft starch
.

contain e d in t h e k e rn e l is at t h e c e nt e r whil e th e crown and ,

sid e s ar e h ard or fl i n ty T h e k e rn e l do e s not d e nt in dryi ng

. .
 C ORN 37

Th e ars hav e f rom e ight to twe lv e rows o f shallow k e rn e ls

e

F i T h e ars ar e small e r and mor e sl e nd e r than thos e

( g . e

o f t h e d e nt corns F lint corn is grown e xt e nsiv e ly in Ne w

.

E ngland and in oth e r N orth e rn stat e s b e caus e it matur e s e arli e r ,

than most o f t h e d e nt vari e ti e s and is r e asonably productiv e o f

bo th grain and fodd e r .

1 67 S w eet corn
. S w ee t corn wh e n matur e is quit e sh runk e n
.

and wrinkl e d and is transluc e nt in app e aranc e A s t h e nam e .

sugge sts this corn is swee te r than t h e oth e r typ e s I t is grown

, .

mostly fo r human consumption to be e at e n gr e e n cann e d or , , ,

dri e d T h e grain is
.

fill e d in part with a

wat e ry sugar solution
and not principally with
starch as is t h e cas e
,

with oth e r typ e s W h e n .

t h e wat e r e vaporat e s in
t h e proc e ss o f rip e n
ing t h e grain shrinks
,

and b e com e s wrinkl e d F I G 59 F li t c or ( E rl y Y llo w C

,
. . d )
n n a e an a a

1 68 P op cor n
. P op F ir t p riz
. N w E gl d C or E xp o itio
s e, 9 e n an n s n, 1 10 .

( P hotog r p h fro m N w H m p hir A g ri

a lt r l e a s e cu u a
corn k e rn e ls re s e mbl e C oll g ) e e

t h e flint typ e having a ,

cov e ring o f fl in ty mat e rial ov e r t h e crown and S id e s and t h e

starchy mat e rial at t h e c e nt e r I t is grown e xclusiv e ly for .

O i
P PP gn

1 69 . S oft cor n large round e d k e rn e ls o f t h e so ft corn

. Th e ,

vari e ti e s ar e charact e riz e d by whit e m e aly starch throughout t h e ,

e ndosp e rm t h e horny starch b e ing e ntir e ly lacking

,
T his is .

gr own only in latitud e s farth e r south than t h e U nite d S tat e s ,

as in som e o f t h e countri e s o f Ce ntral and S outh A m e rica .

1 7 0 P od cor n T his corn i s grown only as a curiosity E ach

. . .

k e rn e l is inclos e d in tiny husks and t h e k e rn e ls vary gr e atly ,

som e b e ing d e nt e d oth e rs showing t h e flint charact e rs and

, ,

oth e rs t h e so ft corn or sw e e t corn charact e rs I t is suppos e d that

- -
.

all of t h e mod e rn typ e s of corn cam e originally f rom pod corn .

1 38 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

1 71 . t A of t h e cor n p l an t
s u dy T h e st e m or stalk o f t h e .

corn plant range s f rom two to tw e nty fe e t in h e ight T h e oute r .

cov e ring of t h e stalk is hard and smooth giving str e ngth to t h e ,

st e m T h e st e m is not hollow lik e wh e at and oats but is fi ll e d

.
,

with soft spon gy pith D istribut e d through t h e pith ar e th e

,
.

circulatory ducts which carry wat e r and f ood solutions f rom t h e

roots to t h e oth e r parts of t h e plant and also distribut e t h e o r ,

g a n i ze d f ood f rom t h e l e av e s to t h e growing parts o f t h e plant .

T h e mal e flow e rs ar e
born e at t h e top of t h e
stalk in th e tass e l and ,

t h e fe mal e flow e rs on

t h e cob ( F i g An .

av e rage ta ss e l contains
as many as thirt y mil
lion y e llowish dustlik e
particl e s call e d poll e n ,

grains which ar e blown ,

about by winds s om e ,

o f th e m lodging on t h e

moist e nds o f t h e silks ,

wh e re th e y ge rminat e .

F I G 60 R . lt s o f p oor p olli tio n

. e su na
T h e poll e n f rom o n e
Wh e n s can ty p olli tio o r f w o l na n f
ccu s , e v u e s a re er

t il d d f w k r l d e lo p
i ze an e e ne s
plant usually
ve
blows to
t h e silks o f oth e r plants ,

givi ng what is known as cross pollination ( F ig which r e

-
.

1
s u l ts in cross f e rtilization -
I t is this fact that caus e s mixtur e o f
.

colors and oth e r charact e ristics in corn and mak e s it di ffi cult to ,

k e e p vari e ti e s pur e wh e n growing i n adj oining fi e lds I n plants .

such as corn which ar e naturally cross fe rtiliz e d this crossing

,
-
,

is n e c e ssary to maintain vigor .

1 72 How an d w h en t o p r ep a r e t h e s eed b ed
. T o supply t h e .

most favorabl e conditions fo r ge rmination and growth t h e ,

ground should be plow e d from fi ve to e ight inch e s d e e p should ,

1
For d i
io o f f rtil z tio i
s cu s s n e i a n n see d p l t an s, se e r
B e g e n a n d C a dw e l ll s
’

P r c ti l B ot y
a ca or I tro d tio n
an n uc t o B ot y an .
”
i
G n n an d C m p an y o .
1 49 T H E E S S E NT IA LS O F A G R I CU LTU R E

S inc e it r e quire s t h e s e e d from only tw e lv e or fi ft e e n e ars to

plant an acre o f corn no re asonabl e pains S hould be spar e d to ,

find t h e doz e n e ars that will produc e t h e larg e st yi e ld on e v e ry

acre plant e d A n important consid e ration in s e l e cting s e e d corn
.

is to s e cure a vari e ty or strain adapt e d to th e local conditions o f

soil and climat e T h e re sults of car e ful e xp e rim e nts hav e shown
.

that it is not sa fe to u s e s e e d f rom a wid e ly di ffe re nt latitud e ,

soil or e l e vation
,
.

1 7 4 Regi on al v ar i e t i es T h e r e ar e hundre ds o f vari e ti e s o f

. .

corn di ffe ring gre atly in th e ir adaptability to soils and climat e s

,
.

I n t h e middl e corn b e lt r e gion e m bracing t h e stat e s o f I llinois

-
, ,

F I G 61 . . Te n p riz e ea sr o f B oo ne C o un ty W hit e c or n

I owa I ndiana O hio M issouri e ast e rn Kansas and e ast e rn

, , , , ,
’
N e braska t h e vari e ti e s most commonly grown ar e Re id s Y e llow
,

D e nt L e a rn ing L e gal T e nd e r B oon e C ounty W hit e ( F ig

, , ,
.

S ilv e rmin e J ohnson C ounty W hit e S t C harl e s W hit e R il e y s

’

, ,
.
,

F avorit e Cl arage C hampion W hit e P e arl H ildre th s Y e llow

’

, , ,

D e nt and H iawatha Y e llow D e nt

, .

I n th e north e rn corn b e lt including t h e stat e s o f M ichigan , ,

W isconsin M inn e sota th e D akota s and north e rn I owa and

, , ,

I llinois t h e vari e ti e s most ge n e rally grown ar e S ilv e r King ,

Pick e tt 3 Y e llow D e nt G old e n E agl e M inn e sota No 1 3 P rid e , , .

,

o f t h e N orth W isconsin No 7 C lark s Y e llow D e nt W impl e s

’ ’

, .
, ,

Y e llo w D e nt ( F ig M urdock and som e o f t h e flint vari e ti e s

.
,
 T YPES O F c o RN E A RS r
’

F o r ke y se e foot t
n o e on pag e 1 41
1 4 2 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

ar e Y e llow C anada Longfe llow King P hilip W au s h akum

E arly , , , ,

T riumph Y e llow and E arly W hit e S an f ord ,

I n R hod e I sland a .

short e arly and distinctiv e whit e corn known as Rhod e I sland

, ,

W hite F lint is ge n e rally grown I n t h e south e rn C onn e cticut .

vall e y som e of t h e e arli e r d e nt typ e s lik e L e a rning Rustl e r W hit e , , ,

’
and B re we r s Y e llow ar e grown in pre fe re nc e to t h e flint typ e s
, .

1 7 5 S el ect i n g s eed ear s

. I n s e l e cting s e e d e ars two primary
.

probl e ms ar e involv e d t h e tim e and t h e m e thod o f making t h e

F I G 63
. .lli oi hi g h hool b oy l ti g
I n s -
sc s se e c n seed c or n

2
C or j dg m nt ho l d d lop rly i li f
u en
”
s u e ve ea n e

s e l e ction ( Fig I n t h e North e rn stat e s such as t h e Ne w

.
,

E ngland S tat e s I owa M inn e sota W isconsin and t h e D akotas

, , , , ,

it is v e ry n e c e ssary that t h e s e e d e ars be pick e d b e for e t h e ge n

e ral crop is matur e e nough to be harv e st e d in ord e r to b e abl e
,

to choos e e ars f rom e arly maturing plants and to be abl e to dry -

th e m thoroughly b e fore f re e zing w e ath e r occurs S outh of ce n .

tral M issouri e arly maturity is not so important a factor and ,

t h e s e e d may usually be l e ft in t h e fi e ld until t h e crop is har

v e st e d without its vitality or ge rminating pow e r b e ing inj ur e d

, .

H ow e v e r t h e practic e o f s e l e cting t h e s ee d e arly in th e fall f rom

,
 CORN 1 43

th e standing corn has so many advantage s ov e r picking t h e

s e e d at t h e tim e t h e g e n e ral crop is harv e st e d or lat e r f rom t h e ,

bin or crib that it S hould be practic e d by e v e ry corn grow e r

,
.

F i e ld s e l e ction a ff ords an opportunity to study t h e stalk

on which t h e e ar gr e w and to obs e rv e t h e surrounding stand .

T h e par e nt stalk should be vigorous and should b e ar t h e e ar

at a m e dium h e ight A w e ll d e v e lop e d e ar s e l e ct e d f rom a
.
-
,

thr e e stalk hill is more valuabl e fo r s e e d than an e qually

-
,

w e ll d e v e lop e d e ar
-

which gre w in a
o n e stal k
-
hill or
wh e re t h e surround
ing sta nd was v e ry
thin I n s e l e cting
.

s e e d e ars a ft e r th e y
hav e b e e n gath ered ,

it is impossibl e to
know wh e th e r th e ir
e xc e ll e nc e is d u e
to t h e e xc e ptionally
f avorabl e conditions
u nd e r which th e y
gre w or to th e ir
good bre e ding .

Th e common F I G 64 T i p b tt d m i dd l s
. . s, u s , an e

m e thod o f e arly Th l ft w how good e e th m i dd l

ro S w f ir
s a e ar , e e ro a a e ar ,

1 t h ”g ht r P hot g p h f ro m U i r Wt '

an (
p e a oo on e 0 ra n Ve s
fall s e l e ct i on i s to of M i o ri ) ss u

go into t h e fi e ld
with a sack and th e n s e l e ct t h e d e sire d e ars f rom t h e b e st
,

stalks I n cas e s e e d e ars ar e s e l e ct e d as t h e corn is harv e st e d

.
,

a padd e d box should be attach e d to t h e S id e o f t h e wagon to con

tain th e e ars chos e n T h e s e l e ction is usually too hastily don e
.

during harv e sting tim e I n som e cas e s s e e d e ars are s e l e ct e d as

.

t h e corn is b e ing unload e d at t h e crib E v e n this m e thod has .

much to comm e nd it ov e r th e common practic e of s e l e cting t h e

s ee d from t h e bin or crib t h e following spring .
1 44 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

1 76 . t
E ar ti cs I n choosing s ee d e ars th e re are a
ch ar ac er i s .

numb e r o f charact e rs or qualiti e s such as maturity and sound ,

n e ss S iz e and shap e charact e r o f k e rn e l and ge rm ( F igs 64 6 5

, ,
.
, ,

and and uni formity o f typ e which should be car e f ully not e d , ,

sinc e th ey indicat e yi e lding capaci ty or ar e dire ctly associat e d

with quality or br e e d .

1 7 7 M at u r i t y an d .

s oun dn es s E ars should .

b e w e ll mature d firm , ,

dry and o f good w e ight ,

f o r th e ir siz e and con

dition I mmature corn .

should be avoid e d be
caus e ( I ) it will not
k e e p w e ll wh e n store d
( )
2 it will not grow
strongly wh e n plant e d
and ( 3) it will not pro
duc e maximum yi e lds
wh e n us e d as s e e d .

T h e re is not o ft e n any
dange r from lack o f
maturity i n t h e corn
F I G 65 M or e th s rf o b s e rv tio i
an u ac e a n s
. .

r e gions south o f ce n
r e q ir d i t h e l e c tio o f d
u e n e s n se e
tral I llinois
T h p oi t d g r i t t h ri ght fro m t h l ft ;
.

e n e a ns, a e a re e e e ar

t h w ll for m d g r i
e e -
t t h l ft
e fro m t h i ght
a n s, a e e
1
,
7 8
,
S i z
a re
e a n d s h a pe
er e ar
.

Of ear s T h e siz e o f .

e ar to choos e will d e p e nd upon t h e climat e and soil i n which

t h e corn is to be grown L arge r e ars ar e chos e n f o r r e gions

.

having a long growing s e ason and f e rtil e soils and small e r ,

e ars fo r north e rn climat e s or fo r in fe rtil e soils A w e ll .

shap e d ear should be n e arly cylindrical that is S hould be o f , ,

almost uni form diam e t e r throughout S hould hav e straight rows ,

running dire ctly f rom butt to tip and should be f ull and strong ,

in t h e middl e portion S uch an ear will sh e ll a larg e p e rc e ntage

.

of uni f ormly shap e d k e rn e ls .

1 46 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

1 80 Un if or m i ty
. Of A ll o f t h e e ars s e l e ct e d should
ty pe .

con form as n e arly as possibl e to a fix e d typ e T his will te nd .

toward gre at e r u ni formity of drop in planting and also in t h e

charact e r o f t h e r e sulting crop W h e n o n e i s growing som e
.

sp e cial vari e ty t h e e ars should con form quite clos e ly to t h e

,

standard charact e ristics

o f t h e vari e ty T h e se .

d e tail e d e ar charact e r
i s t ics should b e e m

p h a s i ze d most car e f ully

wh e n making t h e fi n al
s e l e ction o f s ee d e a t s .

1 81 . S t or i n g s eed

W h e n s e e d corn
cor n .

is gath e re d in t h e fall ,

it o ft e n contains as
much as 4 0 or 50 p e r
c e nt o f moisture whil e ,

air dri e d corn conta ins

-

only from 1 0 to 1 4 p er
c e nt I f corn is f roz e n .

wh e n it contains a large
amount o f wat e r t h e e x ,

panding wat e r in t h e
g e rm c e lls rupture s t h e
c e ll walls and t h e vital ,

ity o f t h e s e e ds will be
F I G 67 Th e b i d e r t w i n e s e e d h a g e r
. . n -
n
v e ry s e riously inj ur e d
and may be d e stroy e d A ny dry w e ll v e ntilat e d room or build
.
,
-

ing which is mous e and rat proo f is satis factory fo r storage .

C e llars or bas e m e nts without furnac e h e at op e n spac e s ov e r ,

grain bins and n e ar live stock barb e d wir e fe nc e s windmills

,
-
, ,

and t h e sid e s o f buildings though som e tim e s us e d are not

, ,

d e sirabl e .

I t is importa nt that t h e e ars be plac e d so that no tw o touch

until th e y ar e thoroughly dri e d A fe w practical m e thods are
.
 C O RN 1 47

bind e r twin e us e d as illustrat e d ( F ig ( ) h corn tr

( )
I 2 t e e
. e ,

mad e by driving t e np e nny finishing nails in a timb e r at an

angl e and about two and o n e hal f inch e s apart t h e butts o f t h e ,

e ars b e ing plac e d on t h e nails ; and ( 3) t h e P ittsburgh e l e ctric

w e ld two by four inch m e sh fe nc e cut so as to form a hange r

- -
.

T h e r e ar e num e rous hange rs on t h e mark e t costing f rom hal f

a c e nt to a c e nt and a hal f an e ar but t h e hom e mad e on e s ar e ,

as satis factory and l e ss e xp e nsiv e .

1 82 Tes t i n g t h e ger m i n at in g p ow er of t h e s eed

. C alcula .

tions S how that only about 6 5 or 7 0 stalks o f corn are s e cur e d

fo r e v e ry 1 00 k e rn e ls
plant e d W hil e such
.

f actors as cold w e ath e r ,

w e t soil car e l e ss cultiva

,

tion and ins e ct ravage s

,

ar e partly re sponsibl e
fo r poor stands t h e u s e ,

o f s e e d o f poor vital

ity is t h e chi e f and

altoge th e r pr e v e nta bl e
caus e Th e ge r m i n al
.

tion t e st should be com

F I G 68 G r i f ro m d i ff r t ra ns ho wi g e en ea s, s n
l d only a f w w ks
. .

p e t e e e e
d ff r ce i s tr e g th o f g ro w th
i e en s n n

b e for e planting tim e in ,

ord e r that o n e may be c e rtain that t h e vita lity of t h e s e e d has

not b e e n inj ure d by s e v e re w e ath e r a fte r t h e t e st was mad e .

I t is also e asi e r to mainta in a uni form t e mp e rature in t h e t e st e r

in t h e spring T e sting is o f l e ss importanc e south o f t h e lati
.

tud e o f S t L ouis but it will pay to mak e t h e t e st wh e re v e r

.
,

corn is plant e d .

A g e rmination t e st culls out t h e d e ad or w e ak e ars ( F igs 6 8 .

,

69 and
,
T h e r e sults o f e xt e nsiv e inv e stigations S how that
s e e d which g e rm i nat e s strongly in t h e t e st e r giv e s a b e tt e r stand
and produc e s a large r yi e ld than s e e d which do e s not show high
or strong ge rminating pow e r W h e n s e e d which show e d 1 d e ad
.

k e rn e l out o f e v e ry 6 k e rn e ls t e st e d was plant e d alongsid e o f s e e d

1 4 8 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U RE

which gav e p e rf e ct ge rmination th e stand was d e cr e as e d

, p e r

c e nt and t h e yi e ld bush e ls p e r acr e W ith s e e d showing .

1 00 p e r c e nt g e rmination but with 1 k e rn e l out o f e v e ry 6

t e st e d showing w e ak ge rmination t h e stand was d e cre as e d 6 p e r

,

c e nt and t h e yi e ld bush e ls p e r acr e as compar e d with t h e

r e sults obtain e d f rom using s e e d that ge rminat e d compl e t e ly
and strongly .

1 83 Gr adi n g s eed corn

. I t is important to hav e t h e k e rn e ls
.

as uni form i n siz e and S hap e as possibl e so that th e plante r will

F I G 69
. . A s a n d -b o x s e e d t t r
es e

drop th e m e venly T his is r e adily accomplish e d by running t h e

.

corn through a corn grad e r or sort e r I n sh e lling s e e d e ars t h e

.

butt and tip k e rn e ls should be discard e d not b e caus e th ey will

not produc e good e ars but b e caus e th e s e k e rn e ls ar e so i rr e gu
,

lar in siz e and S hap e that th e y cannot be plant e d succ e ss fully

by machin e ry .

1 84 M e t h od s Of p l an t i n g
. C orn is plant e d e ith e r on t h e
.

surfac e in rows or i n t h e bottom o f a shallow furrow op e n e d

,

with a disk atta chm e nt on t h e plant e r or in t h e bottom o f a ,

de e p furrow op e n e d with a list e r S urfac e planting is t h e .

common m e thod in most o f t h e corn growing r e gions L istin g -

.
1 50 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C ULT UR E

1 86 . Th e b es t t i me t o pl an t
b e st tim e to plant corn . Th e
vari e s with th e locality t h e s e ason and t h e soil No d e finit e
, , .

cal e ndar dat e can be s e t fo r any giv e n ar e a M i d s e ason plant .

-

ings ar e usually t h e most succ e ss f ul T h e accompanying tabl e .

S hows t h e av e rage planting tim e rang e in various s e ctions -

T I M E O F P LA N T I N G C O R N I N C E R T A I N R E G I O N S 1

REG I O N BE G I NN I NG G E NE RA L EN D I NG

Gu lf t ts a es Mar c h 1
5 Ap ril 5 M ay 10

Cen tr l t t
a s a es ( V ir g i n i a to K an Ap ril 1 5 M ay 1 M ay 2 5
s as )
N orth r t t e n s a es ( Ne w York to M ay 10 M ay 20 J un e 1

Mi ot )
nn es a

1 87 . How deep t o p l an t i s plant e d only su ffi ci ently

. C orn
d e e p to insure moisture fo r prompt ge rmination T h e prop e r .

d e pth will vary from o n e to two and o n e hal f inch e s Th e -

.

loos e r dri e r warm e r and more granular t h e soil and t h e

, , ,

warm e r t h e air t h e d e e p e r t h e k e rn e ls ar e plante d C orn

, .

should b e plant e d shallow e arly in t h e s e ason and t h e d epth o f ,

planting should be incre as e d as t h e s e ason advanc e s .

1 88 Cu l tiv a ti on of cor n
. T h e obj e cts o f cultivation ar e .

( )
I to d e stroy w e e ds which a r e obj e ctionabl e b e caus e th e y u se

plant food and moisture n e e d e d by t h e corn plants ; ( 2 ) to con

s e rve moisture by k ee ping on t h e sur fac e a mulch or blank e t , ,

o f loos e soil ; f f or th e
( )
3 to provid e mor e avorabl e conditions
p l a n t t h u
,
s making
. f ood availabl e f o r t h e growing crop .

S urfac e plant e d corn is ordinarily harrow e d onc e or twic e

-

with a smoothing harrow b e for e t h e corn ge rminat e s T his .

e arly cultivation stirs t h e surf ac e thus pr e v e nting t h e f ormation

,

o f a crust and d e stroys t h e young w e e ds an d grass as soon as

,

th ey b e gin to grow H arrowing S hould be r e p e at e d wh e n th e

.

plants are a fe w inch e s high .

1
Y r B ook o f t h
ea e Un it ed S t t
a es r
D e pa t m e n t o f A g ri lt r cu u e, 1
9 1 0, p 49 1 . .
 C ORN 1 5 1

C orn should be cultivat e d f r e qu e ntly e nough to k ee p th e land

f r e e f rom w e e ds and to k e e p t h e surfac e soil loose U nd e r .

most conditions thre e or four such cultivations ar e s u fli ci e n t ,

though occasionally as many as s e v e n can be profitably giv e n .

A poor condition o f t h e s e e d be d t h e growth o f w e e ds and

, ,

e ith e r f r e qu e nt h e avy rains or e xc e ssiv e ly dry w e ath e r will

incre as e t h e numb e r o f cultivations re quire d to grow a crop .

gr ou n d

Deep till ag e des troy s c or root

n s

A t t h e first cultivation t h e ground may be stirre d rath e r

d ee ply and clos e to t h e plants without inj ury to t h e root syst e m ,

but lat e r cultivations S hould be shallow and t h e shov e ls should

,

be k e pt farth e r f rom t h e plants Th e roots grow within a f e w

.

inch e s o f t h e surf ac e and und e r most conditions e xt e nd from

row to row ( F ig . D e e p cultivation inj ur e s many o f t h e
f ee ding roots and d e cr e as e s t h e yi e ld L ist e d corn can b e culti
-
.

vat e d d e e p e r without inj u r y to t h e roots than can surf ac e plant e d -

corn E xp e rim e nts show that ridging t h e corn rath e r than l e av

.

ing t h e ground almost l e v e l cuts o ff a large r numb e r o f roots ,

do e s not cons e rv e moisture so w e ll and thus re duc e s t h e yi e ld

, .
1 5 2 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

I n list e d corn t h e ridge s are first l e v e l e d W h e n t h e corn is .

thr ee or four i nch e s tall t h e dirt is thrown f rom t h e plants By ,

.

r e v e rsing t h e disks at t h e s e cond cultivation e nough dirt can ,

b e work e d i nto t h e f urrows to cov e r t h e grass and w ee ds in t h e

rows O ccasionally a spik e tooth harrow is us e d to smooth down
.
-

t h e ridg e s though this has a t e nd e ncy to cov e r t h e corn

,
A ft e r .

t h e ridge s ar e l e v e l e d t h e cultivation should b e t h e sam e as f o r

,

surfac e plant e d corn -

.

1 89 Har v e st i n g
. W hil e e xp e rim e nts ar e constantly b e ing
.

mad e with machin e s for harv e sting corn no satis factory solu ,

tion o f th e probl e m has b e e n f ound M uch o f t h e corn in th e .

principal corn stat e s is harv e st e d lat e in t h e fall f rom t h e stand

ing stalks and t h e stal k fi e lds ar e pasture d during t h e wint e r
months T his is a wast e ful practic e
. .

I n parts o f t h e S outh corn is som e tim e s harv e st e d by strip

ping o r topping S tripping consists i n re moving t h e l e av e s
.

fo r forag e whil e th e y ar e gr e e n and in husking t h e e ars lat e r .

I n topping t h e stalks ar e cut o ff j ust abov e t h e e ars fo r f orage

, , ,

and t h e e ars ar e gath e re d by hand wh e n th e y ar e fully mature .

I n t h e E aste rn and t h e N orth e rn stat e s n e arly all t h e corn is

e ith e r cut and shock e d and fi e l d cur e d or it is cut and stor e d in -
,

t h e silo W h e n corn is to be fi e l d cur e d it is allow e d to be

.
-
,

com e almost mature b e for e it is harv e st e d T h e corn is husk e d .

by hand and t h e stov e r f e d whol e or t h e corn is husk e d by ,

machin e ry and t h e stov e r shre dd e d and stack e d O n small .

are as and wh e re labor is pl e nti ful t h e crop is usually cut by

hand I n t h e corn b e lt machin e s which cut and bin d t h e corn
.
,

into bundl e s are commonly us e d .

I n som e corn re gions it costs as much to harv e st t h e crop as

it do e s to grow it A . bush e l corn crop m e ans -

an ave rage o f about 30 bush e ls fo r e ve ry p e rson i n t h e U nit e d

S tat e s T o husk this co m r e quire s t h e e quival e nt o f a s e v e n
.

and a hal f hour day o f labor for e ve ry man woman and child
- - -
, ,

in th e U nite d S tate s .
1 54 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

th e n umber of s a t l ks p e r ac e r th at w ere f r ui tfu l W ha t

.
p e c e r
n age oft th e

t lk s w e r e b ar re n ?
s a

1 6 M ak e a c o un t i n s e v e ra l cor n fi e l ds an d as ce rtai
.
n t h e p e r ce n t of

s ta n d o f f r u i t fu l s ta l ks
,
o f s ta lk s b e ari n g n u bbi ri s
,
a d ,
n of s a t l ks b e ar i ng

g oo d e ars .

E XE RCIS E S
1 J udgi n g corn In j udgin g e x h ibits o f corn th e purpos e sh ould
. .

b e t o s e lec t t h e b es t se e d T h e s core card i s u s u ally e m ploye d in

.

b e ginning th e s tudy o f e ar c h aracte ri stics It calls atte ntio n in a l og .

ic al orde r t o th e diffe re nt e ar c h ara cte ri s tics a n d a s sign s a v alu e t o

e ac h S coring h ow e ve r i s n o t a n e x act m at h e m a tical m e t h od t o b e
.
, ,

f ollow e d m e c h an ically T h e s core c ard s h ould n o t b e u se d in s e l e cti n g

.

o r j ud ging e x h ibit s aft e r t h e s tud e nt h a s l e a r n e d t h e c h a ra ct e ri s ti c s

o f good s e e d a n d h a s d e v e lop e d a s ound j ud gm e n t T h e agri cultural .

college s an d t h e corn breed e rs as s ociation s o f t h e country h av e d e ve l

’

ope d s core card s pl anne d t o s uit local co n ditio n s T h e t e ac h e r s h ould .

procure copi e s o f th e local s core card T h e s core ca rd in Appe ndix B .

appli e s in a g e n e ral w ay t o t h e condition s o f t h e corn b e lt a n d e ach ,

s tud e nt s h ould s c o re o n e o r m or e e ar s o f corn .

2 S h el l i n g qual i t i e s
. 1 C olle ct e ar s o f v ariou s qu aliti e s a s f ol
. .

low s : n o t fi lle d at th e butt ; n o t fi lle d a t t h e t ip ; p artially fi ll e d along

t h e co b ; a co b w h ic h bore n o gra i n s ; e ar s b a dly m ix e d i n color s ;
ve ry roug h e ars ; s m oot h e ars ; t ape ring e ars ; cylindrical e ars .

2 C ompa re t h e m aturity o f t h e a bov e e ars

. .

3 S h
. e ll a r o w o f grain s fro m a t ap e rin
g e a r and pl a c e t h e g r a in s

in orde r b e side t h os e o f a r o w from a cylindrical e ar C o m p are t h e .

grain s in d ept h bre adt h an d t h ickne s s

, ,
.

4 W .e i g h a t a p e ri ng e ar a n d a cylindric al e ar o f approxi m ate ly t h e

s am e l e n gt h ; t h e n s h e ll bot h w e igh th e g rain s an d de te rm ine t h e
, ,

p e rcent age o f w eigh t w h ic h t h e grain s m ak e in e ac h cas e .

5 W .e i g h a l l t h e g r a in s f ro m t w o row s o f a t a p e ring e a r an d f rom

t w o row s o f a cylindrical e ar an d co m p are .

3 P ol l i na t i on
. C ov e r a n e ar wit h a l arge p ap e r b ag be fore t h e e ar
.

h as b e e n pollin ate d D u s t ple nty o f polle n o n t h e s ilk s o f a n e ig h b o r

.

i n g e ar Not e h o w q u ickly t h e s ilk s o f t h e pollin at e d e ar d ie an d h o w

.

lo ng t h os e o f t h e u n p ol l in at e d e ar live an d to w h at l e ngt h t h ey gro w .

4 Gradi n g S eed
. Ex amine a corn pl ante r a t t h e fa rm o f a p atron
.

or at a n i mple m e nt s tore Block th e pl ante r so that t h e grains m ay b e

.
 C O RN 1 55

cau gh t an d counte d as t h e y are dro pped D rop a pint o f gr ain s h e lle d .

f rom t h e tip s ; a pint S h ell e d f ro m t h e butt s ; a pint S h e lle d f ro m

t h e middl e o f t h e e ar W h at is t h e re cord o f t h e nu m b e r o f grain s
.

dro pp e d ? W hy ar e t h e butt an d tip grain s n o t u se d fo r m ac h i n e

plantin g ? W hy is it wi s e t o grade s e e d co rn b e fore planting ? H o w
m ay t h i s b e do n e ?
5 An ex per i m en t i n corn cu l t u r e
. Arrange t o h ave o n e o f t h e .

pupil s o r a farm e r ne ar t h e s ch o o l co n duct th e following tillage

, ,

e xp e ri m e n t f o r t h e s c h o o l

1 H av e 4 plots o f 4 row s e ac h 4 0 fe e t lo n g
.
,
.

2 Plot No I s h oul d n o t b e cultivate d T h e w e e d s S h o uld b e

. . .

allow e d t o g ro w t h roug h o ut t h e y e a r wit h o ut b e ing m ol e s t e d .

Plot N o 2 s h ould b e cultiv at e d s h allow as o ft e n as it i s n e ce s

3 . .

sary t o kill t h e w e e d s a n d t o m ai n t ai n a u n i fo rm m ulc h .

4 Pl
. o t N o 3 s h o uld b e cultiv
. a t e d d e e p a n d clo s e t o t h e c o r n r o w s , ,

t h roug h o ut th e s e as on .

5 In
. plot N o 4 k e e p t h e w e e d s kill e d by s craping t h e s ur fa c e
.
,

but d o n o t m ain tain an y m ul c h W h e n m ature d re m ov e th e co rn f ro m .

,

t h e e nd s o f t h e r o w s so as t o r e duc e t h e l e n g t h o f t h e row s t o 3 1 f e e t .

I f t h e corn i s c h e ck row e d t h e di s tan c e b e tw e e n t h e h ill s i s 3 f e e t

-
,

6 i n c h e s T h i s will m e an t h a t e ac h plot s h ould b e 4 row s wid e a n d

.

9 h ill s lo n
g an d s h ould co n t ai n
, 3 6 h ill s T h i s w o uld b e a b o ut o n e .

o n e h undre dt h o f an a cre
-
G at h e r t h e corn f ro m e ac h plot an d w e igh
.

f rom e ach plot s e p arat e ly M ultiply t h e re s ult by 1 00 an d divid e by .

0 a n d t h e an s w e r will b e t h e approxi m ate nu m b e r o f bu s h e l s t o t h e

7 ,

acre W h at conclu s ion s can y o u m ak e a s re s ults f rom t h i s e xp e ri m e nt ?

.

REF E RE NCE S

H UN T T H OS F C e r e al s i n A m e ri ca O r an ge J u dd C o m p an y
. . . .

M O NT G O M E R Y , E G T h e C or n C ro p s T h e M acm ill an C o m p an y
. . . .

S A R G E NT , F L C or n P l an t s H o ug hto n M i ffi i n C o m p an y
. . . .

Ho w t o G ro w an Ac r e o f C or n , F a r m er s B u l l et i n 5 3 7 , U n it e d S t at e s
’

t t o f Agri c lt r e
D e p ar m e n u u .

C or n C lti v ati o n F r m ers B u l l et i n 4 1 4 U n i t e d S ta t e s D e p ar t m e t o f

’
u ,
a ,
n

Agricu lt r e u .

S e e d C or n F a r m er s B u l l et i n 4 1 5 U it e d S ta t e s D e p ar t m e t o f Ag ri
’
, ,
n n

cu lt u re .
 C H A P TE R XIV

THE S M ALL GRAI NS

W h a t w as r t r f r it f l
t h e c au s e o f th
o f th l d i e i t ti m ?
g ea e u u n ess e an n an c e n es

W it b
as i tho d y
e c au s e l n lti t d b y t h h d o f g r l
se a s t h e an d w as cu va e e an s e n e a s,

an d th rth d li ght d to b p lo w d w ith h r d or d w ith l r l

e ea , e e e d e a s a e a ne au e s an

by ap lo w m w h h d b
an ho or d w ith
o tri
a m p h or w
een it b n th e a u , as e c au s e e se

m enp lo w d th ir fi l d w ith t h
e e m d ili g e w ith w hi h th y p it h d th ir
s e sa e e n ce c e c e e

ca mp d o w d th ir g r i w ith t h
s , an s e m r w ith w hi h th y f or m d th ir
e a n e sa e ca e c e e e

ar m i f or b ttl
es P L I NY
a e

I W HE AT
.

1 90 . Wh en w h eat gr ow i n g b egan
-
. M an was still a cav e
dw e ll e r wh e n h e first gath e r e d t h e
wild wh e at b e rri e s and
ground th e m into flour with his t e e th C e nturi e s lat e r t h e .

wh e at was store d fo r future u s e and

th e n ground i n a hollow ston e with
anoth e r ston e ( F i g as it was .

rock e d or roll e d back and forth Th e .

flour black but nutritious was mix e d , ,

with wat e r and salt and bak e d in t h e

ash e s o f t h e op e n fi r e .

F I G 7 2 S to b ow l dp s ne an e
L at e r t h e plow took t h e plac e o f
. .

ci t flo r m ill ,
tl e — an an en u

t h e crook e d stick i n t h e cultivation

o f t h e soil Th e sickl e was f ollow e d by t h e cradl e and t h e cradl e
.

by th e re ap e r ( F ig 2 ) th e n cam e t h e s e l f bind e r f ollow e d by

.
-
,

t h e h e ad e r L astly th e re cam e t h e combin e d harv e st e r and

.

thre sh e r which harv e sts and thr e sh e s forty acre s or more a

,

day and d e posits t h e grain i n sacks r e ady fo r t h e mills .

1
56
1 5 8 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

or hailstorms A lso in humid climat e s t h e conditions fo r p r e

.
,

paring t h e ground and fo r s e e ding ar e usually mor e favorabl e in

t h e fall than in t h e spring .

C omm e rcially wh e ats are classifi e d into hard s e mihard so ft , , ,

and macaroni typ e s T h e hard wh e ats ar e f rom t h e subhumid

.

re gions and are e sp e cially valuabl e fo r bre ad making purpos e s -

.

Th e so ft wh e ats ar e t h e plump starchy W h e ats f rom t h e humid ,

r e gions and mak e a flour e sp e cially d e sirabl e fo r pastri e s crack e rs

, , ,

and biscuits but l e ss d e sirabl e fo r making loav e s o f bre ad

, .

F I G 74 . . W h e at d i tri t o f t h U i t d S t t
s c s e n e a es

Th e r
av e ag e an n u a l p rod tio uc n o f e ac h t t i how E h d t r p r
s a e s s n . ac o e e sen s t
bu s h l of wh t
e s ea

1 92 . Nor t h ern s pr i n g -
w h eat di st r i ct . Th e U nit e d S tat e s
may be divid e d into wh e at b e lts or districts according to t h e , ,

kind o f wh e at grown ( F ig T h e spring wh e at district o f

.
-

North D akota S outh D akota and M inn e sota ( F i g 7 5) is o f

, ,
.

gre at importanc e T his district compris e s t h e cold e st wh e at

.

growing are a o f t h e U nit e d S tat e s F i fe and B lu e st e m vari e ti e s .

ar e grown principally t h e form e r having a smooth cha ff and t h e

,

latt e r a v e lv e t cha ff B oth are usually b e ardl e ss A mong t h e

. .

be st and most wid e ly grown vari e ti e s ar e M inn e sota No 1 69 .

,
 T H E S M A LL G R A I N S 1 59

a B lu e st e m vari e ty originat e d at th e M inn e sota E xp e rim e nt

S tation ; M inn e sota No 1 6 3 a F i fe vari e ty originat e d at t h e
.
,

sam e station ; and North D akota No 66 a F i fe vari e ty origi .

,

n at e d at t h e N orth D akota E xp e rim e nt S tation T h e s e vari e ti e s .

,

wh e n grown in this are a produc e t h e b e st milling wh e at in t h e

,

U nit e d S tat e s A third class t h e so call e d v e lv e t cha ff wh e at is

.
,
- -
,

grown to a consid e rabl e e xt e nt in c e ntral M inn e sota and c e ntral

S outh D akota T his wh e at is a b e ard e d F i fe with smooth white
.
,

cha ff note d for e arlin e ss high yi e ld and w e ight p e r bush e l It

, , , .

FI G 75
. . W h e at in th e s ho c k ( M i n n e s ot a )

s e lls for l e ss than oth e r vari e ti e s b e caus e o f its S lightly in fe rior

milling qualiti e s T h e duru m wh e at o f t h e U nit e d S tat e s is
.

also produc e d in this district principally i n north e ast e rn S outh

,

D akota and i n south e ast e rn North D akota D u rum wh e at was .

first grown in this are a in 1 8 99 1 9 00 and t h e annual produc

—
,

tion is now about bush e ls I t yi e lds f rom 1 5 to 1 00.

p e r c e nt mor e than common spring wh e at i n this ar e a and is ,

not e d chi e fly for its re sistanc e to drought and rust

1 93 Har d w i n t er w h eat di s t r i ct
.
- -
T h e hard wint e r wh e at
.
- -

district bord e rs t h e hard spring wh e at district on t h e w e st t h e

- -
,

south and th e south e ast th e two som ewhat ov e rlappin g A lin e

, ,
.
1 60 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

approximat e ly dividing t h e two districts would pass through

F orsyth e ( M onta na ) north e ast e rn W yoming north e rn Ne braska
, , ,

S ioux C i ty ( I owa ) and L a C ross e ( W isconsin )

, .

Th e principal hard wint e r wh e at producing stat e s o f this

- - -

ar e a ar e Kansas Ne braska M ontana and portions o f O kla

, , ,

homa C olorado and I owa T h e vari e ti e s grown ar e K h arko f

, , .

and T urk e y or improv e d strains o f th e s e vari e ti e s T h e y com

, .

pris e t h e hardi e st vari e ti e s o f wint e r wh e at known and ar e ,

th e re fore grown t h e farth e st north .

1 94 S of t an d s em i h a r d w i n t e r w h eat di stri ct
. T h e are a -
.

producing s e mihard and so ft wint e r wh e at li e s south and e ast

o f that producing hard wint e r wh e at and compris e s t h e stat e s

o f I llinois I ndiana O hio P e nnsylvania K e ntucky T e nn e ss e e

, , , , , ,

M issouri and t h e e ast e rn parts o f O klahoma Kansas and

, , ,

N e braska T h e annual rain fall vari e s f rom 3 5 to 4 5 inch e s

. .

T h e hard wh e at producing ar e a o f Kansas and Ne braska has a

- -

rain fall varying f rom 1 7 inch e s on t h e w e st e rn bord e r to a littl e

ov e r 30 inch e s at t h e e ast e rn bord e r F e ature s o f this are a ar e .

t h e scarcity o f rain fall during t h e summ e r months and t h e

r e lativ e ly high t e mp e rature s which pre vail T his hast e ns t h e .

maturity o f t h e grain producing a k e rn e l v e ry hard and high

,

i n prote in Th e opposit e conditions which pr e vail i n t h e so ft

.

wh e at ar e a produc e s a so ft grain high i n starch and low e r in ,

prot e in .

1 9 5 P acifi c coa st di str i ct T h e wh e at o f t h e Pacific coast

. .

r e gion is v e ry plump starchy and so ft T h e annual production

, , .

is smal l and app e ars to b e d e cre asing T h e main producing .

are a is in Cali fornia .

Th e rain fall o f this ar e a occurs e ntire ly in t h e wint e r s e ason .

T h e rainl e ss summ e rs p e rmit t h e wh e at a ft e r it is rip e to stand , ,

i n t h e fi e ld with littl e dange r o f loss I t is this fact which allows .

t h e u s e o f a machin e that harv e sts and thr e sh e s t h e crop at o n e

op e ration l e aving t h e sack e d grain in windrows i n much t h e
,

sam e mann e r as t h e ordinary bind e r l e av e s t h e bundl e s T his .

m e thod o f harv e sting and thre shing mak e s it n e c e ssary to grow

vari e ti e s which do not lodge or shatt e r B oth th e s e qualiti e s are .
1 62 T H E E S S ENT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

plow e d A s a rul e t h e incre as e in yi e ld gain e d f rom plowing

.
,

more than e ight inch e s d e e p i n any soil or climate do e s not pay

fo r t h e e xtra cost and it is probably not advisabl e to plow to this
,

d epth e v e ry y ear T h e compact soils of t h e humid b e lt should

.

not be plow e d d e e p e r p e rhaps than fi v e or six inch e s on t h e av e r

, ,

a ge I f wh e at is rotat e d with oth e r crops and t h e land is plow e d

.

F I G 76. . H o w t h e y i e l d m ay b e i r
nc e as e d by ti m ly p lo w i
e ng

de ep fo r t h e
crop which pre c e d e s wh e at t h e d e pth of plowing ,

fo r t h e wh e at may be l e ss than wh e n no rotation is practic e d .

I f plowing must b e don e imm e diat e ly b e f ore s e e ding it sh ould ,

be shallow or e ls e t h e ground will be too loos e fo r good re sults

, .

D e e ply plow e d soil should always hav e ampl e tim e to s e ttl e

b e fore t h e crop is sown .

2 01 Va l u e Of t i m el y p l ow i n g
. T h e importa nc e o f tim e ly .

plowing at t h e prop e r d e pth is w e ll shown ( F ig 7 6) by an e xp e r i .

1
m e nt conduct e d at t h e Kansas S tat e A gricultural C oll e ge Land .

1 B u l l et i n 1 7 6, K a n s as Ag ri lt r l E x p ri m t S t tio
cu u a e en a n .
 T H E S M A LL G R A I N S 1 63

was pre pare d fo r wh e at in e l e v e n di ffe r e nt ways I n e ach cas e .

t h e s e e d mann e r o f s e e ding and kind o f ground was t h e sam e

, , .

T h e only di ffe re nc e was in t h e tim e and m e thod o f pr e paring t h e

ground Th e r e sults are give n in t h e following stat e m e nt
.

No . 1 . ground w as disk e d only b e fore pl anting T h e av e r

Th e , .

age co s t o f pre p a rin g t h e g round w as p e r a cr e an d t h e yi e ld ,

w as bu s h e l s w h ich at t h e m arke t pric e w h e n t h re s h e d w as

,

wort h le aving a b alan ce o f only p e r a cre t o p ay fo r

t h e co s t o f s e e d se e ding h a rve s ti n g an d m ark e tin g an d t o p ay a
, , ,

pro fi t to t h e growe r .

N o 2 T h e ground w a s plow e d 3 inc h e s d e e p ( t o o s h allow)

. .

S e pte mb e r 1 5 ( t o o l at e f o r b e s t r e s ult s ) T h e av e rage yi e ld in .

th i s t e s t w as bu s h e l s wo rt h $ 1 ,
a n d t h e co s t o f pr e p a

ration w as 3 l e aving a b al anc e o f

, p e r a cr e wit h w h ic h
to m ee t e xp e n se s an d p ay a pro fi t .

N o 3 G round w as plow e d 7 inc h e s d e e p in S e pt e mb e r A yi e ld

. . .

of bu s h e l s wort h $ 1 , w as obt ain e d T h e co s t o f plowing .

a n d pre p aration o f t h e ground w as e s ti m at e d a t le avi n g a

b al anc e o f
N o 4 L an d w as do u bl e di s k e d J uly 1 5 t o kill w e e d s an d p re
. .

vent e vaporation o f mois ture an d pl o w e d 3 inc h e s d e e p S e pte m

,

b e r 1 5 T h e av e rage yi e ld w a s
. bu s h e l s wort h Th e ,

co s t o f prep arin g th e gro und w as l e avin g a b al ance o f $ 1

N o 5 Au gu s t 1 5 t h e pl o t f or t h i s t e s t w as plow e d 7 i nc h e s
. .

d e e p an d work e d afte rward s s u ffi cie n tly t o kill w e e d s an d co n

s e rv e moi s ture T h e co s t o f pre p aration w a s $ 4 t h e yi e ld
.
,

bu s h e l s wort h
,
l e avi n g a b al an ce o f
N o 6 Au gu s t 1 5 l and w as plowe d 7 i n c h e s d ee p but w as
. .
,

not work e d u n til S e pte m b e r 1 5 Th e co s t o f pre paration w as .

t h e av e rag e yi e ld bu s h e l s v alu e d at l e avin g

,

a balance o f A s t h e pre p aration o f t h e s e e d b e d in t h i s

t e st w as id e ntical wit h No 5 exc e pt t h at t h e ground w as n o t
.
,

work e d fo r a m onth afte r plowing t h e e arly di sking w as wort h ,

p e r a cr e .

N o 7 J uly 1 5 ( ri gh t t im e ) l an d plow e d 3 inc h e s d e e p ( t o o

. .

s h allow produc e d an a v e rage yi e ld o f bu h e l s wort h $ 1

) 7 s ,

T h e c o s t o f pre p aration w as le avin g a balance o f

e r a cre
p .
1 64 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

No 8 In t h i s t e s t t h e ground w as double di ske d J uly 1 5 an d

. .

t h e n Augu s t 1 5 plow e d 7 i n c h e s d e e p Th e co s t o f pre p aration

, ,
.

w as an d t h e yi e ld bu s h e l s w a s wort h at , ,

m ark e t price l e aving t o p ay ot h e r e xpe n s e s

,
.

N o 9 J uly 1 5 t h i s plot w as li s t e d 5 inc h e s d ee p and t h e

. . ,

ridge s s plit Augu s t I 5 T h e av e rage yie ld for t h e t h re e ye ars wa s.

bu s h el s wort h T h e co s t o f pre p aration w as

,

le avin g a b al anc e o f
N o 1 0 In t h i s t e s t t h e l and w as li s t e d 5 inc h e s d e e p o n
. .

J uly 1 5 an d w as work e d down l e ve l th e f o llowing mont h t o fi rm

t h e see d b e d an d pre ve nt lo s s o f moi s tur e T h e av e rage yi e ld .

w as bu s h e l s worth T h e co s t o f pre p aration w as

,

l e aving a b al ance o f
N o 1 1 Lan d plow e d 7 i n c h e s d e e p ( righ t d e pt h ) J uly 1 5
. .

ri
( g h t ti m e
) produc e d a n av e rage yi e ld o f bu s h e l s pe r

acre worth,
T h e co s t o f pre p aration w as l e aving
t h e l arge s t b al anc e o f an y i n t h e t e s t .

2 02 . t ti on w i t h
P r ep ar i n g l an d f or w h ea t w h en grow n i n ro a

ot h er cr op s I t has b e e n found that wh e n wh e at is grown in

.

rotation with oth e r crops t h e yi e ld is not only b e tt e r but is o ft e n ,

1
obtain e d at l e ss e xp e ns e T his is shown by an e xp e rim e nt in .

pre paring ground f or wh e at that was us e d fo r oats in 1 9 1 2 and

fo r corn in 1 9 1 1 T his ground was plow e d 7 inch e s d e e p f o r
.

t h e corn crop and 6 inch e s d e e p fo r t h e oats A ft e r t h e oats .

w e re harv e st e d t h e ground was pr e pare d fo r wh e at in fi ve dif

,

f e r e n t ways with t h e following r e sults T hre e plots w e re plow e d

i n July 3 inch e s 7 inch e s and 1 2 inch e s d ee p r e sp e ctiv e ly A ll
, , , , .

thre e o f th e s e plots produc e d practically t h e sam e yi e lds

bush e ls f o r t h e 3 inch plowing bush e ls for t h e 7 inch
-
,
-

plowing and 4 4 bush e ls fo r t h e 1 2 inch plowing T h e cost o f

,
-
.

pre paring t h e ground how e v e r was quit e di ffe r e nt fo r

, ,

t h e 3 inch plowing
-
fo r t h e 7 inch plowing and ,
fo r -
,

t h e 1 2 inch plowing T his e xp e rim e nt shows that wh e r e wh e at

-
.

is rotat e d with oth e r crops and t h e ground is w e ll pre pare d fo r

th e m d e e p plowing is not so e ss e ntial as wh e n t h e wh e at is
,

grown continuously upon t h e sam e land .

1 B u l l et i n 1 76, K an s a s Ag ri lt r l E x p ri m t S t tio
cu u a e en a n .
1 66 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C ULT UR E

e nough to produc e a consid e rabl e growth b e fore wint e r s e ts in ,

to avoid winte r killing B u t wh e re t h e H e ssian fly is pre val e nt

.
,

it is n e c e ssary to s e e d late e nough to avoid damage f rom this

sourc e I n subhumid re gions t h e f re qu e nt lack o f s e asonal
.
,

rains giv e s t h e farm e r l e ss choic e in t h e tim e o f s e e ding T h e .

usual plan in th e s e r e gions is to s e e d e arly if rains occur O th e r .

wis e t h e grain is sown lat e som e tim e s so lat e that it do e s not

, ,

co m e u p b efor e wint e r s e ts in
_
E arly s e e ding as a sa fe guard .

against wint e r killing app e ars to be l e ss e ss e ntial th e re than in

hum id r e gions A h e avy .

growth in t h e fall us e s
t h e r e s e rv e moistur e in
t h e soil and may r e sult

i n a short crop t h e fol

lowing s e ason .

2 06. How m u ch s eed

t o sow t o t h e acr e . From

to 6 p e cks of s e e d are 3
usually sown to an acre .

W inte r wh e at is not
usually sown as thickly
as S pring wh e at T h e .

rat e is l e ss on arid lands

U U d n d e r wo o d d e rw o o
than on humid and on n

F I G 78 H r ti g w h e t i P l e ti ,
. . a ves n a n a s ne
poor soils than on rich
soils O n e bush e l o f Turk e y wh e at contains f rom
. to
k e rn e ls I f all ar e viabl e I bush e l of wh e at p e r
.
,

acre will produc e about 2 0 plants to e ach square foot .

2 07 Th e dep t h t o s ow
. W h e at is usual ly sown f rom o n e to
.

thre e inch e s d e e p according to t h e sur fac e conditions o f t h e soil

, .

A s a rul e planting f rom o n e to two inch e s d e e p giv e s t h e b e st

,

r e sults if t h e soil is su ffici e ntly moist at that d e pth to insur e

ge rmination T h e d e pth o f s e e ding do e s not a ffe ct th e d e pth to
.

which t h e roots o f wh e at p e n e trat e as i s som e tim e s thought ,

.

T h e aim th e re for e S hould be to s e e d at that d e pth which will

, ,

r e sult in t h e quick e st ge rmination and most rapid growth .

 T H E S M A LL G R A I N S 1 67

2 08 . P ast ur i n g w h eat in . F arm e rs th e

wint r wh e at district e -

som e tim e s mak e a practic e o f pasturing wh e at in t h e fall and

som e tim e s during t h e winte r and e arly spring I f this is j udi .

c io u s l don e much valuabl e fe e d may b e sav e d by fal l p ast u r i n g

y
'

, ,

F I G 79
. . T hr hi
es ng w h ti J
ea n a p a n an d i n t h e Un it ed S t t a es

without mat e rial inj ury to t h e grain S pring pasturing is s e ldom

.

advisabl e and should be avoid e d wh e n t h e grou nd is soft T o

,
.

obtain t h e b e n e fit of t h e fall pasture o n e som e tim e s s ee ds so

e arly that his wh e at is inj ur e d by t h e H e ssian fly .
1 68 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

2 09 . W h e at was probably first harve st e d by

Har v e st i n g .

picking t h e h e ads by hand or by pulling t h e e ntire plant and

re moving th e h e ads with a comb or hackl e ( F igs 7 8 and .

C rud e ston e instrum e nts w e re d e vis e d to aid in pulling or br e ak

ing t h e straw and th e s e ,

w e re lat e r displac e d by
th e sickl e T h e n e xt .

d e v e lopm e nt was th e
scyth e and th e n t h e ,

cradl e which app e ars to ,

hav e b e e n first us e d
by t h e Romans ( F igs .

i a and Th e s e im
p l e m e n t s w e r e t h e only

on e s us e d for harv e st
i ng gr ain until a ft e r .

1 840 Th e rapid i n .

cr e as e in t h e wh e at acr e
age S inc e t h e b e ginning

o f t h e nin e t e e nth ce n

tury is large ly du e to t h e
inv e ntion o f t h e r e ap
ing m achin e ( F ig 2 )
F I G 80 M c C o r m i c k t h e i n v e n tor o f t h e
.

by M c Co r m ick Fi
. .
,

r e ap i g m ac hi n e n ( g .

t h e s e l f b l n d e r by
Cy r H ll M C m i k 8 9 884 w V irg i i
-

us a c or c ,
1 0 —1 ,
as a n a

f rm r d b l k m ith H i
a e an ac t d gr i r d l
s . A ppl e by and oth e rs and
e n ve n e a a n c a e
,

a t th e
g f fif t
a e o d th r p r t th e en g of
an e ea e a e a e
t h e h e ad e rs and th e
tw ty tw Hi f th r Rob rt M C m i k i
en -
o . s a e ,
e c or c ,
n

t d lo r h ll r h m p b r k d thr hi g combination harve ste rs

ve n e a c ve u e ,
a e -
a e , an a es n

m hiac d tri d to i
n e , an t r p r b t f il d At
e n ven a ea e u a e

t h e clo f t h fir t tri l of t
se o h e w r pr
s i w hi h
a ( F lg 3 ) and e ne
thr e sh e rs ea e n
.

c
‘

y o un g M C m i k
c w p r i
or d w
c ll j r
as d t Fi
( g 8 I
)
a sewhich a r e
as now e as ee e a , .

t h f th r i d Yo r r p r i It m k s a s u cce s s a es
S O C x t e n s l v e l y us e d
e a e sa ,
u ea e .

m f e l p ro d to h d wh t I f il e d to d
'

e e u av e a s on o a a o

I n many countri e s
grain is still harv e st e d with t h e sickl e and thr e sh e d with t h e
flail M ost o f t h e countri e s which u s e r e ap e rs and thre sh e rs
.

d e p e nd upon A m e rica to supply th e m with machin e s A m e rica .

e xc e ls in inv e nting and manu facturing farm machin e ry .

1 7 0 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

212 . Cul ti v ati onsoil re quire m e nts for oats ar e not so

. Th e
e xacting as for s e v e ral oth e r o f t h e small grains nota bly wh e at ,

and barl ey cons e qu e ntly a fair crop may be produc e d on almost

any soil o f av e rage fe rtility .

T h e most approv e d practic e is to sow oats as e arly in t h e

spring as possibl e Th e su rfac e soil should be m e llow and fi n e
.
,

but t h e subsoil should b e firm P robably 9 0 p e r c e nt of t h e

.

oats grown in t h e corn

b e lt ar e s e e d e d on corn
stal k land without plow
ing t h e surf ac e b e ing,

doubl e disk e d and har -

row e d onc e or twic e .

O ats ar e usually sown

broadcast but t h e r e ,

s u l t s o f re p e at e d t e sts -

S how that s e e ding with

a drill giv e s large r yi e lds

b e cau s e all of t h e s e e d
is cov e re d to a uni form
d e pth and prompt ge r
mination is insur e d .

Th e rat e of s ee ding is
usually b e tw e e n two and
f our bush e ls p e r acr e .

2 1 3 Har vesti n g Th e
. .

crop is usually harve st e d

F I G 82 .Tw ty p e o f o at h e ad s
. o s
wh e n t h e grain is i n t h e

hard dough stage or at -

,

t h e tim e wh e n t h e h e ads are y e llowing rapidly T h e grain is .

shock e d as soon as possibl e a ft e r b e ing cut i n ord e r to favor ,

slow curi ng which incre as e s t h e palatability o f both th e grain

,

and th e straw Th e crop is usually thre sh e d dire ctly f rom t h e

.

shock though a b e tt e r quality o f grain may b e obta in e d by

,

stacking t h e oats and thre shing a ft e r th ey hav e gon e through

,
” ”
th e sw e at in t h e sta ck ( F ig .
 THE S M A LL G RAI NS 7 1

111 . BA RLE Y

214 . Wh er e b a r l ey gr ow sis among t h e old e st o f

. B arl e y
our cultivat e d plants I t was probably grown at as e arly a dat e
.

as was wh e at and fo r many thousands o f y e ars b e fore oats or

,

y
r e . I t is b e li e v e d that barl e y was first grown in southw e st e rn

A sia A bout o n e fourth of t h e barl e y of t h e world is produc e d

.

in Russia T h e U nit e d S tat e s ranks s e cond and G e rmany third

.
, ,

in barl e y production Ne arly 9 0 p e r c e nt of t h e barl e y o f t h e

.

U nit e d S tat e s is produc e d in e i ght stat e s C ali f orn ia ranking ,

t k of o t
F I G 83 . . S ac s a s

The p r ti of t ki g wh t d o t to w it t h om i g o f th thr hi
ac ce s ac n ea an a s a a e c n e es ng m ac hi ne

w form rly m h m or om m o th
as e w uc e c n an n o

first M inn e sota s e cond and W isconsin third T his crop has a
, ,
.

wid e r range than e ith e r wh e at or oats ye t it is more e xacting ,

than e ith e r o f th e s e c e r e als in its soil n e e ds I t is grown most .

e xt e nsiv e ly in t h e north t e mp e rat e zon e and giv e s t h e b e st

r e sults th e re .

2 1 5 Ty p es of b a r l ey
. T h e r e ar e two ge n e rally r e cogniz e d
.

t yp e s o f barl e y — t h e six row e d and t h e two rowe d typ e s

-
Th e -
.

six row e d typ e is grown almost e xclusiv e ly in t h e corn b e lt as a

-

partial substitut e fo r oats in t h e rotation and as a fe e d whil e ,

a littl e furt h e r to th e north and w e st t h e two row e d typ e s e e ms -

to giv e th e be st r e sults .
1 7 2 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

21 6 . Gr ow t h an d u s e . B arl e y
is sown and harv e ste d in v e ry
much th e sam e mann e r as oats e xc e pt that t h e land is usually
plowe d fo r barl ey Two bush e ls o f s e e d to t h e acre is t h e usual
.

rat e o f s e e ding T h e s e e d should be grad e d care fully and sown

.

with a drill i n ord e r that t h e grain may rip e n uni formly and be
,

o f t h e b e st quality Th e cap sh e av e s ar e thre sh e d s e parat e ly f rom

.

t h e r e st o f t h e bundl e s fo r t h e pr e s e nc e o f a small p e r c e nt o f
,

w e ath e r stain e d k e rn e ls may caus e a cut o f f rom thre e to six

-

c e nts a bush e l in t h e pric e o f t h e grain .

A s f e e d barl e y may b e said to sta nd b e tw ee n oats and corn

, ,

b e ing som e what l e ss valuabl e than corn for fatte ning purpos e s
and not quit e e qual to oats f o r growing animals but sup e rior to ,

oats f or fatte ning and sup e rior to corn for th e growing animal .

IV . RY E

21 7 . Cul t i v a ti on is a crop o f m inor importanc e

an d u s e . Ry e
in t h e U nit e d S tat e s only o n e bush e l o f rye b e ing grown for
,

e v e ry tw e nty bush e ls o f wh e at Ry e how e v e r stands n e xt to .

, ,
’
wh e at as a bre ad grain I n th e world s production . about o n e
hal f as many bush e l s o f rye as o f wh e at are grown I n som e .

important countri e s fo r exampl e G e rmany and A ustria it is t h e

, ,

principal c e r e al and mor e than twic e as much rye as wh e at

,

is produc e d .

M ost o f t h e rye produc e d in t h e U nite d S tat e s is grown in

P e nnsylvania M ichigan W isconsin Ne w York and M inn e sota
, , , , .

I t is more hardy than wh e at and this is o n e o f th e principal ,

re asons f or growing t h e crop Th e m e thods o f culture for rye .

ar e t h e sam e as f o r wh e at I n most countri e s rye is us e d to

.

som e e xt e nt for bre ad and i n som e countri e s it is a stapl e articl e

,

o f di e t . I t is e xte nsiv e ly us e d i n t h e manu facture o f f e rm e nte d

liquors and as a food fo r stock W h e n ground and fe d i n .

quantiti e s not e xc e e ding two or thre e pounds daily in conn e ction

with oats or barl e y it mak e s a most satis factory hors e fe e d F o r
, .

hogs it is t h e e qual o f barl e y W h e n fe d to milk cows rye i s .

,

b e li e v e d to impart a bitt e r flavor to t h e milk .

1
.
74 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

fi e ld must be almost p e rfe ctly l e v e l so that t h e wat e r wh e n t h e , ,

fi e ld is flood e d may stand at a uni form h e ight ov e r all its parts

,
.

U sually e ach fi e ld is surround e d by a l e v e e and canal f o r wat e r

control T h e fi e lds vary in siz e f rom I or 2 acre s along t h e
.

M ississippi Riv e r to f rom 60 to 8 0 acr e s on t h e l e v e l prairi e s o f

south e ast e rn L ouisiana I n t h e U nite d S tat e s t h e land is plow e d
. ,

disk e d and harrow e d as a pre paration for s e e ding Ric e s e e d

,
.

should be sown with a drill at t h e rat e of f rom I % to 3 bush e ls

an acre som e tim e during t h e months of M arch A pril , or M ay , .

U enl ss wat e r is n ee d e d to g e rminat e t h e s e e d t h e land is not ,

F I G 85
. . H a r v e s ti n g ri ce in A rk an s a s

flood e d until t h e plants ar e f rom 6 to 8 inch e s high wh e n th e ,

su rfac e o f t h e fi e ld is cov e re d with wat e r to a d e pth o f from

3 to 6 inch e s a n d this d e pth is maintain e d until t h e crop is
,

almost matur e I n t h e O ri e nt t h e plants ar e start e d i n ge r m in at

.

ing b e ds th e n transplant e d to t h e fi e lds wh e n th e y are about

,

six inch e s high .

22 0 Har v e st i n g
. H arv e sting is don e by machin e ry i f t h e
.

ground has b e com e firm e nough to b ear t h e r e ap e r ( F i g .

R ic e is cur e d S h ock e d and thre sh e d i n much t h e sam e way as

, ,

wh eat T h e thr e sh e d grain or rough ric e as it is usually call e d

.
,
‘

, ,

is s e nt to a mill wh e r e t h e rough husks and clos e ly fitting chaff

, ,

or cuticl e s ar e re mov e d and t h e grain is polish e d re ady for

,

t h e mark e t A fair yi e ld o f rough ric e is f rom 30 to 40 bush e ls

.

an acr e .
 T H E S M A L L G R AI N S 1 75

Q UE S TIONS AND P ROB LE M S

1 . Up on an ou tl i n e m ap of th e U n it e d S t a t e s
hi e f w h e at s h ade th e c

g ro w i n g oa ,
t g ro-
w i g b ar
n l e y g
, r o w i n g r
y g
e-
r o w i g a d ,
ri e g ro w-
i n
g e r,
n c -
n

g i o n s a
,
d inn d i ca t e w hi c h k i n ds o f w h e a t ar e m o s t
g ro w n i n t h e d i ffe r e n t
w h e a t r e g io n s .

2 H o w s ho u l d t h e s e e d b e d b e p r e p ar e d fo r w h e a t ?
.

3 S u pp o s e e ac h o e o f fi e far m e s h as a f orty ac r e fi e l d o f w h e t
. n v ~
r -
a

an d th a t e ac h o n e o f t h e fi v e s ecu r e s a y i e l d i n p ro p ortio n t o a d i ffe r e n t

o e o f t h e t e s t s s ho w n i Fig 7 6 A t th e p r e se n t p ri ce o f W h e at i n ‘

n n . .

y o ur lo cality c al cu l a t e
, ( )
1 w h a t e ac h m a n w o l d r e ce i v e f ro m h i s f o r ty u

ac r es o f w h e a t ; h m uc h m or e o r l e ss thi s i s th an t h av e r age
( ) w
‘

2 o e

am o u n t r e ce i e d by t h e fi v e ; h m h l thi i th h m o t
v
( 3) o w u c e ss s s a n t e a u n

r e ce i v e d by t h e o e r e ce i v i n g m o s t
n .

4 H o w m y w h e a t b e u se d m o s t p ro fi t ab ly i n rot a tio n wi th oth e r

. a

c ro p s ?

5 W h a t f ac tor s s ho u l d be t a k e n i t o acc o u t i n s e l ec ti g g oo d se e d
. n n n

w h e at ?

6 D i s cu s s t h e s o w i n g o f w h e at as t o m an n e r ; ti m e ; am o un t o f s e e d ;
.

d e p th t o p l an t t h e s e e d .

7 W h a t r e l atio n i s th e r e b e t w e e n t h e am o t o f g r ai a m an m ay
. un n

n ow
g r o w a d t
n h e c h a ge s w hi c h h av e t ake n p l ace i
n t h e p as t c e n t u ry n

i n t h e m an n e r o f h ar v e s ti n g w h e a t ?

8 C o m p a r e o at s a d w h e at i p ro du c t iv i ty ; i y i e l d ; i c o m m e r c i a l
. n n n n

val ue ; i fe e d i n g v al u e
n .

9 D i scu s s b ri e fly ( I ) t h e p l n ti g ( 2 ) t h e p r e p ar a ti on o f t h e e e d b e d
.
a n ,
s

a d 3) t h e s o w i g a d h a r e s ti g o f o at s
n
( n n v n .

1 0 W h at i s t h e r e l a ti e i m p ort a ce o f b a rl ey as
. v e r e a l c ro p ?
n a c

1 1 C o m p r e t h e s o w i g a d h a r v e t i g o f b a rl e y w ith t h e s ow i g
. a n n s n n

an d h a r s ti g o f o at s
ve n .

1 2 C o m p ar e t h e p ro du c tio an d i m p ort an ce f ry e i thi c o

.
n try w ith
o n s un

t h e p ro d c ti o n a d i m p ort an ce o f w h e at
u n .

1 3 W h a t ar e t h e p ri n ci p al u s es t o w h i c h r y e i s p u t i n thi s c o u try ?
.
n

i n E ro p e ?
u

1 4 Ho w i s ri ce p l an t e d ? cu lti vat e d ? h ar ve s t e d ?
.

1 5 Ho w i s ri ce gr o w n i n t h e o ri e n t al c o u n tri e s ?
.

1 6 W h at i s t h e q u an tity an d v al ue o f t h e w orl d s p ro d ctio n o f r i ce ?

’
.
u

W h at p e o p l e s d e p e n d c hi e fly u p o n r i ce fo r th e i r f oo d ?
1 7 6 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

E XE RCIS E S
Te s t i n g difi er en t gr ade s Of s eed s
1 . O bt ain a s ample o f good .

w h eat an d divid e i n to lot s accordi n g t o t h e s ize o f t h e se e d S el e ct .

fo r t h e l arge s t plu m p e s t h e avi e s t k e rn e ls ; for t h e s e con d

fi rs t l ot the , ,

l o t t h o s e o f m e diu m s ize an d plu m pn e s s ; an d fo r t h e t h ird t h e sm all

, , ,

s h runk e n k e rn e l s Pl an t e a c h l o t s e parate ly u n de r s im ilar condition s

.

a s t o s o il d e t h an d r a t e R e cord t h e ti m e o f co m i n g u p an d t h e s iz e
p , ,
.

o f pl a n t s at t h e e n d o f t e n an d t h irty d ay s re s p e ctiv e ly I f a wi n t e r .

v a ri e ty n ot e an y diffe re nc e s in wi n t e r killing W inte r o at s b arley an d

,
.
, ,

r e ma
y y a l s o b e s own in t h e s am e m an n e r in ord e r t o g e t s urviv a l ,

e ffe ct re ga rdl e s s o f t h e s e v e ri ty o f w e a th e r conditio n s .

2 S el ect i n g s eed
. S e le ct f ro m fi fty t o o n e h undr e d h e ad s from a
.

fi e ld o f s tandi n g w h e at o r f ro m t h e s h ock o r s tack o r fro m s am ple s , ,

pre viou sly colle cte d a n d k e p t fo r t h i s purpo se O btain a s m any type s .

a s po s s ibl e T h re s h e ac h s e p ar at e ly a n d pl ac e in e nve lop e s C ount an d

. .

we igh t o d e t e rm i n e w h ich h e ad s are m o s t pro ductiv e C ou n t o u t an

, .

e qu a l nu m b e r o f k e rn e l s o f e a c h a n d s e e d t h os e f ro m e a c h h e a d in ,

a r o w by t h e m s e lv e s Note winte r s urviv al tim e o f com i n g u p h e ad

.
, ,
~

ing ripe n in g an d yi e ld an d qu ality o f grain W ould it b e po s s ibl e t o

, ,
.

i m prove th e w h e at yi e ld by incre as in g and propagati n g an y o n e o f ‘

t h e e s trains
s ?

RE F E RE NCE S

B AILE Y ,
L H . . Cyc lo p e d i a of A m e ri can Ag r icu ltu r e ,
V ol . II . T h e M ac
m ill
C m p an yan o .

D O N D LI N G E R , P T oo k o f W h e at O r a ge J ud d C o m p y
. . The B . n an .

H UN T T F Ce r e al s i n A m e ri ca O r an ge J u dd C o m p a y
, . . . n .

H UNT an d B UR K E TT F a r m C ro p s O r an g e J u d d C o m p a y . . n .

LI V I N G S T O N G F i e l d C ro p P ro d c tio n T h e M acm ill an C o m p an y

, . u . .

W I LS O N an d W A R B U R T O N F i e l d C ro p s W e b b P b li s hi g C o m p a y . . u n n .

B arl ey C u lt r e i t h e S o th e r S t at e s F 4 2 7 U it e d
’
u n m er s B l l t i u n ,
ar u e n ,
n

S t t e s D e p a rt m e t o f A g ri cu lt r e
a n u .

C lt u r e o f W i t e r W h e at i n t h e E as t e r n U n it e d S t a t e s F a r m r
’
u n B l l et i ,
e s u n

5 9 6 U it e d S t a t e s D e p rt m e t o f A g ri c lt r
,
n a n u u e .

O a t s G ro w i g t h e C ro p F r m e r B u l l et i n 4 2 4 U it e d S t at e s D e p art
’
,
n ,
a s ,
n

m e n t o f A g ri c lt u r e u .

R i ce C lt u r e F a r m er B u l l et i 4 1 7 U it e d S t a t e s D e p a rt m e n t o f A g ri
’
u ,
s n ,
n

c lt r e u u .

W i n te r O at s f r t h e S o th F r m er B u l l et i n 43 6 U it e d S t a te s D e p art
o u ,
a s
’
,
n

m e n t o f A gr i cu lt u r e .
1 7 8 T H E ES S E NT IA LS O F A G RI C U LTUR E

of soap and washing powd e r C ottons e e d m e al is u s e d e xt e n

-
.

s i ve l y as a fe e d f o r f arm stock and is e xport e d to E urop e in

larg e quantiti e s fo r this purpos e I t is also us e d e xt e nsiv e ly .

as a fe rtiliz e r .

223 Gr owt h of t h e cott on i n du str y

. C otton has b e e n us e d .

f rom anci e nt ti m e s and is probably a nativ e o f both I ndia and

A m e rica Its pr e emin e nt position howe v e r as a S outh e rn farm
.
, ,

crop has com e sinc e t h e inv e ntion o f t h e spinning wh e e l in

1 7 69 and t h e cotton gin i n 1 7 9 2 Th e most rapid d e v e lopm e nt o f .

t h e cotton industry has b e e n during t h e past quart e r c e ntu ry .

Th e total cotton crop o f t h e world is n e arly 1

pounds o f cl e an fib e r o f which t h e south e rn U nit e d S tat e s pro
,

duc e s about pounds I ndia about I 500 000 000 , , , ,

pounds and E gypt 2 ,

pounds W e e xport more than .

hal f o f our crop M ore mon e y is brought into t h e U nit e d S tat es

.

i n paym e nt fo r cotton and cottons e e d cak e and oil than fo r any

oth e r singl e farm product or any oth e r class o f products e x port e d .

2 2 4 Ki n d s Of cott on an d t h ei r v al u e
. T h e cotton plant is .

a nativ e o f t h e tropics and i n r e gions o f no f rost is p e re nnial .

B otanically it b e longs to t h e mallow f amily and th e r e ar e f our ,

1
sp e ci e s r e cogniz e d T re e cotton so call e d b e caus e it grows
.
,

to th e siz e o f a small tre e is not cultivat e d S ea island cotton , .

-

has a y e llow bloom a small boll a ta ll stalk and a thre e lob e d

, , ,
-

l e a f I t i s grown n e ar t h e A tlantic coast in F lorida Ge orgia

.
, ,

and S outh C arolina I t has t h e longe st fin e st and stronge st .

, ,

fib e r o f all cottons and brings twic e t h e pric e of t h e av e rag e

,

upland cotton O nly a small p e rc e ntage o f t h e crop is of this

.

sp e ci e s E gyptian cotton is probably a nativ e o f P e ru and is

.

grown e sp e cially in E gypt wh e re it produc e s a v e ry d e sirabl e ,

quali ty o f fib e r not attainabl e e ls e wh e re .

2 25 Th e cott on p l an t Th e st e m o f t h e cotton plant 1 8 som e

. .

what woody and i n good soil t h e plant attains a h e ight Of f rom

,

5 to 6 f eet Th e branching habit o f t h e st e m vari e s

. I n som e .

1 Th e fo ru we ll k ow
n n i
spe c e s o f otto c G yp z
n rb n are os s zu a ore u m, tr ee

c otto n ; Gos sy p i u m
’
B a r ba a e n s e , l d otto ; G yp i m P
s e a i s an c n os s u e ru v za n u m,
E gy p ti an c otto n ; an d Gos syp i u m n t m o m m o otto
zr s u u , c n c n .
 F I BER C RO P S 1 79

vari e ti e s t h e f ruit b e aring branch e s ar e S hort giving t h e plant

-
,

t h e app e aranc e o f having t h e f ruit clust e r e d about t h e main

ste m O th e r vari e ti e s have branch e s o f such l e ngth as to giv e
.

t h e pyramidal or oval form to t h e ge n e ral outlin e o f t h e e ntire

plant wh e n it is grown B e tw e e n th e s e e xtre m e s th e re are an e n d
.

l e ss numb e r o f int e rm e diat e typ e s T h e m e thod o f branching is

.

o f consid e rabl e importanc e in s e l e cting and br e e ding cotton .

F I G 86
. . Yo un g c otto n g ro w i g g oo d oil
n on s

W e ll till e d
-
de ep lo am i s th e b e s t oil for t h otto rop
s e c n c

Th e cotton plant has a taproot which p e n e trat e s to a gre at e r

d e pth than do t h e roots o f most farm crops h e nc e its re sista nce
to drought Lat e ral roots p e n e trat e e ve ry portion of t h e surfac e
.

Soil b e for e t h e plant mature s .

Th e l e av e s ar e f rom 3 to 5 inch e s broad and ar e ge n e rally

5 lob e d ( F ig
-
. Vari e ti e s with h e avy f oliage may be und e
si rabl e in re gions o f h e avy rain fall e sp e cially wh e n t h e boll ,

w e e vil is pre s e nt .
1 80 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

Th e flow e r bud has thre e large gre e n l e af like bracts and , , ,

t h e bud with th e s e bracts is call e d t h e s qua r e

, ,
.

T h e flow e r ( F i g 8 7 ) is b e ll shap e d 2 inch e s or more i n

.
-
,

diam e t e r having 4 or 5 short gr e e n abortiv e s e pals t h e sam e

, , , ,

numb e r o f large sho wy p e tals many stam e ns and a singl e

, , ,

pistil with as many stigmas as p e tals T h e p e tals are whit e or .

cre am colore d t h e first day that th e y are op e n and pink t h e

-
,

s e cond day T h e pistil rip e ns into t h e bo l l ( F igs 8 8 and

. .

F I G 87
. . C otto n p l ts i f ll flo w r
an n u e

The boll which may be e gg S hap e d or n e arly round ( Fig

,
-
.

is an inch or more in diam e t e r I t has 4 or 5 compartm e nts .

,

e ach containing f rom 6 to 1 0 s e e ds Th e s e e ds ar e cov e re d .

with a d e ns e growth o f plant hairs t h e l i n t T h e s e e d and lint ,

.

o f a singl e compartm e nt o f t h e boll is call e d a l ock .

22 6 Lon g s t ap l e an d s h ort s t apl e cot t on T h e s ee d tog e th e r

.
- -
.
,

with t h e adh e ring lint is call e d s e e a co t ton O f th e vari e ti e s be ar

,
’
.

ing large bolls f rom 50 to 6 5 bolls will yi e ld a pound o f s e e d

,

cotton O f t h e small boll e d vari e ti e s f rom 1 00 to 1 2 0 bolls are

.
-

1
r e quire d to produc e a pound A n individual fib e r is about 1 3 66
.

inch in diam e t e r I f t h e fib e r is l e ss than 1 5 inch e s in l e ngth it

.

is call e d s nor t s tap l e ; i f more th an this it is l ong s tap l e ( F i g

- -
.
1 82 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

st ee l bands A bal e is usually about 54 inch e s long 2 7 inch e s

.
,

wid e and about 36 inch e s thick

,
.

T o sav e spac e in shipping most cotton is pre par e d fo r long ,

shipm e nts by b e ing compr e ss e d into hal f t h e volum e o f t h e

ordinary bal e T his is accomplish e d by v e ry h e avy pre ssure by
.

m e ans o f pond e rous machin e ry call e d a cotton compre ss Round .

bal e s ar e mad e by a syst e m o f m ach i n e ry t h at winds t h e lint

into a cyl ind e r o f v e ry compact f orm as it com e s f rom t h e
’

gin R ound bal e s w e igh 2 50 pounds and are not compre ss e d

.
.

o
F I G 89 . . Un p e n e d cotto b oll n s

D i ff r t ri ti of otto h
e en va e es c n av e d i ff r t form of b oll
e en s s

228 . Cott on s e ed p r oduct s T h e primary f unction of a cotton

.

”
oil mill
-
is to s e cure oil f rom cotton s e e d T h e s ee d is r e ginn e d , .
-

producing a small amount o f v e ry short stapl e fibe r call e d l i n te r s -

.

T h e s e e ds ar e th e n crack e d or chopp e d and t h e k e rn e ls and ,

hulls s e parat e d T h e hulls are us e d as roughage fo r stock or

.
,

fo r packing mat e rial fo r bre akabl e war e s T h e k e rn e ls ar e h e at e d .

and compre ss e d f o r t h e e xtraction o f oil W h e n t h e oil has b ee n .

e xtract e d t h e r e sidu e i s l e ft i n cak e s about

3 inch thick call ed -
,

cottons e e d cak e T h e cak e is pulve riz e d and b e com e s cottons e e d

.

m e al A ton o f good cottons e e d will yi e ld approximat e ly 8 00

.

pounds o f hulls 1 000 pounds o f k e rn e ls f rom 2 5 to 30 pounds

, ,
 F I B E R C RO P S 1 83

of lint e rs and 1 2 5 pounds o f trash T h e 1 000 pounds o f k e rn e ls

,
.

yi e ld f rom 2 50 to 300 pounds o f oil and f rom 7 50 to 7 00 pounds

o f cak e .

2 2 9 Cot t on s oi l s
. C otton will grow i n a gr e at vari e ty o f
.

soils but always re quire s a w e ll drain e d soil S om e v e ry poor hill

,
-
.

lands produc e f air crops und e r good cultivation e sp e cially wh e n ,

prop e rly fe rtiliz e d T h e v e ry rich alluvial lands e sp e cially wh e n

.
,

n e w produc e an e xc e ssiv e growth o f stalk

,
T h e most productiv e .

cotton soils ar e t h e rich d e e p loams H e avy clay soils produc e .

lat e crops and th e re fore a r e not so d e sirabl e fo r cotton e sp e cially

, ,

in t h e t e rrito ry wh e re t h e bol l w e e vil is abundant .

2 30 Cl i m a t i c an d w ea t h e r con di t i on s
. Th e most f avorabl e .

s e ason is a re lativ e ly dry spring with warm nights f ollow e d by , ,

abundant show e rs during t h e summ e r and a dry fall I n t h e , .

boll w e e vil t e rritory a w e e k or two o f d ry hot w e ath e r is much

-
,

d e sire d wh e n t h e b e e tl e s b e com e num e rous W h e n t h e t e mp e ra .

ture range s f rom 9 6 to 1 00 d e gr e e s F t h e surfac e o f t h e soil

b e com e s hot e nough to kill t h e boll w e e vil larv ae that ar e in -

t h e f all e n squar e s .

2 31 F er t i l i z i n g t h e cott on
. T h e cotton crop r e c e iv e s mor e .

comm e rcial f e rtiliz e r than do e s any oth e r crop grown in t h e

U nit e d S tat e s I f t h e lint alon e w e r e mark e t e d and t h e cotton
.
,

s e e d m e al an d stalks plow e d und e r no oth e r crop would r e mov e ,

so littl e fe rtility f rom t h e soil 1

H ow e v e r sinc e cotton is a .
,

crop o f cl e an cultivation t h e soil is l e ft bar e and much d e t e r io

ration of soil com e s through e rosion and l e aching I n cotton .

growing districts crop rotation is not so ge n e rally practic e d as

it should be .

F o r cotton a compl e t e f e rtiliz e r is g e n e rally us e d t h e com ,

position b e ing vari e d to suit di ffe re nt localiti e s Th e farm e rs .

f r e qu e ntly mix th e ir own f e rtiliz e rs f rom cottons e e d m e al and

acid phosphat e s O n av e rage land a mixture o f e qual parts o f
.

cottons e e d m e al and acid phosphat e containing p e r c e nt

1
l o f otto li t f ir y i l d f ro m
A ba e c n r o t i bo t } p o d of
n , a a e an a c e , c n a ns a u 7 un

p ho p hor po d o f itro g p o u d o f p ot i m C o tr t t h
1
s us, 1 2 d un s n en , an 2 n s as s u . n as e

amo t o f p l t f oo d r m o d by otto w ith th t r m o d b y m

un s an e ve c n a e ve co .
 1 84 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

phosphorus or 1 6 p e r c e nt phosphoric acid appli e d at t h e rate ,

o f f our hundr e d pounds p e r acr e e ith e r b e for e planting or

,

during cultivation giv e s good r e sults wh e re cotton has not b e e n

,

pre c e d e d by cowp e as M ore phosphat e and l e ss m e al or simply

.
,

l e ss m e al is us e d if t h e crop f ollows cowp e as or clov e r W h e re

,
.

a rotation is practic e d with cowp e as and som e kind o f clov e r i t

, ,

is not n e c e ssary to purchas e much nitroge n in t h e form of com

m e rcial f e rtiliz e r P otash is d e sirabl e in som e localiti e s and is
.
,

ge n e rally suppli e d i n t h e f orm o f kainite in su ffi ci e nt quantity to ,

hav e t h e fe rtiliz e r contain 2 p e r c e nt o f potash .

2 32 P l an t i n g an d cu l t i v a t i n g Th e b e st r e sults ar e obtain e d
. .

wh e n t h e land is w e ll pre par e d i n tim e to allow t h e soil to be

com e w e ll compact e d b e for e t h e s e e d is plant e d W ith t e nant .

f arm e rs and with a larg e p e rc e nta ge o f t h e land own e rs t h e

“ ”
practic e is to split t h e middl e s o f t h e f orm e r rows e ith e r with
a doubl e moldboard or with two f urrows o f a singl e plow th e n
‘

distribut e t h e fe rtiliz e r and turn back t h e soil with t h e f our fu r

rows th e n harrow and plant U nd e r t h e b e st syst e m now r e co m
, .

m e nd e d cultivation o f t h e crop b e gins with a thorough harrowing

,

b e fore t h e cotton is up and t h e subs e qu e nt u se o f surf ac e culti

,

vati o n a s o f t e n as onc e a w e e k if possibl e W h e n t h e land is .

inclin d to run toge th e r t h e row may b e barr e d o ff wh e n t h e

e ,
1

plants ar e from o n e to thr e e inch e s high Th e crop is thinn e d .

to o n e or two plants i n a hill t h e hills b e ing tw e lv e or fi ft e e n

,

inch e s apart in poor land and f arth e r apart in rich e r lands Th e .

dirt is work e d back with a disk cultivator or with small shov e ls .

T h e o n e hors e i mpl e m e nt is v e ry e xt e nsiv e ly us e d and an

-
,

e xp e rt may accomplish n e arly any d e sire d r e sult with a he el

”
sw e e p and a harrow A s e cond thinning is ge n e rally pra e
.

tic e d l e aving only o n e stalk i n a hill T his is don e wh e n t h e

, .

plants are sa fe from inj u ry f rom cu t worms and cold w e ath e r .

W h e n t h e soil is i n good condition barring o ff is not n e c e ssary , ,

though it may l e ss e n to som e e xt e nt t h e work to b e don e with

the h oe T h e crop should b e cultivat e d o ft e n e nough to k e e p
.

down t h e w e e ds and grass .

s oil thro w f ro m t h e p l ts w ith t r i g p lo w

1 Th e n an a u n n .
1 86 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT UR E

picking Th e grow e r should study t h e charact e ristics o f t h

.

l e ading vari e ti e s tak e up n e w on e s cautiously and try to k e e p

, ,

t h e adopt e d vari e ty tru e to typ e and consta ntly improv e it by

s e l e ction .

T h e f ollowing a r e som e o f t h e points to k e e p in mind in

s e l e ction : short j oints indicat e a t e nd e ncy to e arly maturity ;
bolls o f fi ve locks hav e more w e ight o f s e e d cotton than bolls
o f f our locks ; locks that a r e lib e rat e d f rom t h e burs by e x c e s

siv e op e ning ar e not r e sistant to storms whil e som e bolls may ,

not op e n su ffici e ntly to mak e picking e asy ; an i nt e rm e diat e

d e gre e o f storm re sistanc e S hould be sought ; bolls that droop
on t h e st e m ar e d e sirabl e ; e arlin e ss and long stapl e ar e to som e
e xt e nt incompatibl e Sfal ks with larg e bolls g e n e rally hav e f e w e r
bolls large s e e ds indicat e a small p e rc e ntage o f lint r e sistanc e
to dis e as e is more or l e ss i t a ry .

235 I n s ect en em i e s
. n s e ct s most d e structiv e to t h e
.
1

’
cotton crop are t h e boll w e e vil t h e bo l l wo r m and t h e cat e r , ‘ ,

pillar O f th e s e t h e boll w e e vil is t h e most d e structiv e i n t h e

‘

t e rritory now in fe st e d ( S e e C hapt e r X XV I I ns e cts on t h e

.
,

F arm ) T h e cat e rpillar e ats t h e l e av e s o f t h e cotton i n t h e lat e

.

summ e r S inc e t h e i nvasion o f t h e boll w e e vil t h e cat e rpillar

.

o ft e n s e rve s a good purpos e i n cutting o ff t h e food supply o f

t h e w e e vil Poisoning with Paris gre e n s e rv e s w e ll as a r e m e dy
.

against th e cat e rpillar .

2 36 Dis ea s e s Of cott on T h e cotton plant is subj e ct to attack

. .

by a numb e r o f fungous and bact e rial dis e as e s that ar e som e

tim e s quit e d e structiv e P robably t h e worst f ungous dis e as e is
.

th e co t t on w il l .

A nthracnos e is a fungous dis e as e that attacks both t h e bolls

and t h e st e ms d e stroying t h e tissu e s and causing t h e in fe ct e d
,

portion to rot T h e dis e as e is transmitt e d f rom o n e s e ason to

.

anoth e r on t h e s e e ds o f cotton S e e ds that a re two y e ars old .

a r e f r e e f rom t h e dis e as e sinc e t h e fungus di e s in that tim e

,
.

M e ans o f combating t h e dis e as e th e r e for e are e ith e r to s e cure , ,

.

cl e an s e e d f rom nonin fe ct e d cotton or to plant s e e d that is

two y e ars old .
 F I B E R C RO P S 1 87

B oll rots ar e caus e d by various f ungi and bact e ria that caus e
t h e bolls to rot e sp e cially wh e n th e r e is abundant rain fall
, .

I nj ury to t h e surfac e o f t h e bolls by ins e cts p e rmits e ntranc e

by th e s e organisms though som e o f th e m a r e not d e p e nd e nt
,

on a brok e n surfac e fo r th e ir e ntranc e W h e re th e s e troubl e s .

a r e s e rious o n e should try to s e cur e s e e d f rom nonin f e ct e d

,

cotto n and u s e vari e ti e s that do not produc e e xc e ssiv e foliage .

E arly maturing vari e ti e s and dwarf stalks ar e l e ss damag e d by

-

th e s e dis e as e s than t h e lat e r maturing vari e ti e s o f rank growth-

.

II . FL AX
237 . P r oduct i on an d t r ea t m en t
A lthough flax is o n e o f t h e .

important fib e r crops o f t h e world and is grown som e what e x

t e n s iv e l y in t h e U nit e d S tat e s it is grown h e r e almost wholly ,

fo r t h e production o f s e e d L ins e e d oil us e d principally in t h e

.
,

manu factur e o f paints is e xtract e d f rom t h e s e e d ; and t h e

,

lins e e d cak e t h e product that is l e ft a ft e r t h e oil has b e e n

,

e xtract e d f rom t h e s e e d is a valuabl e f ood f o r stock

,
T h e ar e a .

d e vot e d to flax in t h e U nit e d S tat e s is approxi mat e ly two and

thr e e fourths million acr e s yi e lding about tw e nty million bush e ls
-
,

o f grain Th e straw aggr e gating s e v e ral million tons is usually

.
, ,

wast e d or burn e d No att e mpt is mad e to r e cov e r f rom t h e

.

1
straw t h e fib e r it contains although comp e t e nt authoriti e s ,

assure us it is quit e t h e e qual o f t h e av e rage straw f rom which

t h e Russian p e asants obtain t h e fib e r f o r t h e principal lin e n
f abrics o f t h e world Th e r e ason f or this f ailur e o f t h e A m e ri
.

can farm e r to utiliz e t h e fib e r is in larg e m e asure t h e high , ,

cost o f labor .

T h e fin e n e ss and quality o f t h e fib e r d e p e nd upon t h e thick

n e ss o f t h e stand and t h e uni formity o f th e growth W h e n t h e .

flax is sown fo r t h e production o f s e e d only about o n e f ourth ,

as much s ee d is us e d as wh e n it is sown fo r t h e production o f

fib e r W h e n e v e r th e growth is ch e ck e d by drought or oth e r u n
.

f avorabl e conditions t h e quality o f t h e fib e r is inj ur e d F lax .

1 ’
F a r m e r s B u l l et i n 2 74 U n
1 it ed S t t
a es Depa rtm t o f A g ri lt r
en cu u e .
1 88 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C UL T U R E

int e nd e d fo r fib e r is pull e d by hand and in E urop e an countri e s ,

t h e f e w s e e d bolls that form ar e stripp e d o ff by hand Th e fib e r .

is f re e d f rom t h e woody and gummy parts o f t h e st e m princi

pally by f e rm e ntation and rotting T h e straw a fte r it has b e e n .
,

prop e rly cure d is subm e rge d fo r a tim e in wat e r and lat e r e x

, ,

’
pos e d to t h e de w rain and sun A ft e r t h e straw is r e tt e n as
, , .
,

’
this proc e ss is call e d it is dri e d and lat e r br o/ze n or s cu tc/ze a
, ,

which is t h e proc e ss o f s e parating t h e fib e r from t h e woody

st e ms T h e fib e r is th e n r e ady to be grad e d and bal e d fo r
.

t h e mark e t .

II I . HE M P

238 . Na t u r e th
an dH e mp is clos e ly r e lat e d to t h e
gr ow .

old e st cultivat e d fib e r crops I t was introduc e d into Ne w E n g .

land by t h e e arly colonists but its cultivation did not b e com e ,

important com m e rcially K e ntucky produc e s t h e bulk o f t h e

.

h e mp crop o f t h e U nit e d S tate s at t h e pre s e nt tim e though ,

C ali fornia M issouri N e braska and a f e w oth e r stat e s produc e

, , ,

small quantiti e s T h e amount o f h e mp grown i n t h e U nit e d

.

S tat e s is d e cr e asing b e caus e o f t h e lack o f labor saving machin e ry -

fo r handling it and b e caus e t h e u s e o f oth e r fib e rs particularly ,

j ut e is d e cre asing t h e mark e t fo r h e mp

, .

F o r t h e production o f t h e b e st fib e r h e mp r e quir e s a soil which ,

is rich moist not acid and provid e d with good natural drainage
, , , .

C lay and oth e r h e avy soils usually produc e a coars e r fib e r than

do thos e which ar e sandy and light .

H e mp r e quire s a humid t e mp e rat e climat e and large are as ,

i n t h e vall e y o f t h e M ississippi and its tributari e s are adapt e d

to t h e growing o f this plant .

T h e r e ar e f e w ins e ct p e sts and f e w plant dis e as e s troubl e som e

to h e mp Th e worst w e e d p e sts ar e bindw e e d and branch e d
.

broom rap e T h e roots o f t h e latt e r grow upon t h e roots o f

.

t h e h e mp .

He mp should be s e e d e d in e arly spring e ith e r broadcast e d ,

or drill e d about t h e tim e oats ar e u sually sown O n e bush e l or .

,

about forty four pounds o f s e e d p e r acre is commonly us e d

-
,
.
1 90 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

E XE RCIS E S
1 . Th e tt on p l an t S tudy t e n o r more s talks in a r o w w h e re
co .

t h e s t and i s v e ry good a n d not e t h e m e t h od o f branc h i n g kind s o f

, ,

branc h e s found le n gth o f inte rnode s an d th e numb e r s ize a n d

, , , ,

c h aracte r o f t h e boll s .

2 Fiber
. By t h e aid o f a co m b ge ntly s traig h t e n t h e fi b e r ad h e r
.
,

ing t o t he s e e d s o f s o m e o f t h e known v a ri e ti e s o f co tton s tudying ,

t h e l e ngt h o f fi b e r o n di ffe re nt port ion s o f t h e s e e d D e te rm in e t h e .

re lative w e igh t o f lint an d s e e d .

3 We i g h t h e s e e d cotton fro m s o m e o f t h e b e s t s t alk s an d s o m e

.

av e rage s t alk s an d e s tim at e t h e re l a tiv e yi e ld p e r a cre .

4 Effect Of s oi l on cr op
. W h e n po s sibl e s tudy o n e o r more v ari
.
,

e t ie s in di ffe re nt typ e s o f s oil noti n g h e i g h t o f m ain s t alk l e n gt h o f

, ,

branc h e s numb e r o f bolls s ize o f bolls pre val e n ce o f fungou s di se as e s

, , , ,

ti m e o f m aturity s torm re si s tant c h ara cte rs qu ali ty o f lint e tc A s oe r

,
-
, ,
.

t ai n pre viou s cropping o f t h e fi e ld an d offe r e xpl an atio n s o f diffe re nce s ,

o f yi e ld o n di ff e re nt pl ant ation s .

5 B es t v ari e t i es an d t h ei r cul t ur e
. S e cure d at a f ro m your co m .

munity re garding t h e followin g poin ts in th e cultivation o f cotton

s p acing in row s ; m e t h od s o f cultiv ation a n d re a s on s f o r pra ctice fo l

lo we d ; th e yi e ld o f diffe re nt vari e tie s ; v a ri ation s in t h e yi e ld o f t h e

s a m e v a ri e ty o n di ffe re nt s oil s .

REF E RE NCE S

D UG G A R , J F S o u th e rn F ie l d C ro ps T h e M acm ill an C o m pan y

. . . .

C otto S e l ec tio o t h e F r m by t h e C h r ac t e r s f t h e S t l k Le av es a d
n n n a a o a s, ,
n

B oll s Ci r cu l r 66 B u re au o f P l an t I n d u s try U n it e d S t at s D e p a rt m e t
,
a , ,
e n

o f A g ri c u lt u r e .

F ac tor s A ffec ti n g t h e P ro d u ctio n o f L o n g S t ap l e C otto n Ci c l r 1 2 3 -

,
r u a ,

B u r e a u o f P l a t I n d s try U it e d S t at e s D e p a rt m e t o f A g ri c lt r e
n u ,
n n u u .

V ari e ti e o f A m e ri can U p l a d C otto B l l t i n 1 63 B u r e a o f P l t

s n n ,
u e ,
u an

I n d us try U it e d S tate s D e p art m e t o f Ag ri lt r e

,
n n cu u .

S e a I s l an d C otto i t C lt r e I m p ro e m e t a n d D i s e ase B l l et i 3 02
n, s u u ,
v n , ,
u n ,

U n it e d S t at e s D e p art m e n t o f A g ri c lt r e u u .

A M e tho d o f B r e e d i g E rl y C otto t o E scape B oll W e e v il D am age

n a n -
,

B u l l et i 3 1 4 U n it e d S t at e s D e p rt m e n t o f A g ri cult r e
n ,
a u .

A P ro fi t ab l e C otto n F ar m B l l et i n 3 64 U ite d S t te s D e part me n t o f

,
u ,
n a

Ag ri cult u r e .
 F I B ER C R O P S 1 9 1

C ott o I m p ro v e m e t n d e r B oll W e e il C o d itio

n n u -
B l l et i 5 01 U it e d
v n n s, u n ,
n

S t a t e s D e p ar t m e t o f Ag ri c lt r e
n u u .

T h e A d a t ge s o f P l a ti g He a y C otto n S e e d B u l l et i
v n a n n v 2 85 U it d ,
n ,
n e

S t at e s D e p a rt m e t of A g ri c lt r e
n u u .

E gyp ti a C otto n i t h e S o th w e s t e r U it e d S t t e s Ci r cu l r 2 6 B r e
n n u n n a ,
a ,
u au

o f P l an t I d us t ry U it e d S ta t e s D e p art m e t o f A g ri c lt r
n ,
n n u u e .

I m p ro v e m e t o f C otto by S e e d S e l e ctio Y e r B ook o f t h e U ite d S t te s

n n n ,
a n a

D e p a rt m e t o f A g r i cu lt u r e 1 90 2 p p 365 389
n , , .
— .

C otton I m p ro v e m e n t o n a C o m m i ty B s i s Y ear B oo k o f t h e U it d
un a ,
n e

S t t e s D e p rt m e t f A g ri c lt r e 1 9 1 1 pp 39 7 4 1 0
a a n o u u , , .
—
.

I m p ro e d M e tho d s o f H a d li g a d M ark e ti g C otto Y r B oo k o f t h e

v n n n n n, ea

U it e d S t at e s D e p rt m e t o f A gr i c lt r e 1 9 1 2 p p 4 4 3 4 62
n a n u u , , .
—
.
 C H A P TE R XV I

GRA S S E S

G r as s t r o t t b d i tio F i l d
i s t h e To r g i v e n e s s
h of na u e — er c n s an ene c n . e s

tr m p l d w ith b ttl
a e t r t d w ith b loo d tor w ith t h r t o f
a e, sa u a e o g ro w , n e u s can n n ,

g r
een a g i w ith g r
a n d r g i f or g ott S tr t
a s s , an b d o d b tr
ca n a
y ffi e s en . ee s a an ne a c

bec o m g r g ro w lik r r l l
e a s s- d o b lit r t d F or t d y
n e u a an e s , an are e a e . es s e ca ,

h r t p ri h flow r
a ves s i h b t g r i i m m ort l J O H N J A M S I N GALLS
e s , e s v an s , u as s s a — E

239 . Gr a s s i s ou r m ost i mp or t an t cr op . F rom t h e e arli e st

tim e pasture has b e e n t h e basis o f liv e stock production T h e -
.

p e opl e who had good pastur e s had m e at to eat wool e n cloth e s ,

to w e ar and good hors e s with which to subdu e nature and

,

conqu e r th e ir e n e mi e s I t has b e e n said that e v e ry civilization

.

has progre ss e d ov e r a grass sward .

Th e st e pp e s o f Russia t h e pampas o f S outh A m e rica t h e , ,

broad re ach e s o f A ustralia and t h e vast plains o f A m e rica are ,

’
t h e gr e at pastur e s o f t h e world and furnish most o f t h e world s
liv e stock .

Th e hay crop o f t h e U nit e d S tat e s is e xc e e d e d in valu e by only

o n e oth e r crop nam e ly corn Th e ,
tons o f hay pro .

d u ce d annually in t h e U nit e d S tat e s can sustain our l iv e stock

fo r only about o n e fourth o f t h e y e ar and must be suppl e m e nt e d
by t h e e quival e nt o f about tons o f fe e d i n t h e ,

f orm o f grain f orag e and pasturage , ,

.

P e rhaps 9 5 p e r c e nt o f our hay is mad e f rom plants such as ,

timothy clov e r al fal fa cowp e as and mill e t which hav e b e e n

, , , , ,

introduc e d from for e ign countri e s whil e mor e than 9 5 p e r c e nt

1 9 2
1 94 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

243 . How gr as s e s i n cr e a s e i n hav e thre e n u m b er . G rass e s

ways o f multiplying by m e ans o f s e e ds by u nd e rground ste ms ,

rootstocks or bulbs and by st e ms or stolons which grow along

,

t h e sur fac e o f t h e ground A mong t h e important grass e s that

.

spre ad in two or more ways ar e blu e grass B e rmuda grass bu ffalo , ,

grass ( Fig brom e grass and r e dtop S om e oth e r impor

.
,
.

tant grass e s grow i n bunch e s and s e nd out n e w shoots f rom t h e

F IG 91
. . Bu ff lo g r
a ass ( B u l bi l i s D a cty l o i a es )
’

F rom the nod or joi t of t h

es n s e r r
un n e n ew pl t h
an s av e d ev e lop d ; t h l d p l t h
e e o an as

l o p rod d w hoot
a s uce ne s s at i t s b as e , an d n e w p l t an s a r e th t bl h d
us e s a is e

pare nt plant T imothy fo r e xampl e s e nds out n e w shoots from

.
, ,

its bulbs and th e s e i n turn f orm bulbs from which oth e r plants
,

ar e produc e d F
( gi T his.proc e ss o f multiplying may b e

re p e at e d s e v e ral tim e s in a singl e s e ason if t h e stand is thin

an d i f t h e w e ath e r is f avorabl e T his e xplains why a thin stand
.

in t h e spring may thick e n by midsumm e r without r e s e e ding

t h e m e adow T h e und e rground rootstocks and bulbs s e rv e also
.

as store hous e s fo r t h e r e s e rv e food o f th e plant j ust as t h e ,

 G RA S S E S 95

s e e d is t h e stor e hous e in plants lik e corn and wh e at and as ,

t h e e nlarge d root is t h e stor e hous e i n a plant lik e t h e b e e t If .

t h e m e adows and pas t ur e s ar e manag e d in such mann e r as to

insure a good supply o f food store d in t h e bulbs and rootstocks
in t h e fall t h e plants will winte r in good condition and mak e
,

an e arly and vigorous start in t h e spring .

2 44 M i x t u r e s f or h ay an d p a st u r e
. O v e r a gr e at e r part o f .

t h e hay producing r e gion o f t h e U nit e d S tat e s a mixture o f

-

timothy and re d clov e r

f urnish e s an e xc e ll e nt
combination I nd e e d
.
,

as a hay grass timothy ,

i s o f more importanc e
i n t h e U nit e d S tat e s
than all oth e r grass e s
combin e d F ully nin e .

t e nths o f t h e hay that

r e ach e s t h e mark e t is
m ad e f rom timothy .

I n Ne w E ngland r e d ,

top is more abundantly

F I G 92 H w t h e ti m oth y s t d thi k e o an c ns
us e d and mor e highly . .

A t l ft b lb W h t h l t y r t lk tt h d
f
e is a u i e as ea s s a a ac e
valu e d than e ls e wh e r e t r l t y r t lk m d d l W th w hoot
i n cen e a as ea s s a in i e, i ne s
,

s
,

i n t h e U nit e d S tat e s ,
h i d ; t ri ght i g oro ly g row i g p l t
on e ac s e a ,
a v us n an

bu t e v e n th e re timothy
W th thr w hoot i ( P hotog r p h f ro m M i o ri
ee n e s s . a ss u

E xp ri m t S t tio ) e en a n

is t h e dom i nant hay

grass Th e first ye ar that clove r and timothy are sown toge th e r
.

t h e hay is a mixtur e o f t h e two A ft e r t h e s e cond y e ar t h e

.

stand is n e arly pur e timothy .

W h e n timothy is to be grown alon e f rom 8 to 1 2 pounds o f ,

s e e d are sown to t h e acr e w h e n timothy and clov e r ar e mix e d

.
o
,

f rom 4 to 7 pounds o f timothy and f rom 4 to 6 pounds o f clov e r

p e r acr e a r e cons e rvativ e amounts to sow W h e r e r e dtop is us e d .
,

t h e f ollowing mixtur e s ar e sugg e st e d ( I ) fo r moist h e avy soils , ,

timothy 8 pounds r e dtop 5 pounds r e d clov e r 4 pounds ; and

, , ,

alsik e clov e r 2 pounds ; ( 2 ) for light soils timothy 8 pounds ;

, , ,
1 96 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

re dtop 3 pounds ; orchard grass 4 pounds ; r e d clov e r 6 pounds ;

, , ,

and alsik e clov e r 2 pounds ,

.

F o r pasturag e on lim e ston e soils in t h e humid r e gions north

o f t h e cotton b e lt blu e grass and whit e clov e r will soon hav e
,

compl e t e poss e ssion o f t h e land no matt e r what sp e ci e s ar e sown , .

T h e re fore e xc e pt to a fford pasturage whil e th e s e sp e ci e s ar e

,

b e coming e stablish e d th e re is littl e occasion to sow any oth e r

,

sp e ci e s than blu e grass and whit e clove r T imothy and r e d clov e r .

ar e good fore runn e rs o f blu e grass and whit e clov e r I f t h e soil .

is rich and much shad e d by tre e s it is w e ll to sow orchard grass ,

in t h e p e rman e nt pasture I f t h e soil is d e fici e nt in lim e or is

.

w e t r e dtop E nglish blu e grass and alsik e clov e r should be

, , ,

sown O n light dry soils brom e grass should be t h e principal

.
, ,

e l e m e nt in t h e mixture .

2 4 5 W h en an d h ow t o s eed gr a ss es
. G rass e s may b e sown .

i n t h e fall or i n t h e spring and with o r without a nurs e crop .

A nurs e cr0p is such a crop as wh e at oats or barl e y sown with , ,

t h e grass to hold t h e sur fac e f rom washing or blowing and to

shad e t h e young grass plants until th e y are abl e to withstand
t h e int e ns e h e at L e gum e s with t h e e xc e ption o f al fal fa are
.
, ,

usually sown in t h e spring F all is usually th e b e tt e r tim e i n

.

which to sow grass s e e d I f sown at this s e ason no nurs e crop

.
,

is re quire d T imothy is f re qu e ntly sown on wh e at i n t h e fall

. .

I t may be sown at t h e tim e wh e at is sown pr e fe rably with a ,

grass s e e d e r attachm e nt to t h e wh e at drill so that t h e timothy ,

s e e d is sprinkl e d on t h e surfac e o f th e n e wly stirr e d soil to be

lightly cov e re d by wind or rain or it may be sown alon e on a ,

good s e e d be d any tim e in A ugust or S e pt e mb e r that th e re i s

su ffi ci e nt moisture in t h e ground to insure ge rmina tion and sub
s e qu e nt growth W h e n timothy is sown with wh e at no hay
.
,

crop is to be e xp e ct e d t h e following ye ar W h e n it is sown .

alon e a full cr0p may b e had I t may be s e e d e d alon e in t h e .

spring wh e n t h e surfac e o f t h e ground has b e e n hon eycomb e d ,

d e p e nding upon t h e subs e qu e nt f re e zing and thawing to cove r

t h e s e e d or it may b e sown i n t h e spring with a nurs e crop suc h
,

as oats or barl e y .
1 9 8 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

was mad e t h e b e tt e r t h e stock lik e d t h e hay ( Fi g

,
B ut .

e arly cut hay is di fficult to cure and must be store d und e r roo f

to b e k e pt w e ll E arly cutting short e ns t h e li fe o f t h e plants and

.
,

e xc e pt und e r t h e b e st manag e m e nt soon runs t h e m e adow ,

“

out T his is b e caus e t h e plants a r e harv e st e d b e fore th e y have

.

fill e d th e ir bulbs with food on which to nourish t h e plant in

winte r and to giv e it a good start in t h e spring .

249 K en t uck y b l u e gr a ss
. K e ntucky blu e grass is a nativ e .

o f both A m e rica and E urop e and is wid e ly distribut e d ov e r t h e ,

ti m to t ti m othy f or h y
F I G 93 . . Th e e cu a

Thi ill tr tio

s how t h r lt of t t f t h p l t b ility of h y t t d ff r t
us a n s s e esu s a es o e a a a a s cu a i e en

t g f m t rity T h m m o t of h y t t t m i d t d
s a es o a u . e thsalbl e a un s a cu a i es n i ca e on e a e s

w r pl
e e d thi r k d y rl g t r l low d
ace in s t th
ac t r f di g r k
an ea in s ee s a e acce s s o e en i e ee n ac .

Th r lt how triki g ly whi h h y i m o t

e esu s s
p t b l to t h
s ttl ( Photog r ph
n c a s s acce a e e ca e . a

from M i o ri E xp ri m t S t tio ) ss u e en a n

e arth I t is t h e most highly e st e e m e d and t h e most wid e ly

.

grown pasture grass in A m e rica I t re quire s a rain fall o f thirty .

inch e s or mor e and a lim e ston e soil fo r its high e st d e v e lopm e nt .

I ts south e rn limit is about t h e north e rn limit o f cotton but it ,

e xt e nds northward almost to t h e arctic r e gion and as far w e st

as ad e quat e rain fall occurs I t re ach e s its high e st d e v e lopm e nt .

,

how e ve r on t h e lim e ston e soils o f K e ntucky M issouri Virginia

, , , ,

T e nn e ss e e I owa O hio I ndiana and I llinois

, , , , .

U nlik e most o f t h e oth e r sp e ci e s o f cultivat e d plants blu e ,

grass has fought its own way and has e stablish e d its e l f without
’
man s h e lp O n soils adapt e d to it blu e grass crowds out all
.
,
 G RA S S E S I 99

oth e r sp e ci e s and without care e stablish e s and maintains a d e ns e

sod almost ind e finite ly B lu e grass crowds in wh e re r e d clove r
.

has b e e n grown and i f l e ft unmol e st e d tak e s poss e ssion of t h e

, ,

land I n this r e sp e ct it som e tim e s b e com e s a p e st I nd e e d

. .
,

t h e worst w e e d in t h e al fal fa fi e lds o f t h e blu e grass r e gion is -

this grass W hil e all that has b e e n said re garding t h e ability o f

.

blu e grass to tak e car e o f its e l f is tru e ye t it r e sponds to good ,

tre atm e nt almost as re adily and fully as any oth e r farm crop .

F I G 94
. th ri g g r
. Ga d b y m hi
e n ry as s s e e ac ne

In early f rm i
a n g, blue-
g r d r d
as s to p d w
an r l w yeg th r d b y h
see e e a a s a e e an d . S uc h
m hiac n e s as ar e h r how h r tly om i to for g th ri g
e e s n av e e ce n c e n use a e n seed

2 5 0 B l u e- gr as s p a st ur e m an agem en t
. graz e a pasture . To
too e arly or with too much stock is hurt ful to t h e pasture and
is not good fo r stock A pasture should b e graz e d in mod e ra
.

tion in t h e spring and e arly summ e r wh e n t h e plants ar e making

th e ir growth and storing food in th e ir und e rgr ound rootstocks .

A ft e r t h e tim e o f s e e d production ( F i g 9 4 ) i t is not inj urious to .

t h e sta nd to pastur e quit e clos e ly until t h e s e cond rapid growt h

p e riod which is imm e diat e ly f ollowing t h e lat e summ e r rains
, .

T o cr0p grass clos e ly wh e n it is making t h e s e cond growth is

almost as hurtful as to ov e rgraze it in e arly spring and fo r t h e
sam e r e ason T h e food stor e d in t h e rootstocks by t h e first
.
2 00 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

gr t spring is large ly e xhaust e d by t h e s e cond growth in

of

lat e summ e r and e arly fall and clos e grazing at this tim e will
,
’
hind e r t h e plant f rom storing f ood fo r t h e n e xt spring s growth .

H ow e v e r aft e r t h e l e av e s hav e b e e n f orm e d in t h e fall and hav e

, ,

had tim e to gath e r and stor e f ood th e re is no r e ason why t h e ,

pastur e may not be graz e d clos e ly I nd e e d und e r most circum .

,

stanc e s clos e grazing lat e in t h e fall is good practic e

,
.

2 5 1 Ren ew i n g bl u e gr a s s p a st ur e s W h e n pastur e s b e com e

.
-
.

v e ry w e e dy plowing and re s e e ding is t h e most e ffe ctiv e r e m e dy

,
.

Th e land is usually cultivat e d o n e s e ason in corn f ollow e d by ,

oats and th e n s e e d e d to grass E xp e ri e nc e has shown that

,
.

grass may b e re viv e d and r e establish e d by a lib e ral dre ssing o f

barnyard manure i n A ugust or e arly S e pt e mb e r or by t h e ,

application of a fe rtiliz e r containing 3 or 4 p e r c e nt o f re adily

availabl e nitrog e n ( pr e fe rably in th e form o f nitrat e o f soda or
som e organic f orm lik e dri e d blood or cottons e e d m e al ) and f rom
6 to 8 p e r c e nt o f availabl e phosphoric acid T o plow up t h e .

pasture and without manur e grow two or thr e e e xhaustiv e crops

, ,

will unfit rath e r than fit t h e land fo r t h e production o f grass .

2 5 2 Keep t h e p as t u r es cl ean
. M any farm pastur e s ar e ov e r
.

ru n with we e ds and brush and th e re is littl e room l e ft i n which

,

grass may grow T h e most common w e e ds ar e t h e iron w e e d

.
,

t h e ragw e e d thistl e s docks and hors e n e ttl e s

, , ,
T o this list o f .

w e e ds may be add e d two oth e r plants buck brush and haz e l ,

brush which i n som e re gions occupy much spac e in th e pasture s

,

and ar e s e rious p e sts M owing twic e a ye ar fo r two or thr e e

.

s e asons and annually th e re a ft e r and clos e grazing ar e about

, ,

t h e only practical ways to d e stroy buck brush and haz e l brush .

P e rsist e nt cutting j ust wh e n th ey ar e in blossom is t h e only

e ffe ctiv e way to hold t h e w e e ds i n ch e ck .

25 3 Can ada b l u e gr a s s
. C anada blu e grass r e s e mbl e s K e n
.

tucky blu e grass T h e s ee d of C anada blu e grass is f r e qu e ntly

.

us e d as an adult e rant o f K e ntucky blu e grass s e e d C anada -

.

blu e grass pre fe rs a lim e ston e soil and thrive s wh e re v e r K e n

tucky blu e grass is found I t is palatabl e but not productiv e.

e nough to tak e t h e plac e o f K e ntucky blu e grass .

2 02 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

258 .Car p e t gr a ss C arp e t grass is to t h e light and sandy

.

soils what B e rmuda grass is to t h e h e avi e r and rich e r soils o f

th e I t re ach e s its gre at e st p e rfe ction on t h e light soils
S outh .

n e ar t h e G ul f coast but it is more or l e ss common as far north

,

as c e ntral G e orgia and north e rn L ouisiana I t is strictly a pas .

tur e grass and will stand clos e grazing and h e avy tramping
,

b e tt e r than any oth e r grass in t h e G ul f r e gion I t mak e s littl e .

gr owth a ft e r t h e first h e avy frost but it furnish e s good wint e r ,

grazing if it is not pastur e d in midsumm e r .

2 59 Joh n s on gr a ss
. J ohnson grass giv e s a h e avy yi e ld o f
.

fair hay and a ffords good pasturag e fo r a fe w y e ars I t is so di ffi .

cult to dispos e o f wh e n it is d e sire d to plant t h e land to anoth e r

crop that its cultivation cannot be r e com m e nd e d I t is usually .

r e gard e d as a bad w e e d .

260 Rh odes gr ass

. Rhod e s grass was r e c e ntly introduc e d
.

f rom C e ntral A frica wh e re it is r e gard e d as o n e o f t h e b e st

,

pasture grass e s fo r dry soils I t is p e r e nnial with long round .

, , ,

t e nd e r l e av e s and is propagat e d both by s e e ds and by roots

, .

It promis e s w e ll for t h e south e rn pa rt o f t h e G ul f stat e s .

2 61 S u dan gr a s s
. S udan grass anoth e r r e c e nt importation
.
,

f rom S outh A f rica giv e s much promis e ,

I t has a much wid e r .

adaptation than t h e Rhod e s grass is an annual and s e e ms , ,

e sp e cially adapt e d to r e gions o f limit e d rain fall as far north as

c e ntral Kansas .

QUE S TIONS AND P ROB LE M S

1 . W h at i s th e r e l at i o n of r
th e g ow th of gras s t o th e de ve lo p m e n t of

c iv i liz atio n
2 W h at
. ar e the g ea r t
t u r e r e gi o n s of th e w orl d ?
p as
3 . Ho w d o e s t h e h ay c ro p c o m p ar e i n val ue w ith oth e r c r o p s ?
4 . F ro m w h at s o r ce s do w e g e t o r h ay c ro p ?
u u

5 . H o w d o p as t u r e s affe ct p ri ce s o f a n i m al p ro d uct s ?
6 . W h at i s t h e carry i n g cap acity o f t h e v ari o u s ki n d s o f p as t ure s ?
7 . H ow ar e g r as s e s e n ab l e d t o s ta n d p as t u ri n g ?
8 . Ho w d o g r as se s re p ro d uce ?
9 . C o m p a r e t h e d i ffe re t g r asse s i r e l ati ve i m p o rt an ce
n n .
 G RA S S E S 2 03

10 . W h at ar e th e va ri o u s m ixtu r e s of g r as se s w ich h ar e ad ap e d t to
i re t ki d s of s oil s ?
d ffe n n

1 1 W h e a d h o w s ho l d t h e v ario s gr as se s b e s o w n ?
. n n u u

1 2 I w h a t s t ag o f d e v e lo p m e t o f ti m othy d o t h e f a r m e r s o f y o u r
. n e n

v i ci it y
n s u ally cu t th e ir h ay ?
u H ow d o e s thi s c o m p ar e w ith t h e b e s t ti m e
f or cu tti g as s ho w by t h e p al at ab ility t e s t i n thi s c h p t e r ?
n n a

1 3 H o w s ho l d t i m oth y m e ad o w s be h an d l e d i n or d e r t o s e cu r e t h e
. u

g r e a t e s t r e t r n ? u

1 4 W h a t ar e t h e p ri ci p al K e t k y b l u e g r as s r e gi o n s ? D i s cu ss t h e
. n n uc -

b es t m e tho d s o f m an ag i g a b l e g r ass p a t r n u -
s u e .

1 5 D i s c s s e ac h o f t h e oth e r g r as se s an d t e ll th a t f or w hi ch e ach i s
. u

e s p e ci all ad ap t e d
y .

RE F E RE NCE S

B AI L E Y ,
L H
. . Cyc lo p e di aAm e ri can Ag ri cu lt u r e V ol II pp 1 3 1
of , .
, .

1 44 ; 0
3 3
—
31 1 . T h e M acm ill an C o m p an y .

S P I LL M A N , W .
J . F ar m G ras s e s o f t h e U n it e d S t at e s O r an g e J u d d .

o
C m p an y .

W I L S O N A D and W A R B UR T O N C W F i e l d C ro p s p p 2 68 4 I I
, . .
, ,
. .
,
.
—
.

W e bb P u b li s hi n g C o m p an y .

W I NG Jo se p h E M e ad o w s an d P as t u r e s S an d e r s P u b li s hi n g C o m p an y
,
. . .

o
S m e -N e w G r a s e s fo r t h e S o u th V o l I I Y e ar B ook o f th e U ite d S tat e s
s , .
,
n

D e p a rt m e t o f A g ri cu lt u r e 1 9 1 2
n , .

C o n d itio s affec ti g t h e M a rk e t V al u e o f Hay B u l l et i n 3 62

n n U n it e d , ,

S t at e s D e p ar t m e t o f Ag ri cu lt r e n u .

C an ada B l ue G r ass B l l et i 4 02 U i te d S t a t e s D e p art m e t o f A g ri cu lt u r e

,
u n ,
n n .

M ark e t Hay B l l el z 5 08 U n it e d S t at e s D e p a rt m e t o f A g ri c lt r e
’

,
u n ,
n u u .

M e ad o w F e s cue B u l l et i n 3 61 U n it e d S t at e s D e p a rt m e t o f A gr i cu lt r e
, ,
n u .
 C H A P TE R XV I I

LE GUM ES

i
Lu p d t h f or f or g i f t g r
n e s an ve c es a e, cu een , an d th e e a rth p lo w e d ab o ve

th ir root f rtiliz t h l d lik m r

e s, e e P e an s e an u e . A L LA D I U S

I . G E N E RA L S T AT E M E N T

2 62 . Th e i m p ort an ce of l egu m e s
gre at family o f plants . The
known as l e gu m e s is a n e c e ssary part o f e v e ry syst e m o f agri
culture Th e l e gum e s ar e t h e principal sourc e o f prot e in fo r
.

man as w e ll as fo r b e ast M or e than hal f t h e p e opl e o f t h e

.

world e at b e ans p e as and l e ntils inst e ad o f m e at milk and

, , , ,

e ggs M uch o f t h e prot e in f e e d o f liv e stock is in t h e form

.

o f al fal fa clov e r cowp e as and soy b e ans Th e l e gum e s hav e

, , ,
.

had an important part i n m aking our soils fe rtil e and th e y ,

hav e an e qually important part in k e e ping th e m productiv e .

2 63 W h er e l egu m e s get t h ei r n i t r ogen

. A ll t h e nitroge n .

contain e d i n corn wh e at and oth e r such crops com e s f rom

, ,

th e soil M uch o f t h e nitrog e n o f t h e l e gum e s com e s f rom t h e

.

air I t has alre ady b e e n point e d out in d e ta il how such plants

.

as t h e clov e rs and p e as gath e r nitrog e n f rom t h e air through

t h e activity o f c e rtain bact e ria ( F igs 9 5 and I n t h e grow .

ing plant this nitroge n is combin e d with starch and min e ral
substa nc e s such as phosphorus and f orm e d into what we call
, ,

prot e in P rot e in is v e ry valuabl e fo r fe e ding l iv e stock W h e n

. .

a plant is r e turn e d to t h e soil as a manure t h e prot e in it con ,

tains is brok e n down ; t h e nitroge n is change d into t h e form

o f a nitrat e and is again availabl e as plant f ood .

2 04
2 06 T H E E S S E NT IA LS O F A G R I C U LT U R E

wh e n l e gu m e s are introduc e d on soils on which th ey hav e not

grown b e fore I noculation is usually accomplish e d by scatt e ring
.

uni formly ov e r t h e surfac e at t h e rate o f three hundre d or four ,

hundre d pounds p e r acre t h e soil tak e n f rom land wh e re th e ,

l e gum e in qu e stion has b ee n grown Th e fi e ld S hould be har .

row e d soon a ft e r t h e soil is scatt e r e d to cov e r t h e bact e ria and ,

oot t b e r l
F I G 96 .
y b e p l. t R u c es on so -
an an s

Al l b tu of th p l t w r rti fi i lly i o l t d b i g p l d for d i ff r t l gth

on e e se an s e e a c a nn cu a e ,
e n a ce e en en s

of ti m i ol tio o t i i g t h p rop r ki d of b t ri A l l i ght ; B

e n s u ns c n a n n e e n s ac e a .
,
a n ,
on e

ho r ; C t m i t ; D t p l d i t h lt r Th p l t w r g row p r t ly
u ,
en n u es ,
no ace n e cu u e . e an s e e n se a a e

i t t t b
n ( Photog r p h fro m K t ky A g ri lt r l E xp ri m t S t tio )
es u es . a e n uc cu u a e en a n

’
thus pre v e nt th e ir inj ury by drying or t h e sun s rays Re c e ntly .

th e re has com e into u s e a m e thod o f inoculation o f t h e soil with

pre par e d culture s of t h e d e sire d bact e ria T h e s e ar e proving .

fairly satis factory I n most parts o f t h e U nit e d S tat e s soils

.

s e ldom n e e d inoculation fo r t h e clov e rs cowp e as or fi e ld p e as , ,

.

I noculation is f re qu e ntly d e sirabl e or n e c e ssary fo r al fal fa and

soy be ans in fi e lds wh e re th e s e plants hav e not pre viously b e e n
grown .
 L EG U M E S 2 07

II . R E D C LO VE R
2 66 . I mpor t an ce of red Re d
clov e r is b e li e v e d to
cl ov er .

hav e be e n dom e sticate d within comparativ e ly re c e nt tim e s and ,

to hav e originat e d e ith e r i n w e st e rn A sia or i n e ast e rn E urop e .

I t was introduc e d into E ngland about thr e e hundre d y e ars ago

and a hundre d ye ars lat e r was brought to A m e rica wh e re its ,

distribution and u s e are v e ry g e n e ral .

T h e valu e o f re d clov e r can hardly be ov e r e stimat e d sinc e ,

ov e r a large part o f t h e U nit e d S tat e s it is t h e only crop ge n

e ral l us e d which has t h e pow e r o f utilizing t h e abundant supply
y
o f nitrog e n in t h e air and adding this e l e m e nt t o t h e soil A lso .

t h e physical condition o f t h e soil is gr e atly improv e d by growing

clov e r upon it b e caus e th e clov e r plant loos e ns and a erat e s t h e
'

soil thoroughly and d e e ply R e d clov e r b e ing a bi e nnial is

.
, ,

w e ll adapt e d to u s e in short rotations and this toge th e r with , ,

its high valu e as a f e e d for all class e s o f liv e stock is large ly ,

re sponsibl e fo r t h e i mportant plac e it has i n agricultur e .

2 67 Di s t r i b u t i on an d adap t at i on
. R e d clov e r is particularly
.

adapt e d to t h e are a north o f t h e O hio R iv e r and e ast o f t h e

M issouri R iv e r I t is grown to som e e xt e nt i n e v e ry stat e o f
.

t h e U nion R e d clov e r will grow on almost any soil o f r e ason

.

abl e fe rtility but it is di fficult to s e cure a satis factory stand

,

and growth on soils that are low i n lim e or phosphorus or on ,

soils that ar e acid or wate r soak e d L and which is good fo r

-
.

corn is usually good fo r r e d clov e r I t grows b e st on f e rtil e .

,

f riabl e loamy soils w e ll suppli e d with lim e phosphoru s and

, , , ,

potassium .

2 68 Gett i n g a st an d
. I t is safe to e stimat e that hal f t he
.

sowings o f r e d clov e r fail M ost failure s ar e du e to lack o f

.

su ffici e nt moisture in t h e surfac e soil to susta in t h e young

clov e r plants T his lack may aris e by allowing t h e nurs e crop
.

with which t h e clov e r was sown to mature thus e xhausting t h e ,

soil or b e caus e th e soil is so low in organic matte r that it has

,

lost a part o f its capacity to hold wate r A gain t h e abs e nc e o f .

,

su ffi ci e nt lim e in t h e soil or th e pr e s e nc e of too much acid

2 08 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

may pre ve nt a stand T h e bact e ria o f clov e r tub e rcl e s do not

.

thrive in a soil that is acid Th e b e st re sults with bact e ria are

.

obtain e d i f t h e soil is slightly alkalin e T h e r e sults o f re c e nt .

i nv e stigations S how that probably hal f t h e soils in t h e clov e r

growing r e gion ar e e ith e r acid or n e utral To corre ct this .

condition lim e is b e ing e xt e nsiv e ly us e d I t is usually not

,
.

n e c e ssary to inoculat e t h e soil with bact e ria wh e n sowing clov e r ,

but it is d e sirabl e to do so on soils that have b e com e acid .

2 69 Th e ch oi ce of a n u r s e cr op T h e practic e o f sowing
. .

clov e r and similar s e e ds with a nurs e crop is almost univ e rsal ,

F I G 97
. . A fi ld of
e re d c lo r r
ve e ad
y to b e cu t f or h ay

but not always comm e ndabl e W int e r wh e at is t h e b e st nurs e

.

crop to u s e b e caus e th e wh e at is harv e st e d e arly i n t h e s e ason

,

and do e s not smoth e r t h e young clov e r plants or e xhaust t h e

moisture to t h e sam e e xt e nt as oth e r crops B arl ey mak e s an .

e xc e ll e nt nurs e crop O ats us e d p e rhaps more ge n e rally fo r

.
,

this purpos e than any oth e r c e re al is a poor nurs e crop b e

, ,

caus e it re quire s a large amount o f moisture fo r its own growth ,

produc e s a d e ns e foliage which smoth e rs t h e young clov e r

plants and is harv e st e d late in t h e s e ason wh e n t h e rain fall is
,

low and wh e n t h e sunlight and h e at ar e int e ns e W h e n oats is .

us e d as a nurs e crop t h e rat e o f s e e ding o f t h e oats should be

2 10 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

increas e d by cutting t h e first crop a littl e e arli e r than usual .

R e d clov e r is almost e ntire ly d e p e nd e nt upon t h e aid o f ins e cts ,

e sp e cially t h e bumbl e b e e f o r t h e pollination o f its fl ow e rs ,

F
( g i . I t has r e c e ntly b e e n discov e r e d that during moist

w e ath e r t h e poll e n of re d clov e r sw e lls and bursts and is th e re

f ore us e l e ss to t h e plant T h e abundanc e o f som e o f t h e polli .

nating ins e cts and t h e amount o f rain fall during J uly and
A ugust large ly d e t e rmin e t h e yi e ld o f s e e d F rom two to four .

bush e ls o f s e e d to t h e acre is t h e customary yi e ld although as ,

much as s e v e n bush e ls p e r acr e has b e e n obtain e d .

I I I A L FA LFA
.

Of tho p l t w hi h p l
al l se l f l f i t h m o t x ll t ; b
an s c e as e u s , a a a s e s e ce en e cau s e

on e s ow i g l t t y r
n d ff or d
as s o m m o l y f o r o m ti m i
en e a s , an tti a s c n u , s e e s s x cu n
gs
in a s e as o ; b it ri h t h l d th t p ro d
n e c au s e it ; d f tt
en c es e an a uce s an a en s al l

ki n ds of l ttl C O L U M E LL A
e an c a e .

2 72 . Hi s t ory
history of al fal fa b e gan many y e ars be
. Th e
for e t h e C hristian e ra I t probably had its origin in t h e vall e ys
.

o f M e dia in w e st e rn A sia wh e nc e it gradually spre ad w e st

, ,

ward to P e rsia and G r e e c e and th e n to I taly S pain F ranc e , , , ,

and G e rmany .

A l fal fa was first introduc e d into t h e U nit e d S tat e s about

1 79 1 at which tim e it was grown in Ne w York but with only
, ,

mod e rat e succ e ss I n 1 8 54 small quantiti e s o f al fal fa s e e d w e re

.

carri e d f rom C hil e to Cali fornia by gold s e e k e rs who i n th e ir ,

passage around S outh A m e rica on th e ir way to Cal i fornia had

stopp e d o ff in C hil e and th e re saw th e wond e rf ul al fal fa fi e lds .

I n C ali fornia it quickly gain e d a foothold F rom C ali forn ia it .

spre ad through th e W e st e rn stat e s and as far e ast as Kansas

and Ne braska E ast o f t h e M issouri R ive r its progre ss has
.

b e e n slow although t h e acr eage is incre asing rapidly as far

,

north as M inn e sota W isconsin and t h e D akotas and as far , , ,

south as A labama and M ississippi T h e distinctive al fal fa b e lts .

a r e c e ntral Kansas south c e ntral Ne braska c e ntral Cali fornia

,
-
, ,

and parts o f C olorado U ta h I daho M ontana and O re gon , , , , .

 LEG U M E S 2 I I

273 . Th e s oil s s u i t ed A l fal fa is v e ry s e nsitive to

t o al f al f a .

acid in t h e soil th e re fore it cannot be grown upon a soil that

is not at l e ast n e utral and t h e soil should be distinctly alkalin e
,
.

A stand o f al fal fa soon p e rish e s und e r conditions which are not

f avorabl e fo r t h e d e v e l
o p m e n t o f t h e bact e ria

that gath e r nitrog e n

f rom t h e air I t is a
.

d e e p root e d plant and

-
,

on that account must

hav e a d e e p soil ( F ig .

A l fal fa produc e s
e normous yi e lds and ,

th e re for e must hav e a

soil that contains su ffi
ci e nt nourishm e nt for
t h e plants and partic a ,

l arl y e nough wat e r to

,

sustain a large growth .

H e n ce a loamy soil ,

drain e d and aire d to

consid e rabl e d e pth is ,

r e quir e d S oils which

.

ar e v e ry light or sandy

a r e not t h e b e st soils

f o r al fal fa sinc e th e y
,

a r e lik e ly to be low i n

fe rtility ,
though this
may be large ly ov e r F I G 99 C ro w n d root s o f al fal fa
. . an

com e through t h e us e Thi i l d l f lf p l t

s d i t root h d p
s an o a a a an ,
an s s a en e

t t d d p l y i to t h oil th t i r mo i g th
Of an abundanc e Of ra e so ee n e s a n e v n e

p l t o l y t h f w l rg root w r
an n rd
e e a e s e e s e cu e

manure Compact clay

.

soils or soils und e rlaid with hardpan ar e not good for al fal fa .

2 74 M an u r e an d l i m e
. B e fore t h e young al fal fa plant has
.

e stablish e d its root syst e m so as to giv e it a large f e e ding ar e a ,

and b e for e t h e bact e ria hav e d e v e lop e d i n su ffi ci e nt numb e rs to

2 1 2 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

mak e availabl e t h e supply o f nitroge n i n t h e air an abundanc e ,

o f availabl e plant f ood must be at hand O n most soils t h e u s e .

o f manur e is t h e most important factor in s e curing satis factory

r e sults W hil e good stands and yi e lds o f al fal fa hav e b e e n

.

s e cure d on fe rtil e soils without manure t h e u se o f manure has ,

in almost e v e ry cas e l e ss e n e d t h e risk o f failure to ge t a stand

and has gre atly i ncr e as e d th e yi e ld A l fal fa also re quir e s a large .

amount o f lim e fo r a p e rman e nt stand and fo r its b e st d e v e lopm e nt .

F IG . 1 00 . G oo d oor l f l f
an d p d a a a se e

At t h e ri ght ar e l
s am p e s of g oo d see d p r
—
pl mp m ooth
u e, d b ri ght ; t t h l ft
u ,
s ,
an a e e

a re sa mpl es of p oor se e d — irr g e u a l r hr k

,
s d dun olor d ( Photogr p h from
en , an i sc e . a

I ow a E xp r m t S t tio )
e i en a n

2 75 V ar i et i es of al f al f a T h e r e ar e s e ve ral vari e ti e s o f al fal fa

. .
,

such as t h e T urk e stan G rimm A rabian P e ruvian and A m e ri

, , , ,

can A t l e ast 8 5 p e r c e nt of t h e al fal fa grown in t h e U nit e d

.

S tat e s is o f t h e common A m e rican typ e T h e T urk e stan is som e .

what more r e sistant to cold and drought and is us e d som e what ,

e xt e nsiv e ly in t h e N orthw e st T h e A rabian and P e ruvian typ e s

.

ar e common i n t h e S outh e rn stat e s ; and whil e th e y yi e ld con

s i d e r abl mor than t h e A m e rican typ e th e y lack hardin e ss and

y e ,

are adapt e d only to t h e S outh T h e G rim m is a v e ry hardy typ e

.
,

but its s e e d is e xp e nsiv e and it is not ye t v e ry ge n e rally grown

, .
2 1 4 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

corn or sorghum T h e s e cond and third y ea rs following al fal fa

.
,

corn or potato e s is t h e most profitabl e crop Th e ye ar pr e c e d .

ing t h e sowing of al fal fa t h e land should be sown i n wh e at oats , ,

or barl ey and not in an e xhaustiv e crop lik e corn or sorghum

,
.

2 79 M aki n g al f al f a h ay
. A l fal fa should be cut fo r hay for
.

cattl e and sh e e p wh e n o n e t e nth o f t h e flow e rs are in bloom

W o r hors e s f rom o n e fourth to
'

F
( g i . h e n making hay f
o n e hal f o f t h e blossoms should be op e n A safe r guid e to t h e .

tim e o f cutting is t h e stage o f deve l o p m e n t o f t h e n e w shoots .

I t is important that t h e crop should not be ou t u ntil t h e n ew

shoots hav e form e d at t h e crown o f th e plant and hav e at
ta i n e d a h e ight o f o n e or two inch e s ; bu t cu tt i n g must not be
‘

d e lay e d until t h e n e w shoots hav e mad e Such a growth that

th ey will b e cut o ff Th e first cutting will b e re ady to be har
.

v e st e d in May or e arly i n J un e ; t h e s e co n dpi n f rom f our to six ‘

w e e ks ; t h e third i n A ugust A fourth crop may be harv e st e d

, .
“

in S e pt e mb e r or O ctob e r I n t h e S outh fi v é c u tt i n gs ar e usually

.
'

s e cur e d e ach y e ar T h e hay is cure d i n much t h e sam e mann e r

.

as r e d clov e r ( F ig .

280 S eed p r odu ct i on E conomical s ee d p roduction is possibl e

. .

only in thos e s e ctions o f t h e country in whi ch th e rain fall is more

or l e ss limit e d W ith an abundanc e o f moisture t h e plants pro
.

duc e a h e avy growth of foliage an d whil e many fl owe rs ar e

'

f orm e d f e w s e e d pods d e v e lop W h e n it is d e sir e d to produc e

, .

a s e e d crop t h e s e cond or third crop is r e s e rv e d fo r this pu rpos e

, .

W h e n t h e al fal fa s e e d crop is harv e st e d a m ow e r with a bunching

-

attachm e nt is us e d to gath e r it and to d e posit it in small pil e s .

I f a hull e r is availabl e t h e crop is thre sh e d dire ct f rom t h e fi e ld

oth e rwis e it is stack ed A v e ry littl e we t w e ath e r will gr e atly
.
.

damag e t h e s e e d A l fal fa shoul d be cut for s e e d wh e n about

.

hal f t h e pods hav e turn e d brown .

2 81 W eed p e st s I n t h e distinctiv e al fal fa r e gions of Kansas

. . .
,

Ne braska C olorado U tah and C ali fornia crab grass and f oxta il
, , , ,

ar e t h e pri ncipal w e e d p e sts o f al fal fa F i g I n h corn

( t e .

b e lt K e ntucky blu e grass is p e rhaps t h e worst w e e d i n al fal fa

fi e lds although crab grass and f oxta il also do much damage
, .
 F IG . l f l f t h r t ti m
1 01 . A a a a a ve s e

Al f lf
a a m ay b e cu t y thr
fo r h a fo r ti m
ee or h o
u e s e ac se as n ,
an d i f p rop rly r
e cu e d

and tor d t h h y i
s e x ll de a s un e ce e

FIG . 1 02 . S t ki
ac ng a lf lf
a a h ay
2 1 6 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

IV . O T H E R LE G U M E S

2 82 . S w ee t
v S w e e t clov e r or M e lilotus is a nativ e
cl o er .
, ,

o f c e ntral A sia and f o r mor e than two thousand y e ars has b e e n

utiliz e d by t h e farm e rs o f t h e M e dit e rran e an r e gion as a plant

for b e e s and fo r f orage and gr e e n manuring I t was brought .

to this country long b e fore t h e D e claration o f I nd e p e nd e nc e ,

but until r e c e ntly was not thought to have any agricultural

valu e E v e n y e t in .

som e localiti e s it is r e
gard e d as an inj urious
we e d S w e e t clov e r .

grows i n all parts o f

t h e U nit e d S tat e s and
on almost all soils I t .

grows w e ll in humid
and subhumid climat e s
and is o f valu e wh e re
t h e mor e important l e

g u m i n o u s crops lik e clo ,

ve r and al fal fa cannot ,

b e succ e ss fully grown .

Th e chi e f vari e ty B o
F I G 1 03 A l f l f e e d c lo v e r
,
a eed
a s d s an
khara is a bi e nnial and
. .
, ,

w d seed ee ,

produc e s a r an k growth
M y ki d o f w d
an n s d m ix d w ith t h
ee see l f lf
ar e e e a a a

an d lo r c ve d Wh see ow th p rod w d
. en s and s e e ds pro fus e ly A S
n ,
ese u ce ee s .

whi h o
c p y p rt
cc u f th aoil r d t h q tity a $ 011 bul l d e r e sp e c l a 11
o e s ,
e u ce e u an

an d l of t h h y p oll t t h f rm d g t i to
va ue e a ,
u e e a ,
y an e n
’

th xt d 0p e ne see i n wast e plac e s and

cr

wh e r e t h e surfac e has
b e e n badly e rod e d it has no e qual S w e e t clov e r is a good fore
, .

runn e r o f al fal fa b e caus e it inoculat e s t h e soil fo r al fal fa adds

, ,

plant food to t h e soil and with its larg e roots bre aks up t h e ,

soil to a consid e rabl e d e pth .

F arm animals do not r e lish sw e e t clov e r at first b e caus e o f t h e

woody charact e r o f t h e st e ms and b e caus e o f t h e bitt e r taste
and o ffe nsiv e odor o f its foliage T h e y may be taught to e at it .
2 1 8 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

2 84 . Th e cow p e a . Th e
cowp e a is an annual and has p e rhaps ,

a wid e r range in soil conditions than any oth e r l e gum e o f agri

cultural importanc e U nlik e re d clove r and al fal fa it is not .
,

s e nsitiv e to an acid condition o f t h e soil L ik e all oth e r l e gum e s .

,

it do e s b e st on a soil r e asonably op e n in t e xture b e caus e t h e ,

nitri fying bact e ria n e e d pl e nty of air fo r th e ir b e st d e v e lopm e nt ,

but it grows w e ll on a compact soil C owp e as probably grow be t .

t e r on poor worn soils than do e s any oth e r larg e l e gum e e xc e pt

,

sw e e t clov e r A lso in its pow e r to withstand drought and to stand

.

still so to sp e ak during a protract e d drought and th e n m ak e a

, ,

rapid growth and a satis factory cr0p in a short tim e a ft e r t h e

rains com e t h e cowp e a rivals t h e sorghums I t is t h e l e gum e
,
.

b e st suit e d to short rotations and is unrival e d as a gre e n manure ,

-

crop ( F ig e sp e cially on land badly wash e d or worn sinc e

.
,

it gath e rs consid e rabl e nitroge n from t h e air and adds much

organic matte r to t h e soil W h e n clov e r is kill e d by t h e wint e r .

or by a drought th e re is tim e to sow cowp e as to fill its plac e i n

,

t h e rotation and i n t h e f ood supply fo r t h e stock C owp e as .

smoth e r oth e r v e ge tation such as w e e ds ; and lik e oth e r large , ,

l e gum e s th e y gre atly improve t h e physical condition o f t h e

,

soil upon which th e y are grown C owp e as are e xc e ll e nt to p r e .

c e d e such crops as potato e s al fal fa tobacco tomato e s clov e r , , , , ,

and wh e at .

2 85 V ar i e t i e s of cow p ea s
. T h e r e ar e fi fty or more vari e ti e s .

o f cowp e as but f e w e r than a doz e n ar e o f r e al importanc e

,
Al .

though t h e cowp e a is e ss e ntially a f orage and soil improv e m e nt -

crop t h e grain o f som e o f t h e vari e ti e s is gre atly r e lish e d as a

,

ta bl e f ood Th e vari e ti e s b e st suit e d for tabl e u s e are o f littl e

.

agricultural valu e b e caus e th e y are t h e small e r kinds as t h e ,

L ady B ro w n e ye an d C re am
,
Th e principal f orag e vari e ti e s
, .

a r e t h e W hippoorwill Ne w E ra U nknown ( or W ond e r ful )

, , ,

B lack C lay R e d Ripp e r I ron W arr e n s E xtra E arly and

’
, , , , ,

C rowd e r T h e habit o f growth o f t h e vari e ti e s di ffe rs gre atly

. .

S om e hav e an upright bushy habit an d b e ar s e e d pro fus e ly ; ,

f o r e xampl e t h e W hippoorwill Ne w E ra Quoit and W arre n s

’

, , , ,

E xtra E arly O th e rs hav e a pronounc e d t e nd e ncy to vin e and

.
,
 L EG U M E S 2 19

produc e littl e s e e d if th e conditions ar e favorabl e for t h e pro

duction of vin e T h e U nknown is a striking e xampl e o f this
.

sort and t h e C lay has t h e V i n i ng t e nd e ncy to a mark e d d e gre e

,
.

T h e r e ar e oth e r vari e ti e s which are upright and f ruit f ul on thin

or sandy soil but vin e and f ruit sparingly on rich land Th e
,
.

B lack is an e xampl e o f this vari e ty T h e re fore t h e vari e ty or .

typ e chos e n should be s e l e ct e d fo r th e particular purpos e fo r

which t h e crop is to be grown I f t h e maximum quantity o f .

organic matt e r is d e sire d a rank growing vining vari e ty li k e,

-
,

t h e U nknown or C lay or B lack should b e chos e n

, ,
I f hay is .

d e sire d an upright sort such as t h e W hippoorwill Ne w E ra

, , ,

or W arre n s E xtra E arly is to be pre fe rred F or a catch crop

’

,
.
,

e ith e r fo r hay or as a gr e e n manur e crop a ft e r w h e at or oats -

or with corn o n e o f t h e e arli e st maturing sorts lik e t h e Ne w

,
-

E ra or W arre n s E xtra E arly should be chos e n

’
.

2 86 Ti m e an d r a t e of s eedi n g T h e cowp e a is more s e nsi

. .

tive to cold we t w e ath e r than to any oth e r un favorabl e con

dition I t should not be sown u n til lat e in t h e s e ason a ft e r
.
,

corn planting tim e and may be sown as lat e as July 1 5 in an o r

-
,

din a r
y s e ason W h e n cowp .e as ar e grown f o r s e e d th e y should ,

be sown lat e r than wh e n grown fo r forage as lat e sowing favors ,

f ruitfuln e ss e xc e pt in parts o f t h e southw e st wh e re a lack o f

rain fall in lat e summ e r may r e duc e t h e yi e ld o f t h e lat e sown -

crop T h e rat e o f s e e ding vari e s from two to t e n p e cks o f

.

s e e d p e r acre d e p e nding upon t h e vari e ty and soil

,
.

2 8 7 Ha rv est i n g cow p ea s Th e crop should be harv e st e d fo r

. .

s e e d wh e n o n e hal f to thr e e f ourths o f th e pods hav e turn e d

y e llow but b e for e any hav e op e n e d F o r hay th e y should be
,
.
,

harv e st e d wh e n th e first pods turn y e llow F o r gr e e n manure .

t h e growth should be turn e d und e r as soon as possibl e a ft e r

growth has c e as e d .

I t is common in t h e S outh to pick th e pods by hand and

thr e sh t h e p e as with a hand thre sh e r or a small pow e r thre sh e r .

A ll in all th e re is no v e ry satis factory way o f harve sting and

,

thre shing t h e grain or of cutting and curing t h e hay and th e s e

ar e t h e factors that limit t h e u s e o f t h e cowp e a plant O wing .
 20 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

to th e s e facts t h e s e e ds ar e e xp e nsiv e and f re qu e ntly scarc e

,
.

A re m e dy fo r part o f t h e di ffi culty in cutting and curing t h e

vin e s fo r hay is to be found in sow ing p e as with som e upright
crop such as sorghum or corn which s e rve s to hold up t h e p e as
, ,

and e nabl e s t h e cr0p to be cure d and stack e d much more con

v e n i e n tl A mixtur e o f o n e bush e l o f cowp e a s e e d to o n e hal f
y
-
.

bush e l o f sorghum s e ed to t h e acre is wid e ly us e d in t h e S outh .

288 Th e v al u e of t h e h ay
. C owp e a hay vari e s gr e atly i n
.

f e e ding valu e according to t h e amount o f grain it contains and

,

t h e way it has b e e n cur e d .H ay f rom plants o f av e rage quality

e asily ranks with clov e r in valu e and t h e b e tt e r grad e s o f cow
,

ea hay ar e quit e t h e e qual o f al f al f a hay

p .

289 Th e s oy b e an
. T h e soy b e an is an annual and is be
.
,

l i ev e d to b e nativ e to south e rn Japan C hina I ndo C hina and, ,

-
,

Java I t has b e e n i n cultivation in C hina and J apan sinc e

.

b e for e t h e b e ginning o f t h e C hristian e ra and in thos e coun ,

tri e s it is t h e most important l e gum e grown Th e soy b e an has .

b e e n known in t h e U nit e d S tat e s f o r almost a c e ntury but it i s ,

only within re c e nt y e ars that att e ntion has b e e n attract e d to its

valu e in A m e rican agriculture .

2 90 Th e v et ch e s
. . T h e important cultivat e d v e tch e s includ e
t h e common v e tch ( or ta r e ) t h e hairy sand or Russian v e tch
, , , ,

and t h e purpl e v e tch T h e re is a spring and a wint e r strain

.

o f t h e common v e tch T h e principal production o f v e tch is in

.

w e st e rn O re gon and w e ste rn W ashington wh e re it is grown ,

with wint e r wh e at and wint e r oats as a hay crop I t is also us e d .

in th e citrus districts o f south e rn C ali f ornia as a gree n manure -

crop and i n t h e S outh e rn stat e s to a limit e d e xt e nt as a f orage

,

crop with wi nt e r oats .

O th e r l e gum e s o f e conomic importanc e are whit e clov e r a ,

p e r e nnial occurring abundantly in pasture s ; alsik e clov e r a ,

p e re nnial adapt e d to w e t soils and maturing late e nough to com

bin e w e ll with timothy or r e dtop ; crimson clov e r an annual ,

adapt e d to t h e south c e ntral A tlantic stat e s and v e ry valuabl e

as a gre e n manure crop ; and mammoth clove r a coars e l at e
-
, ,

maturing typ e o f r e d clov e r .

22 2 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

E XE R CI S E S

1 . vigorou s growt h o f s w e e t clove r red clove r alfalfa or

Loca t e a , , ,

cowp e as an d care fully d ig up t h e ro ots m aki n g ce rtain n o t to bre ak

, ,

o ff th e root tub e rcl e s Pl ace t h e roots in a pail o f w ate r an d s lowly

.
,

w a s h t h e plant so as to re move t h e s oil E s ti mat e t h e numb e r an d .

S ize o f t h e tub e rcl e s on a f e w av e rage s ize d root s

-
.

2 H o w do e s t h e de pth o f t h e root s o f t h e se pl ant s comp are with

.

t h at o f corn w h e at oat s o r cotton ?

, , ,

3 I f a fa rm e r n e ar your s c h ool will turn unde r a s trip o f h e avy

.

l e gume growt h an d p asture o r m ak e h ay from t h e re s t o f th e fi e ld

, ,

t h e n plant all t h e fi e ld t o an y grain crop th e n ext s e as on an inte re s t ,

in g r e cord m ay b e k e pt t o s h ow t h e re s ult s o f th e se t w o m e t h od s o f
u s ing le gume s .

4 S e cure s ampl e s o f clove r an d al fal fa s e e d and di s cov e r h o w

.

n e arly pure t h e s e e d is .

5 By u s e o f pictur e s o f w e e d s e e d s try to d e te rmin e w h at kind s

.

o f w e e d s e e d s are mix e d wit h your clov e r o r al f al fa s e e d if a n y ,

.

6 S e l e ct o n e h undre d good s e e d s plant an d de t e rmine w h at

.
, ,

p e rc e nt age grow s .

RE F E RE NCES

C O B UR N , F D ook o f Al fal fa O r ge J u dd C o m p an y
. . B . an .

S H A W T HO M A S
, C lo e r s O r a g e J dd C o m p a y
. v . n u n .

S HA W T H O M A S S oil C ro p s a d t h e S ilo O r a ge J u dd C o m p an y
,
. n . n .

A l fal f a B l l et i 33 9 U it d S t at e s D e p art m e t o f Ag ri c lt r e
,
u n ,
n e n u u .

C ad i a F i e l d P e as B u l l et i
an n 22 8 U ite d S t a t e s D e p a rt m e n t o f Ag ri
,
n ,
n

c lt r e
u u .

C o w p e as a n d S o y B e a s B l l e t i n 3 09 U it e d S ta t e s D e p a rt m e n t o f
n ,
u ,
n

Agri c lt r e u u .

L p e d z a o J ap
es e , C lo e r B l l et i
r 4 4 1 U ite d S ta t e s D e p a rt m e n t o f
an v ,
u n ,
n

A gri c lt r e u u .

R e d C lo e r B l l e t i n 445 U n it e d S t at e D e p rt m e n t o f A g ri cu lt u r e
v ,
u , s a .

Le gu m e I o cu l ati o B l l et i 3 1 5 U it e d S ta t e s D e p a rt m e t o f A gr i cu lt u r e
n n, u n ,
n n .

Le g m i n o s C r o p s f or G re e M a
u u ri g B l l et i 2 7 8 U ite d S t at s D e n nu n ,
u n ,
n e

p art m e t o f Ag ri c u lt u r e
n .

P e a u ts B l l et i 43 1 U ite d S ta te s D e p ar t m e n t o f Agr i c lt u r e
n ,
u n , n u .

S w e e t C lo e r B l l t i 4 85 U it e d S t t e s D e p art m e t o f Ag ri c lt r e
v ,
u e n ,
n a n u u .

S e e d s o f R e d C lo e r a d i t s I m p u riti e s B l l et i 2 60 U it e d S t a t e s D e
v n ,
u n ,
n

p art m e t o f Ag r i c lt r
n u u e .
 C H A P TE R XV I I I

FORA GE CR OP S

2 91 . Th e s or gh u m s . B oth t h e wild and t h e cultivat e d sor

g h u m s nativ e to almost th e
ar e whol e of A frica and to much of
India Many hundre ds of
.

f orms ar e cultivat e d in
th e s e countri e s as we ll ,

as in C hina T h e grain .

is us e d for human food ,

f o r fe e ding f arm ani

mals and fo r making
,

alcoholic drinks T h e .

plants hav e vari e d

industrial us e s Th e .

sor ghums ar e large suc

cul e nt ari n u al grass e s
F
( g i. with j oint e d ,

pithy mor e or l e ss j uicy

, ,

and som e tim e s sw ee t

st e ms with from e ight to
,

tw e nty l e av e s and with ,

F I G 1 05 A fi e l d o f p r b r d B l k h ll d
p e rfe ct fl OW C l S born e in ‘ . . u e- e ac -
u e

W hit K fi e a r
t e rm i nal h e ads U nd e r .

f a vorabl e conditions f rom o n e to many suck e rs ar e produc e d

f rom t h e bas e and wh e n t h e plant is n e arly matur e a branch
, ,

may aris e f rom e ach nod e b e ginning with t h e s e cond from ,

22 3
22 4 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

th e top T h e flow e rs are op e n and t h e poll e n is carri e d through

.

t h e air conse q u e ntly t h e vari e ti e s cross r e adily .

T h e s o rghums grown in t h e U nit e d S tat e s are sorgo broom ,

corn kafi r kaoliang S hallu durra and milo

, , , , , .

2 92 S or go T h e sorgos ( o f te n call e d
. . can e or sw e e t sor
ghum ) w e re with o n e e xc e ption brought f rom Nata l S outh A frica , ,

i n 1 8 57 A mb e r sorgo was brought f ro m C hina to F ranc e in I 8 5 1

.

F IG . 1 06 . Ty p i l h d of t
ca ea s s an da rd va ri ti
e es o f org h m s u

1 ,
r
E a l y Am be r ; B l k D w rf ;
2 ,
ac a
3, Kan s as Or an g ; 4 C ol m
e ,
an

T h e flow e r and s e e d h e ads are short and d e ns e having num e rous ,

S hort branch e s T h e pith contains a large quantity o f sw e e t j uic e

. .

T h e plants w e r e first grown fo r sugar and sirup but are n o w grown ,

for f odd e r hay S ilage and sirup

, T h e l e ading vari e ti e s ( Fi g
, , . .

1 06) ar e A mb e r B lack Re d M inn e sota and D akota O rang

( ) ,
e , , , ,

and S umac ( Re dtop) O th e rs which are grown mor e locally ar e

.

Plant e r C olli e r S apling H on e y G oos e n e ck and F re e d A ll of

, , , , ,
.

th e s e hav e brown s e e ds e xc e pt t h e F r e e d which has whit e s e e ds

, ,
.
2 2 6 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

2 94 . K afi r . stout l e a fy plants with som e what

Th e kafi r s ar e ,

j uicy st e ms crowd e d l e av e s e re ct h e ads and e gg S hap e d s e e ds

, , ,
-
.

T h e y are nativ e s o f S outh A frica and w e r e first brought to t h e ,

P lains are a about 1 888 T h ey ar e now wid e ly grown in Kan .

sas O klahoma T e xas Ne w M e xico and C ali fornia T h e kafi r s

, , , ,
.

ar e t h e principal grain produc e rs among t h e sorghums and mak e

e xc e ll e nt silag e and f orag e o f f air quality T h e grain is large ly .

us e d fo r stock fe e ding
and in poultry foods
‘

whil e t h e m e al is som e
tim e s us e d fo r human
f ood T h e l e ading vari .

e t i e s ( F i g 1 08 ) ar e t h e .

B l ackh u l l D warf B lack ,

hull Re d and W hite , , .

2 95 K a ol i an g Kao . .

liang was re c e ntly i n

t r o d uce d f rom C hina
and M anchuria by t h e
U nit e d S tat e s D e part
m e nt o f A griculture .

T h e plants hav e dry and

usually sl e nd e r st e ms ,

with f e w l e av e s and ar e ,

of valu e chi e fl y fo r
F I G 1 08 T y p s o f k fi
. . or grain T w e nty two V 3
e a r c n .
-

1 W hit K fi ;
,
e G i a K fi ; 3 B l kh l l d
r 2 , r ie t ie s
u n ea hav e b e e n ( 13
a r ,
ac u e .

K {1 4 R d K (i a r ,
e a
scr i b e d but only o n e
.
f
, ,

M anchu is important as ye t I t is b e coming a stapl e farm crop

,
.

in w e st e rn S outh D akota and will doubtl e ss e xt e nd throughout ,

t h e w e st c e ntral stat e s .

2 9 6 S h al l u
. S hallu is t h e only r e pre s e ntativ e in t h e U nit e d
.

S tat e s o f a group which is common in I ndia and tropical A f rica .

I t has sl e nd e r dry st e ms and is striking fo r its habit o f s e nding

, ,

out shoots f rom around t h e main st e m a habit call e d t i l l e r i ng ,

.

T h e h e ads ar e large loos e and y e llowish with straw colore d , , ,

-
 F O RA G E C RO P S 2 2 7

hulls T h e plant is
. littl e valu of
land culture although e fo r d ry -
,

p e rhaps a good crop fo r irrigat e d land in t h e S outhw e st I t .

has b e e n wid e ly and f raud ul e ntly adv e rtis e d as C ali fornia

wh e at M e xican wh e at E gy ptian wh e at Pal e stin e “

, , ,
”
wh e at and D e s e rt wh e at corn
,
-
.

2 9 7 Du r r a an d mi l o T h e durras which includ e milo hav e

. .
, ,

sl e nd e r st e ms d ry pith only from 8 to 1 0 l e av e s compact oval

, , , , ,

som e tim e s p e nd e nt h e ads and large n e arly round fl atte n e d , , ,

s e e ds T h e y com e chi e fly f rom north e rn and c e ntral A f rica

. .

T h e y are small e r and e arli e r than t h e kafi r s and l e ss valuabl e

fo r fodd e r but b e tt e r adapt e d to grain production in dry are as
,

with short s e asons .

298 F et er i t a F e t e rita is a n e w vari e ty o f t h e durra group

. .
,

which was brought to t h e s e miarid W e st f rom A frica in 1 9 07 .

I t is mark e d by e r e ct h e ads whit e s e e ds fairly dwarf statur e , , ,

and e arly maturity T h e s e e ds how e v e r ar e larg e r an d so ft e r

.
, , ,

and do not ge rminat e so w e ll as t h e oth e r sorghums A lthough .

fe t e rita promis e s to b e o f consid e rabl e valu e as a dry land crop -

,

it i s v et too e arly to pr e dict its p e rman e nt plac e and valu e as a

f

f orage crop .

2 99 Regi on s f av or ab l e t o s or gh u m s S orghums ar e e sp e cially

. .

adapt e d to warm dry re gions b e caus e o f th e ir ability to with

,

stand drought S om e vari e ti e s also e scap e or e vad e drought

.

through e arlin e ss or dwarf statur e T h e y all e xc e l corn in th e ir .

ability to r e main dormant during p e riods o f drought and to r e

comm e nc e gr owth wh e n t h e drought is brok e n S e v e ral million .

acr e s ar e grown annually in Kansas O klahoma T e xas and t h e , ,

adj ac e nt stat e s and in C ali fornia ,

.

300 Cu l t u r e E xc e pt wh e n sorgos ar e drill e d clos e ly for

. .

hay th e y ar e sown in rows about thr e e and o n e hal f fe e t apart

,
-

and cultivat e d T h ey may be sur fac e plant e d or list e d according

.
-
,

to local n e e ds T h e y should be plant e d only a ft e r t h e ground

.

has b e com e warm usual ly f rom t e n to fi ft e e n days lat e r than

,

corn Th e young plants grow S lowly at first and n e e d cl e an

.

land Th e sorgos and kafi r plants r e main gre e n until t h e s e e d

.

is rip e Th e l e av e s on durras milos and kaoliangs usually

.
, ,
22 8 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

be com e dry and br e ak o ff b e fore maturity H arv e sting is don e .

som e tim e s with t h e row bind e r t h e crop b e ing S hock e d to cur e

, ,

or som e tim e s t h e cutting is don e with t h e h e ad e r or by hand ,

and t h e h e ads ar e cur e d fo r thr e shing I n t h e latt e r cas e t h e .

stalks are graz e d in t h e fi e ld or ar e cut for fodd e r .

301 R ap e
. A noth e r f orage plant though not b e longing to
.
,

t h e sorghum group is rap e I t originat e d in north e rn E urop e

,
.

and is adapt e d to a cool climat e and a rich moist soil although , ,

FIG i f di g i r p
. 1 09 . P gs ee n n a e

Ra p e i s t h e mo ts l b l for g rop w h for hog for l rg

va u a e a e c e av e s a a e pa rt of th e

U it d S t t
n e l f l f d d lo r x p t d
a es, a a a an re c ve e ce e

it withstands h e at and drought al most as w e ll as do t h e sor

g h u m s and cowp e as R ap e is r e lat
. e d to cabbag e turnips and , ,

mustard and produc e s a gr e at quantity o f large succul e nt l e av e s ,

and succul e nt st e ms which ar e much re lish e d by hogs sh ee p , ,

and poult ry I t th e r e for e a ffords e xc e ll e nt pasturage f rom t h e

.

b e ginning of summ e r until t h e first hard fr e e z e occurs Rap e .

may b e sown broadcast at t h e rat e o f thr e e pounds o f s e e d to

t h e acr e and harrow e d lightly to cov e r t h e s e e d A large r .

yi e ld how e v e r will be obtain e d if it is sown in rows about

, ,

two and o n e hal f fe e t apart at t h e rat e o f o n e and o n e hal f

-
,
-

pounds o f s e e d to t h e acre so that t h e soil may be cultivat e d

,

fre qu e ntly S e e ding may be don e as e arly in t h e spring as it is

.
2 30 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E
11 . W h e re ori gi n t a d w h t oth e r p l an t s d o e s it r e se m b l e ?
did r ap e a e, n a

1 2 H ow a d w h e S ho u l d r p e b e o w n s o as t o s e cu r e t h e b e s t r e s u lt s ?
. n n a s

1 3 W h at a e t h e c hi e f
. e s o f m ill e t ?
r us

1 4 T o w h a t e xte n t ar e t h e c r o p p l a t s m e n tio e d i n thi s c h ap t e r gro w n

. n n

in y o r c o try ?
u un

E XE R CI S E S

1C o m p are f ull grown s t alk s o f amb e r

.
-
an d
orange o r s u m ac of

s o rgo ; al s o o f k a fi r a n d m ilo C ount t h e . l e aves o n e ac h C u t th e .

s t e m s an d not e t h e di ffe re nc e in qu antity and s w e e t n e s s o f j u ic e .

Note degre e o f m aturity o f t h e

the l e ave s o f e ac h crop w h e n t h e
grain is ripe .

2 S tudy h e ad s o f am b e r an d o f or an ge o r Su m ac s orgo o f kafi r

.
, ,

o f milo a n d o f bro o m corn T h r e s h a h e ad o f k a fi r o r milo w e i gh

‘

.
2
, ,

t h e se e d a n d c alcul ate t h e n u m b e r o f s e e d s
,
.

3 I f your vicinity i s o n e in w h ic h s o r gh u m i s grown fo r u se in

.
f

m aki n g s irup s e cure t h e e x act m e as ure m e nt s o f t h e S iz e o f S eve ral

,

s org h u m p atc h e s al s o t h e yi e ld in s irup f rom e a c h o n e a n d d e t e rm in e

, ,

t h e av e rage a cre yi e ld in yo ur locality -

.

RE F E RE NCE S

B O RMA N, T . A . So g r hu ms . The K a s as F ar m e r C o m p a y T o p e k a
n n , .

H UNT T F ,
. . F or age an d F i b e r C ro p s i n A m e ri ca pp 1 2 7 4 O ra , .
— . n ge

J u dd C o m p an
y .

S HA W , T HO M A S or age C ro ps oth e r th a G r as s e s O r a ge J dd C o m p a y
. F n . n u n .

VO O R HE E S E B F or age C ro p s f o S oili g S il age H ay an d P as t r e s

, . . r n , , ,
u .

B e s t S w e e t S or g h m s for F or age B l l et i n 45 8 U it e d S t a t e s D e p a rt m e n t
u ,
u ,
n

o f A g ri c u lt r e u .

F or age C ro p s f o H o gs i K a sas a d O kl aho m a B u l l et i n 33 1 U ite d

r n n n , ,
n

S t at e s D e p art m e t o f A g ri c lt r e n u u .

S c c h a ri e S or g h m f o r F or ag B l l et i 2 4 6 U it e d S tat s D e p art m e t
a n u s e, u n ,
n e n

o f A g r i c lt r e u u .

F or age C ro p s fo t h e C otto n Re g io n s B u l l et i n 5 09 U n it e d S tat e s D e p ar t

r , ,

m e t o f A g ri c lt r e
n u u .
 C H A P TE R XIX

R OOTS AND TUBE R S

303 . Val ue an d i m por t an ce I rish potato e s are grown in e v e ry

.

stat e in t h e U nion and furnish an important part o f our food .

S w e e t potato e s ar e grown principally in t h e cotton stat e s and ,

lik e I rish potato e s ar e incre asing i n importanc e as a f ood crop

, .

I n 1 9 1 3 t h e U nit e d S tat e s produc e d bush e ls o f

I rish potato e s valu e d at $ 2 2
,
and bush e ls
o f sw e e t potato e s worth ,
B e e ts turnips carrots , , ,

pars nips and salsi fy ar e grown v e ry g e n e rally in f amily and

,

mark e t gard e ns T h e y add much to t h e f ood supply and h e lp

.

to vary t h e di e t S tock b e e ts and tur n ips ar e grown in t h e

.

North e rn stat e s f or f e e ding cattl e sh e e p and poultry , , .

T h e I rish potato is a tub e r ( F i g 1 or und e rground st e m ; t h e

.

sw e e t potato b e e t parsnip carrot and salsi fy ar e e nlarg e d roots

, , , , .

304 S oi l s ad ap t ed t o r oot s an d t u b er s
. R oot crops may b e .

succ e ss fully grown in a vari e ty o f soils and locations T h e id e al .

soil e xc e pt for t h e sw e e t potato is a d e e p loamy soil w e ll

, , ,

suppli e d with plant food but not too rich in nitroge n T h e .

sw e e t potato succ e e ds b e st i n a sandy soil A ll th e s e crops .

r e quir e a good supply o f potash and phosphorus fo r t h e b e st

re sults and t h e soil must be suppli e d with lib e ral amounts o f
,

r e adily availabl e plant food i f a high quality and a satis factory

yi e ld ar e to be s e cur e d S oil that has b e e n in a good stat e o f
.

tilth for som e tim e pre vious is pre fe rre d I t is b e tt e r to apply .

barnyard manure t h e s e ason pr e c e ding rath e r than imm e diate ly

2 31
2 32 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C ULT UR E

b e fore planting root crops b e caus e t h e d e composing manure is

,

apt to forc e a h e avy growth o f t Op and i f t h e wat e r supply is ,

not abundant t h e roots or tub e rs will not be w e ll d e ve lop e d

, .

F IG . 1 10 . An Iri h p ot to p l t
s -
a an

Th e p ot to
a e s ar e muc h thi k
-
c en e d un d rg ro
e d t m ; t h root
un s e xt d m h d
s e s e en uc e e pe r
.

an d w i d r th
e an the r g io wh r t h t b r
e n e e form d
e u e s ar e e

A lso t h e larva o f t h e ins e ct known as t h e J un e bug or M ay

b e e tl e is lik e ly to in fe st fre shly manure d soil and to inj ure
t h e roots o f growing plants o ft e n e v e n killing t h e plants
,
.
2 34 T H E ES S E NT IA L S O F A G RI C ULT U RE

w e igh from s ix to tw e lv e ounc e s ar e most in d e mand T h ey should .

be o f e v e n form fo r t h e vari e ty but always with t h e t e rminal e n d

w e ll d e v e lop e d and not pointe d t h e e y e s w e ll s e t but not d e e ply ,

ind e nte d and t h e skin t he charact e ristic color and t e xture fo r

,

t h e vari e ty From e l e v e n to fi ft e e n bush e ls o f s e e d potato e s

.

a re r e quire d to plant an acre The chi e f r e qui s it e s o f good s e e d .

potato e s a re firmn e s s and soundn e s s f re e dom from di s e as e , ,

with th e e y e s j ust S howing indications o f growth S e e d potato e s .

that hav e sprout e d to any consid e rabl e e xte nt are low e re d i n

valu e North e rn grown s ee d is usually pre fe rre d b e caus e it i s
.
-

l e ss liabl e to s prout b e fore planting tim e .

307 S w ee t p ot at oe s T h e sw e e t potato is grown f rom plants

. .

which are produc e d in large numb e r from t h e root T he roots .

a re plac e d i n a hotb e d about six w e e ks b e fore t h e plants a re

want e d S w e e t potato e s a re usually grown on ridge s form e d by

.

throwing two furrows toge th e r with a d e e p furrow b e tw e e n By .

this m e thod t he vi n e s are more e a s ily cultivat e d and t h e digging

more e asily d on e T h e ridge s are about 4 fe e t apart and t he
.
,

plants a re s e t 1 2 to 1 8 inch e s apart i n t h e row .

308 B ee ts B e e ts vary in color form and siz e I t is b eli e ve d

. .
, , .

that all ou r vari e ti e s from t h e tabl e b e e t to t h e sugar b e e t and

,

mange l wurz e l ( or stock b ee t) have b e e n d e ve lop e d from t h e

-
,

s am e foundation stock .

Q UE S TIONS AND P ROB LE M S

1 . Ho w t p otato e p ro p g t d ? i ri h p ot ato e s ?
a re s we e s a a e s

2 . W h a t ki d o f S oil s be t f r l i h p ot a to e ? fo r S we e t p ot ato e s ?
n s a re s o r s s

3 . W h e n ho ul d m u r b a p pli d to g ro n d u s e d f g ro w i g root
s an e e e u or n

c rO p s ?W hy ?
4 . W h at are t h e r
i i te s f g oo d s e d p ot ato e s ?
e qu s o e

5 . W h a t ty p e o f
p ot a to i s m o t i d m a d ? s n e n

6 C o m p a r s w t p o t t o e s a d I ri h p o tato e a to p ro d ctio
. e ee a n s s s u n, v a ue ,l
and m tho d s f
e lti v tio o cu a n .

7 W h t i t he a e r g
. a s r yi e l d f p ot to i n yo u r t at e ?
v a e ac e - o a es s G e t the
r o rd f t h b t yi l d i y o ur vic in ity d o m pare it w ith t h e
ec o e es e n an c r
a v e age

f r yo r s t t
o u a e .
 2 35

8 . In a s ta e t
h e re th e ave rage yie l d o f po ta toe s pe r acre was 1 1 8
w
bus h e ls o n e far me r p ro d uce d 386 b us h e l s o n a tes t acre He e s ti m a ted
,
.

th at hi s adde d e x pe n se abo ve t h e aver age w as $ 35 fo r l abo r fe rt i l ize r an d , ,

s p rayi n g I f po ta t oes w e re wo rth 50 ce n ts pe r b us h e l w h a t w as hi s gai n

.
,

o v e r th e av erage yi e l d ?

1 . a bo x o f so il in the s ch oo lroo m plant cuttings

In , of pota t oe s ,

and afte r tw o wee ks re m ove so m e o f th e m an d s t udy t he de ve lo p

2 Place a po ta t o u po n t he e arth in a bo x a n d w h e n it be gins to

.
,

gro w o b se rve t he w ay in w h ic h n e w s te m s grow fro m t he eye s

,
.

S o me t i m es t h e se s te m s will form n e w s m al l tu be rs in t h e o pe n air

3 . Plant s wee t po tatoe s in so il in t he sc h oo lroo m an d se e i f yo u

can s tart n e w plants .

4 If an e x pe ri m e ntal plo t is av ailable pl ant o n e ro w o f po ta t oe s

.
,

wi t h cuttings w h ic h h ave o n e e y e e ac h a n d a no th e r wi th cut t ings ,

h aving tw o o r t h re e e ye s e ac h C ul t iva te alike and compare yie lds . .

5 S e cure f ro m your s t ate e x pe ri m e n t s ta t ion dire ct io n s fo r S pray

.

in g po tatoe s t o pre ve nt d amag e f ro m in se ct s and t h e blig h t S pray .

o n e p l o t an d l e ave a not h e r un s praye d a n d comp a re yie lds ,

.

RE F ERE NCE S

F IT z, J . S w ee t P ota to Cu lt u r e . O ra n ge J u dd C o m p an y .

G R U B B , E UG E N E H .
,
a ri d G UI L F O R D , W . S . T he P o ta to . D o ub l e day ,

Page C o m pan y .

P I N K J P ota toes : Ho w to G ro w an d S h o w T h e m T h e D V an Nos tran d

,
. . .

C o m p an y .

Po ta to C u ltu re F a r m er s B u l l et i n 35 Un ite d S ta te s D e part me n t o f Agri

,
’
,

cu lt u re .

P ota to Di se as e s an d th e i r T rea t m e n t F a r m er s B u l l et i n 9 1 U n ited S ta te s

,
’
,

D e p a rt m e n t o f A gri cu lt u re .

P otatoes an d O th e r Roo t C ro ps as F oo d F a r m er s B u l l et i n 2 95 U n ite d ,

’
,

S ta tes D e par tm e n t o f Agri cu lt u re .

S ugg es tio n s t o P ota to G r o w e rs o n I rr i gate d La n ds Ci r cu l a r 90 B u re au o f , ,

Pl an t I n d us tr y U n i te d S ta t es D e pa r tm e n t o f Agr i cu lt u r e
,
.

S wee t Po ta t o F a r m e rs B u l l et i n 1 2 9 U n i te d S ta te s D e p art m e n t o f
’
, ,

Agri cu ltu re .
 C H A P TE R XX

THE S UGAR CR OP

309 I m p or t an ce of t h e cr op T h e world s production o f sugar’

. .

has doubl e d in t h e last d e cad e I n this tim e t h e p e r capita pro

.

duction o f bre ad has r e main e d about stationary and t h e pro

duction o f m e at has d e clin e d T h e u s e .
"

o f sugar as a f ood i s incr e asing in almost

e v e ry part o f t h e world T h e av e rag e .

amount p e r y e ar consum e d by e ach

p e rson in E ngland is e stimat e d to be
about 8 5 pounds and fo r t h e U nite d
S tat e s about 6 5 pounds I n I taly G re e c e .
, ,

and T urk e y t h e y e arly consumption of

sugar is only about 7 pounds p e r p e rson .

T h e four important sourc e s o f sugar

production i n t h e U nit e d S tat e s ar e th e
sugar b e e t t h e sugar can e t h e sugar
, ,

m ap l e and t h e hon ey b e e
, .

F 10 I
. 12 Th s g r b e t
. e u a e31 0 Th e s u ga r b ee t Ne arly o n e hal f
.
. .

12 25“n ei iié éf z
$ ’ ’
o f t h e sugar s u pp l
a
o f t h e world IS o b
y
T h e y e arly
.

t ai n e d f rom b e e ts ( F i g 1
.

production of b e e t sugar is approximat e ly nin e million tons and ,

has doubl e d within t h e past two d e cad e s I n t h e U nit e d S tate s

.

t h e production o f b e e t sugar has i ncr e as e d mor e than thr e e fold in

t h e last t e n y e ars T h e gr e at e st acr e age o f sugar b e e ts is found
.

in G e rmany Russia and A ustria Hungary T h e s e countri e s

, ,
-
.

2
36
 38 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT UR E

re quir e s for its high e st d e v e lopm e nt a v ry w e ll drain e d e fe rtil e , -

soil and an abundanc e o f moistur e F o r t h e b e st re sults as .

much as two inch e s o f wat e r p e r w e e k ar e re quire d during t h e

growing s e ason S ugar can e produc e s s e e d v e ry sparingly and
.

only a fe w o f t h e s e e ds will ge rminate A t e ach j oint of t h e .

stalk th e re is a bud or e ye and th e stalks or can e s are plant e d

, , , ,

l ti g g r
FIG . 1 1 4 . P an n su a c an e

Ne w pl t p ro t d g row from t h joi t of t h

an s S u an e n s t
e ol d s e ms w hi h h
c av e be en
o r d w ith oil c ve e s

F
( gi . 1 1 A pril to O ctobe r in rows about fi ve or six fe e t
4) f rom
apart with a continuous lin e o f stalks in t h e rows T h e young
, .

plants spring f rom t h e buds I n tropical countri e s o n e planting

.

may yi e ld s e v e ral y e arly crops but i n t h e U nit e d S tat e s o n e,

planting s e ldom yi e lds mor e than thre e crops and usually only ,

o n e crop is produc e d I n H awaii t h e sugar land is som e tim e s

.

plow e d to a d e pth o f two fe e t by m e an s o f st e am plows and t h e ,

stalks ar e plant e d at a d e pth o f six inch e s or more .

 T H E S U G A R C RO P 2 39

31 2 . Th e su ga r m apl e . M apl e sugar and mapl e sirup ar e

products o f a distinctly A m e rican industry t h e U nit e d S tat e s ,

and Canada b e ing t h e only countri e s in which th e s e products are

m ad e T h e I ndians w e r e making sugar f rom t h e mapl e tre e s
.

during t h e p e riod wh e n t h e e arli e st s e ttl e rs cam e to A m e rica ,

and this was t h e chi e f sugar us e d by t h e e arly s e ttl e rs .

T h e amount o f mapl e sugar and sirup produc e d is not o f

gr e at comm e rcial importanc e W hil e all t h e map l e s hav e a .

sw e e t sap it is only f rom thre e S p e ci e s

,
t h e sugar mapl e t h e —
,

black mapl and t e

e h r e d mapl e that sugar is mad e in comm e r
,
—

c i al quantiti e s I nd e e d it is f rom o n e sp e ci e s t h e sugar mapl e

.
, , ,

that almost all t h e sugar and sirup ar e mad e T his S p e ci e s is .

v e ry wid e ly distribut e d e xt e nding f rom e ast e rn Ne w E ngland

, ,

Ne w York T e nn e ss e e t h e south e rn A ppalachians t h e O hio

, , ,

vall e y th e L ak e stat e s and t h e adj ac e nt parts o f C anada

, , ,

and e xt e nding as far south as A rkansas A sugar mapl e tre e .

yi e lds from 1 0 to 2 0 gallons o f sap during t h e s e ason T h e .

sap will av e rage about 2 p e r c e nt o f sugar T hus a tre e will .

yi e ld from 2 to 3 pounds o f sugar or about thre e pints o f standard

grade sirup .

31 3 Th e h on ey b ee Th e hon e y b e e s of t h e U nit e d S tat e s

. .

produc e annually f rom to pounds o f

hon e y valu e d at about
,
S o gr e at has b e e n t h e
growth o f t h e b e e k e e ping industry that t h e U nit e d S tat e s from ,

a m e re b e ginning i n 1 8 60 now l e ads t h e world in t h e valu e ,

o f b e e products and in progr e ssiv e m e thods o f b e e cultur e .

C ali fornia is t h e l e ading hon e y producing stat e -

.

H on ey is us e d e xt e nsiv e ly i n t h e manu factur e o f cak e s and

cooki e s b e caus e it has b e e n f ound that hon e y is a pre s e rvative
,

as w e ll as a sw e e t e n e r Hon e y is also us e d large ly for sw e e t e n

.

ing and flavoring so ft drinks and to som e e xt e nt in sw e e t e ning , ,

hot drink s such as co ffe e and t e a B e e swax is us e d e xt e nsiv e ly

,
.

i n t h e arts an d sci e nc e s .

T h e I talian b e e introduc e d in t h e U nit e d S tat e s in 1 8 60 is

, ,

now t h e most profitabl e vari e ty and in varying d e gre e s o f purity , ,

is f ound in n e arly all parts o f t h e U nit e d S tat e s T h e G e rman .

,
2 40 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

or black still p e rsists but is rare ly found pure Ne arly

,
be e , .

all o f t h e hybrids i n t h e country ar e cross e s b e tw e e n I ta lian and

G e rman b e e s I n som e localiti e s e ith e r t h e Car n ol ian s or t h e

.

Cyprians a r e found but th e s e rac e s hav e n e v e r b e com e popular

,

in t h e U nite d S tat e s .

S om e o f t h e principal n e ctar producing plants ar e t h e clov e rs -

,

e sp e cially whit e clov e r and sw e e t clov e r buckwh e at mountain , ,

sage gold e nrod catnip hors e we e d black gum lind e n ( bass

, , , , ,

wood ) tulip sourwood magnolia locust ch e stnut and m e squit e

, , , , , , .

H on e y is i n d e mand in almost all mark e ts throughout t h e

ye ar T h e rat e at which thri fty b e e s store hon e y in favorabl e
.

s e asons mak e s t h e be e k e e ping industry much mor e r e mun e ra -

tiv e than is ordinarily appre ciat e d T o o o ft e n t h e farm e r .

,

e xp e cts his b e e s to produc e hon e y without any o f t h e kind o f

care n e e d e d by all productiv e farm animals .

Q UES TIONS AND P ROB L E M S

1 . W h at
r e l ati e i m p ort a ce o f t h e s g r c ro p i t h e w orl d as
is the v n u a n

c o m p ar e d w ith oth e r c ro p s .

2 W h at are t h e m o s t i m p orta t s o r ce s o f t h e s ga r p ro d ce d i t h e
. n u u u n

U it ed S ta t es ?
n

3 W h a t a r e t h e r e g io s i n t h e U it e d S ta t e s i w hi c h s g a r b e e t s a e
. n n n u r

m o s t e xt e i e l y g ro w ?
ns v n

4 W h at c o u tri e s h av e t h e gr e at e s t tot a l acr e ag e o f s ug a r b e e t s ?

. n

5 D e sc ri b e t h e s oil c li m a t e a d m e tho ds f c lti v a tio n w hi c h a e

.
, ,
n o u r

b e s t for s gar b ee ts u .

6 D e s cri be t h e s ga r c an e p l a t i t s c lti a tio

. u a d t h e p ro ce s s e s o f
-
n ,
u v n ,
n

m aki g s ugar f ro m it
n .

7 W h a t p art o f t h e w orl d s s uga r i m ad e f ro m s ug ar ca e ? W h at

.
’
s n

ar e t h e
p ri ci p l c e s u g r p ro d c i g c o
n a an tri e s ? a u n un
-

8 W h at i s t h e hi s tor y f t h e m ap l e s ga r a d s ir p i d u s try ? H o w
. o u n u n

i m p ort t i s t h e m p l e s g r i d s try ?
an a u a n u

9 S e c r e f ro m a t e xt i z o olo gy o f ro m a e x p e ri m e n t s t a tio n b u ll e ti
. u n r n -
n

a g oo d d e s c ri tio n o f t h e ki ds a d n u m b e r f ho ey b e e s w hi c h c o m p o s e
p n n o n

a hi e v D e sc ri b e t h e c olo i al li fe o f ho e y b
. n n ees .

1 0 I n w h a t w ays c o u l d t h e g ro w th o f be e s b e m ad e m or e p ro fi t ab l e i n
.

y o u r c o mm it y ? un
 CH A PTE R XXI

TOB ACCO

31 4 . Tob acco as a f ar m cr op . T obacco

was first comm e rcially
grown in Virginia in 1 6 1 2 T his crop now ranks s e v e nth i n
.

valu e in t h e U nit e d S tat e s and ninth among t h e crops o f t h e

world Th e tobacc o crop .

o f t h e world is about
2 ,
pounds
a y e ar of which t h e ,

U nite d S tat e s produc e s

n e arly I o oo o o o o o o , , ,

pounds .

T h e tobacco plant
F
( g i I I 5) may b e grown.

succ e ss fully on any agri

cultural S oil and in al l
latitud e s from south e rn
C anada to t h e tropics .

T h e quality o f t h e prod
F I G I 1 5 A to p p d to b
. . e o p l t ( Photo g r p h u ct how e v e r is p e rhaps
ac c an . a

f ro m U it d S t at e D e p rt m e t o f A g ri c lt r )
n e s a n u u e
, ,

a ffe ct e d to a gr eat e r
d e gre e by t h e conditions und e r which it is grown than is that
o f any oth e r farm or gard e n crop T h e r e for e tobacco produc
.

tion has b e com e a highly sp e cial iz e d industry a giv e n district ,

supplying only c e rtai n class e s or typ e s o f tobacco as t h e cigar

, , ,

l e a f i n c e rtain districts and t h e cigar wrapp e r in oth e rs .

2 42
 T O BA C C O 2 43

31 5 . t y pe s T h e thre e ge n e ral class e s o f tobacco

Cl ass es an d .

cigar tobaccos e xport tobaccos and ( 3) m an u fac t u r

ar e ( I
) ( )
2 , ,

ing tobaccos E ach class is divid e d into num e rous typ e s or sub
.
,

class e s d e p e nding upon t h e sp e cial u s e to which t h e product is

,

put wh e re it is grown t h e m e thods us e d i n its production and

, ,

curing or t h e vari e ty T h e principal typ e s o f tobacco and

, .

t h e r e lativ e importanc e o f e ach typ e in t h e U nit e d S tat e s as

m e asure d by t h e av e rag e amount grown ar e S hown in t h e

f ollowing tabl e

TY P E OF TO B CCA O

i r le f
C ga a

Da rk e x p ort ( fi e cu r e d) r -

M a ry l a d E s t e r n O hio e x p ort (
n a r
ai r - c u e d
)
D rk m a f c t ri g ( ai
a nu a u r e d)
u n r -c

B rl y
u e

B r i g ht fl u e cu r e d -

Pe i q e
r u

31 6 . t u r al m e t h ods T h e s e e ds b e ing quit e small

Gen e r al cu l .
, ,

a r e s p w n in hotb e ds or cold f ram e s and t h e s e e dlings a r e trans ,

plant e d to t h e fi e ld by hand or by machin e T ransplanting is .

don e during A pril M ay and J un e T h e plants a r e s e t in rows

, ,
.

which ar e f rom 3 to 4 f e e t apart and ar e spac e d f rom 1 5 inch e s

to 33 fe e t apart in t h e row U nl e ss t h e s o il is quit e moist .
'

wat e ring is re quir e d at t h e tim e o f transplantin g C ultivation .

should be continu e d as long as t h e siz e o f t h e plants will p e rmit .

I n ord e r to f orce t h e full d e v e lopm e nt o f t h e l e av e s t h e plants ,

are topp e d by br e aking out t h e crown or t h e t e rminal bud , ,

usually b e fore t h e blossoms app e ar L at e ral branch e s and .

suck e rs also ar e r e mov e d .

W h e n t h e plants hav e r e ach e d maturity th e y ar e harv e st e d

by cutting t h e stalk n e ar t h e ground ( F ig I 1 6) or by p icking .

t h e l e av e s f rom t h e stalk as th e y rip e n T h e cut plants or t h e .

pick e d l e av e s ar e attach e d to sticks and hung in a S p e cially con

struct e d barn fo r curing a highly important proc e ss T h e , .

tobacco may be cure d without t h e u se o f artificial h e at ( air curi n g) -

Fi
( g . by t h e u s e o f op e n fir e s on t h e e arth e n floor o f t h e
2 44 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

barn ( fi re curi ng) or by h e at radiat e d f rom hot pip e s running

-
,

through t h e barn ( fl ue curing) Th e yi e ld of cur e d l e a f i n t h e

-
.

s e v e ral districts range s f rom s e ve n hundre d to two thousand

pounds p e r acre A large n umb e r o f more or l e ss distinctive
.

vari e ti e s are grown in th e s e districts .

31 7 Ci gar l eaf
. T his class o f l e a f is us e d in t h e dom e stic
.
.

manu facture o f cigars T h e bulk o f t h e crop is produc e d in t h e

.

state s of K e ntucky C onn e cticut M assachus e tts Ne w York

, , , ,

F IG . I 1 6 . o
T b acc o susp e n d e d o n s a s l t to b t k e a en to th e cu ri ng s h ed

P e nnsylvania W isconsin O hio and F lorida I n t h e wrapp e r

, , , .

l e a f districts o f Ne w E ngland and F lorida and to a l e ss e r e x , ,

t e nt i n t h e bind e r l e af and fi l l e r l e a f districts o f t h e oth e r state s

,
- -

m e ntion e d int e nsive m e thods o f fe rtilizing growing and hand

, , ,

ling t h e crop and re lativ e ly large yi e lds and high pric e s pre vail .

Th e wrapp e r l e a f soils ar e fi n e sands and sandy Ioams whil e t h e

-
,

bind e r l e a f and fi l l e r l e af soils are stronge r sandy and light clay

- - -

Ioams with more clay in t h e subsoil W ith t h e e xc e ption o f a

, .

portion o f t h e wrapp e r crop t h e tobacco is harv e st e d by cutting ,

t h e stalk and littl e or no artificial h e at is us e d in curing

,
A ll .

cigar tobacco a ft e r curing must und e rgo an active proc e ss o f

, ,
2 46 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

K e ntucky T e nn e ss e e and Virginia A sid e f rom t h e fact that

, ,
.

t h e tobacco is air cur e d t h e m e thods o f production ar e about

-
,
‘

t h e sam e as fo r t h e fi r e cur e d e xport typ e s -

.

31 9 Ex p ort t y p e s T h e distinctiv e e xport typ e s ar e t h e dark

. .

fi r e cur e d tobaccos o f w e st e rn K e ntu cky and t h e adj oining

-

counti e s o f T e nn e ss e e c e ntral Virgi nia M aryland and e ast e rn

, , ,

O hio T h e fi r e cure d l e a f is thick h e avy dark in color and

.
-
, , ,

strong and is grown on rath e r h e avy loam soils I n transplanting

,
.

to t h e fi e ld t h e plants ar e s e t far apart o ft e n in square s and ar e , ,

topp e d low Th e tobacco is harve st e d by cutting t h e sta lk I n

. .

curing op e n fir e s ar e mad e on t h e floor o f t h e barn so that t h e

,

smok e com e s in contact with t h e tobacco imparting to it t h e ,

odor o f cr e osot e M aryland tobacco is grown on light sands

.

and sandy Ioams and t h e l e a f is mild and light in body and

,

color C ultural m e thods r e s e mbl e thos e o f t h e cigar l e a f and

.
-

B url e y districts .

32 0 S oi l dep l et i on
. I t is g e n e rally suppos e d that tobacco
.

culture e xhausts t h e fe rtility o f t h e soil mor e rapidly than do

oth e r farm crops I n many tobacco growing r e gions littl e rota
.
-

tion o f crops is practic e d and too littl e att e ntion is giv e n to r e

pl e nishing t h e soil B e fore farm e rs had l e arn e d how to rotat e
.

th e ir crops and to u s e comm e rcial fe rtiliz e rs as succ e ss fully as

th e y now do t h e tobacco soils o f som e districts b e cam e so
,

e xhaust e d that tobacco growing was discontinu e d and t h e land

plant e d to oth e r crops or allow e d to b e com e cov e r e d with w e e ds

or timb e r A ny o n e crop syst e m o f farming d e pl e t e s t h e soil
.
-
,

e sp e cially und e r such constant tillag e and cl e an cultur e as ar e

practic e d in growing this crop and tobacco has f urnish e d an ,

e xc e ll e nt illustration o f t h e r e sults o f such farming P rop e r rota .

tion o f crops i n which such l e gum e s as clov e r and cowp e as

,

ar e important and t h e r e pl e nishm e nt o f t h e soil by t h e intro

,

duction o f organic matt e r by plowing und e r gre e n crops and

barnyard manure will bring good r e turns in an incre as e o f
,

t h e tobacco yi e ld .
 TO B A C C O 2 47

Q UE S TIONS A ND P ROB LE M S

1 . H ow d o e s to b acc o c ro p r a k i n al e a m o g t h e c ro p s o f t h e
th e n v u n

U n it e d S ta t e s ? am o g t h e c ro p s o f t h e w orl d ? n

2 W h y h as to b acc o g ro w i g b ec o m e s uc h a s p e c i aliz e d i d s t ry ?
. n n u

3 W h at ar e t h e thr e e ge n e r al c l as s e s o f to b acc o ?
.

4 D i s cus s t h e p ri ci p a l ty p e s o f to bacc o g ro w n a d t h e r e l ati e i m p or

. n n v

t an ce o f e ach typ e .

5 Ho w i s t h e fi e s t qu ality o f w ra pp e r l e af p ro duce d ?
. n

6 W h e re i s e x p ort to b acc o p ro d ce d ?
. u

7 W h a t a r e t h e p r i n c i p a l m an u fact u ri g t y p
. o f to b acc o an d w h e r e i s n es ,

e c h p r od u ce d ?
a

REF E RE NCE S

D U GG A R , J . o u th e r n F i e l d C ro p s T h e M acm ill a C o m p a y
F . S . n n .

F R E A R W I L L I A M a d H I B S H M A N E K P ro d c tio
, ,
n f C i g r Le a f T o b acc o ,
. . u n o a -

i n P e n s y l a n i a F a r m er B l l et i n 4 1 6 U it e d S t a t e s D e p a rt m e n t o f
’
n v ,
s u ,
n

Ag ri c lt r e u u .

G A R NE R W W T o b acc o C u lt u r e F r n e r B u l l et i n 5 7 1 U it e d S t at e s
’
,
. .
,
a i s ,
n

D e pa rt m e t o f A g ri c lt u r e
n u .

G A R N E R W W B A C O N C W a d F R O U B E R T C L R e s e arch S t d i es
,
. .
, ,
. .
,
n , . . u

o n th e C u ri g o f Le af T o b acc o B u l l e t i n 7 9 U it e d S t t e s D e p a rt m e n t
n , ,
n a

o f Ag r i cu lt u r e .

M ATT HE W S O N E H T o b acco M ark e ti n g i U it e d S t at e s B u l l e t i n 2 86

, . . n n , ,

B u r e au o f P l an t I d s try U it e d S t t e s D e p a rt m e t o f A g ri cu lt r e
n u ,
n a n u

S C HE R R F I U S W H ,
T o bacco I m p ro ve m e t B u l l et i n 1 3 9 K e t uc k y
. . n , ,
n

E x p e ri m e n t S t atio n .

S C HE RR F I US W H an d W O O S LE Y W H
, . .C lti a tio
, C ri g a d ,
. . u v n ,
u n ,
n

M ar ke ti n g o f T o bacc o B u l l et i n 1 2 9 K e t uc ky E x p e ri m e n t S ta tio
, ,
n n .
 C HA P T E R XXI I

S I LOS AND S I LAGE

32 1 . P r e s er v i n g su mm e r W ith th e e x
f eed f or w i n t er use .

c e p t i o n o f rip e n e d grain all f oodstu ffs los e much o f th e ir dis

,

t i n ct iv e flavor and valu e wh e n dri e d H ay is n e v e r so nutritious

.

as a fe e d as t h e gre e n grass f rom which t h e hay is mad e E v e n .

t h e anci e nts sought to mak e Ju n e fe e d conditions in J a nua ry

by pre s e rving t h e gr e e n succul e nt mat e rial in und e rground pits
,
.

T h e e arly e fforts to pre s e rv e gr e e n fe e d how e v e r w e re only

, , ,

mod e rat e ly succ e ss f ul b e caus e t h e farm e rs in thos e days kn e w

,

nothing o f bact e ria and how to u s e th e m W e may now k e e p .

f e e d gr e e n almost as e asily as we pr e s e rv e hay or dri e d f e e d .

T h e s i l o is t h e r e c e ptacl e in which gre e n f e e d is pr e s e rv e d and ,

s i l ag e f orm e rly call e d e n s i l ag e

,
is t h e mat e rial pre s e rv e d
, .

32 2 Gr een an d dr i ed f odder s com p ar ed

. I f t h e curing proc .

e s s is carri e d on without t h e loss o f l e av e s and t h e fin e r parts

o f t h e plant and without any f e rm e ntation t h e cur e d f e e d will ,

be practically as compl e t e ly dige st e d as it would hav e b e e n i f

f e d gre e n B u t und e r ordinary farm conditions hay cannot be
.

mad e without a mat e rial loss o f l e av e s and fin e r parts and s e l ,

dom without fe rm e ntation A n e xp e rim e nt show e d that r e d

1
.

clov e r lost 1 8 p e r c e nt o f its prot e in in t h e proc e ss o f cu ring

und e r t h e b e st farm conditions 2 3 p e r c e nt und e r fairly good ,

conditions and more than 4 9 p e r c e nt wh e n th e w eath e r was

,

bad M ore ov e r gr e e n foods are much e asi e r to masticat e than

.
,

1 K ll r
e ne , Th e S c i tifi
en c Feed i ng of A n i m al s , p . 122 .

2 48
 2 50 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

which may b e conv e rt e d into sugar V e ry soon aft e r forage has .

b e e n put into t h e silo t h e sugar is acte d upon by bacte ria and

is in part at l e ast conv e rt e d into acid O n e may ask why it
, ,
.

is n e c e ssary to e xclud e t h e air if t h e acid pr e s e rv e s t h e silage .

W h e n air is admitte d t h e ,

acid is d e stroy e d by molds

which fe e d upon it W ith .

t h e acid d e stroy e d t h e bac ,

t e ria that caus e d e cay known ,

as putr e factive bact e ria at ,

tack t h e prot e in and caus e

t h e S ilage to spoil T his may .

e xplain why clov e r al fal fa , ,

C owp e as and soy b e ans do ,

not k e e p w e ll in t h e S ilo .

T h e s e mat e rials probably do

not contain e nough sugar
to produc e t h e acids re quir e d
to pre s e rv e th e m T h e s e .

l e gum e s k e e p w e ll wh e n
mix e d with corn sorghum , ,

or oth e r mat e rials containing

sugar .

32 4 . Th e adv an t a ge s of
l
A w e ll manage d th e si l o .
-

silo mak e s it possibl e fo r its

own e r to s e cure many i m
portant advantage s M ore .

F I G 1 1 9 A hollo w til
. ilo .
f e e d can be store d i n a giv e n
-
e s

spac e in t h e f orm o f silage

than in t h e form o f hay T h e spac e re quire d to store o n e ton
.

o f hay will hold e ight tons o f S ilag e A n acre o f corn can be .

plac e d in t h e silo at l e ss cost than t h e sam e are a can be husk e d

‘

and shr e dd e d C rops can be put into t h e silo in w e ath e r that is

.
‘

t d p ri i p ll y f ro m F
1 A d ap e nc a a r m er s
’
B u l l et i n 55 6, Un it e d S t t
a es D e p a me n rt t
o f A g ri lt r cu u e .
 S I LO S A ND S I LA G E 2 5 1

not suit e d to making hay or curing f odd e r T h e re is l e ss loss .

o f f ood mat e rial wh e n a crop is thus stor e d than wh e n it is cur e d

as fodd e r or hay S ilag e is v e ry palatabl e and lik e oth e r s u ccu

.

l e nt fee ds may hav e a b e n e ficial e ffe ct upon t h e dige stiv e organs .

G ood silage prop e rly fe d is all consum e d ; h e nc e th e r e is l e ss

wast e i n fe e ding it than in fe e ding dry fodd e r Corn silage is .

a more e ffici e nt fe e d than is corn fodd e r M ore stock can be .

k e pt on a giv e n are a o f
land wh e n silage is t h e
basis o f t h e ration than
wh e n corn fodd e r or hay
is t h e basis S ilage is
.

t h e ch e ap e st and b e st
f orm in which a s u ccu
-

l e nt fe e d ca n be pro
v ide d for wint e r u se .

S ilag e can be us e d more

e conomically than soil

ing crops to suppl e m e nt

pasture s b e caus e it r e
quire s l e ss labor C o n
.

v e rting t h e corn crop

into silage cl e ars t h e
land e arly in t h e autumn ,

thus l e aving it re ady for F I G 1 2 0 M o ol thi c c o

. . r t e S ilo
n i nc e s

anoth e r C I Op.

The se s ilo b ilt oli d i

s ar e o r t form oft
u s n c nc e e s, en

32 5 8 1 108 an d cr op
. w ith w t r t k
a e an t p i th
s on lo h r how
o ,
as n e Si s e e s n

l i m i t s T h e S ilo e xt e nds
.

t h e north e rn limits o f t h e corn b e lt b e caus e it is possibl e to

mature corn s u fli ci e n tl y to be put into t h e S ilo wh e r e it will not
mat ur e su fli ci e n tl y to be husk e d or fi e l d cure d I n t h e north e rn
-
.

part o f t h e corn b e lt large r and mor e productiv e vari e ti e s can be

grown fo r t h e silo than fo r fi e l d curing I n dry climat e s and i n
-
.

d ry s e asons it is possibl e by m e ans o f t h e silo to pr e s e rv e corn ,

kafi r and sorghum in good condition I f allow e d to sta nd t h e

, .
,

plants dry up be fore th e y ar e mature and ar e large ly waste d

, .
2 5 2 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

326 . S i l age cr op s . M ost gre e n plants can be pr e s e rve d in t h e

silo i f th e y contain s u fli cie n t sugar to produc e t h e acids r e quire d
‘

to pre s e rv e th e m but hollow st e mm e d plants as wh e at rye oats

,
-
, , , ,

and barl e y and t h e l e gum e s such as al fal fa clove r cowp e as

, , , , ,

and soy b e ans wh e n silo e d alon e do not k e e p w e ll C orn is

,
.

th e principal silo
crop b e caus e it pro
duc e s a high yi e ld ,

mature s at a suit
abl e tim e is e asily ,

mad e into silage and ,

k e e ps w e ll I n t h e .

subhumid re gions ,

sorghum kafi r and , ,

milo ar e us e d e xt e n
s i v e l y as silag e crops

and with v e ry satis

factory r e sults In .

th e s e re gi ons t h e
sorghums produc e
larg e r yi e lds than
corn and r e main
longe r in t h e prope r
stage fo r siloing .

W h e n prope rly made ,

sorghum silage is
no mor e acid than
corn silage and is
F IG 1 2
. Th
1 . o tr c tio o f a w oo d
e c ns u ilo n
gr e atly r e lish e d by
en S

stock .

32 7 E s sen ti al s of a S i l o Th e walls o f t h e silo must be as

. .

n e arly air tight as possibl e and should be p e rp e ndicular and

-

smooth so that t h e silage may s e ttl e e asily and e v e nly T h e .

S ilo should b e strong e nough to withstand t h e pr e ssur e o f t h e

silage and o f h e avy winds Th e silo may be cons t ruct e d of

.

wood ( F igs 1 I 8 and . iron til e ( F igs 1 I 9 and ,

brick
.
,
2 54 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

32 9 . P r op or t i on s
z T h e quantity o f S ilage
an d S i e of s i l o t o u s e .

re quir e d and diam e t e r o f silo adapt e d to h e rds of di ffe re nt siz e

ar e giv e n in t h e f ollowing fi gur e s

NUM B ER OF C ws o D I A M E TE R or

OR S TE E RS S i Lo

330 Th e . s T h e numb e r o f days that

ca p aci ty of r ou n d S i l o .

S ilag e will n e e d to b e f e d vari e s i n di ffe r e nt r e gions on di ffe r ,

e n t farms in t h e sam e r e gion and on t h e sam e farm in d if ,

f e re n t s e asons but t h e sa fe plan is to e stimat e t h e maximu m

,

tim e re quire d and build t h e S ilo to m e e t this d e mand O n

, .

most farms o n e hundre d and e ighty days will be t h e limit o f t h e

silag e fe e ding p e riod although on som e o f t h e b e st manage d
-
,
-

dai ry farms silag e is fe d e v e ry day i n t h e y e ar A cubic foot o f .

silage w e ighs from tw e nty to S ixty pounds according to t h e ,

crop f rom which it i s mad e t h e amount o f moisture it con ,

tains and t h e d e pth o f t h e S ilo I n computing t h e capacity

, .

o f S ilos silag e is usually e stimat e d to w e igh f orty pounds r

p e

cubic foot .

1 W h e r e m or e th an fo r h
u r
un d ed to ns o f il
s age ar e r q ir
e u e d, th e us e o f tw o

s ilo s is ge n e r ll y
a i bl
adv s a e .
 S I L O S A ND S I L A G E 2 55

C A PA C I T Y O F T H E R O UN D S I LO I N T O N S

I NS I DE D I AM E TE R

H E I G HT

331 . Th e h ei gh t of the d e e p e r t h e S ilo and th e re

Sil o . The
fore t h e gre at e r t h e pr e ssure o f t h e silag e t h e mor e compl e t e ly ,

t h e air will b e e xclud e d and t h e b e tt e r t h e S ilag e will k e e p .

W ith t h e old fashion e d chain e l e vator it was not fe asibl e to li ft

-

silage to a gre at e r h e ight than thirty f e e t but with t h e mod e rn ,

blow e r e l e vator silage can b e blown to a h e ight o f fi fty or more

fe e t A conv e ni e nt rul e is to e stimat e t h e h e ight o f t h e silo
.

at f rom thre e to thre e and o n e hal f tim e s its diam e t e r S ilos

-
.

o f m e dium siz e should b e b e tw e e n 30 and 4 0 f e e t high and ,

thos e o f large diam e te r should be 4 0 or 50 fe e t high .

332 W h a t a S i l o costs
. A silo costs f rom
. to $ 5 for
e ach ton o f capacity according to t h e siz e
,
t h e mat e rials us e d , ,

and t h e conditions und e r which it is e re ct e d T his m e ans that .

a 1 00 ton silo will cost f rom $ 2 50 to $ 500 and it will hold t h e

-
,

forage ordinarily gr own on 1 0 or 1 2 acr e s .

333 Wh en t o cut cr op s f or s i l age T o s e cur e t h e maximum

. .

yi e ld o f dige stibl e mat e rials it is n e c e ssary to allow corn to

b e com e r e asonably matur e b e for e it is harve st e d b e caus e t h e ,
2 56 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

gr e at e st gain in dige stibl e mat e rial occurs b e tw e e n t h e tim e

wh e n t h e corn is in t h e roasting e ar stage and t h e tim e wh e n -

t h e grains b e com e glaz e d I t is also tru e that corn which is

.

re asonably matur e mak e s a sw e e t e r and more palatabl e S ilage .

FIG . 1 23 . R ac k f or h li au ng c or f ro m fi l d to ilo
n e s

Th e b e st stage at which to cut corn fo r t h e silo is wh e n th e

k e rn e ls ar e b e ginning to glaz e and wh e n t h e l e ave s b e low t h e
e ar ar e dry. I f t h e corn should b e com e too dry to pack w e ll in
t h e S ilo about hal f a barr e l o f wat e r should b e add e d to e ach
,

FIG . 1 24 . S il ag e c u tt r
e an d s ilo fill e r

wagonload o f corn T h e wat e r is most e ffe ctiv e ly and con

.

v e n ie n tl add e d by running it into t h e blow e r as t h e corn is

y
b e ing e l e vat e d into t h e S ilo S w e e t sorghums S hould be mature
.

wh e n harv e st e d to mak e a silage o f prop e r swe e tn e ss

, .
2 5 8 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C ULT UR E

335 . I n r e gions o f limit e d rain fall and e sp e

Th e p i t Sil o .

c ial l y on soils with p e r fe ct drainag e to t h e d e pth o f tw e nty or

more fe e t it has re c e ntly b e e n found practicabl e to build in t h e

ground a silo ( F ig 1 2 5) that s e rv e s e v e ry purpos e o f a much
.

more costly structure above ground A large numb e r o f such .

silos ar e i n u s e in w e ste rn Ne braska Kansas O klahoma T e xas , , , ,

and e ast e rn C olorado Th e cost o f a pit silo vari e s f rom a fe w

.

c e nts to about a dollar fo r e ach ton it will hold Labor most of .

,

which is unskill e d is t h e chi e f ite m o f e xp e ns e i n building a

,

pit silo S uch a silo re quir e s v e ry littl e fo r upk e e p and cannot

.

F IG . 1 2 6 . A S il ag e c ar

In f i
e ed ng l rg q
a e t ti f l g i m p l
u an i es o w hi h m
Si a e a s e car c y b e pus
a h ed c lo to t h
se e

f d i g tro gh i o f m h i t
ee n u s s uc as s s an ce

be blown down A blow e r or e l e vator is not r e quire d ; th e re fore

.

t h e cutt e r costs l e ss and is op e rat e d at l e ss e xp e ns e than wh e n

filling a silo built abov e ground T h e silage will not f re e z e and .

k e e ps e v e n b e tt e r than in t h e abov e grou nd silo T h e principal .

disadvantage o f t h e pit S ilo is t h e inconv e ni e nc e in ge tting t h e

S ilag e out T h e pit silo should hav e a c e m e nt curb e xt e nding
.

f rom b e low t h e f rost lin e to a fe w inch e s abov e t h e ground Th e .

walls should b e plast e r e d with c e m e nt f rom thre e fourths o f an

inch to o n e i nch in thickn e ss and should b e wash e d with a c e m e nt
coat to mak e th e m wat e r tight and air tight A cov e ring should
- -
.

be provid e d to k e e p out dirt trash farm animal s and childr e n , , , ,

and also to provid e fo r t h e circulation o f air within t h e S ilo .

 S I L O S A ND S I L A G E 2 59

336 . Am ou n t is a good fe e d at any

of S i l a ge t o f eed . S ilag e
s e ason o f t h e y e ar but it is e sp e cially valuabl e in wint e r wh e n
,

f arm stock ar e without gre e n f e e d ( F i g I t is fo r wint e r .

fe e ding what pastur e grass is f o r summ e r f e e ding Th e amount .

that may be f e d daily to di ffe r e nt class e s o f farm animals is

approximat e ly as follows
K D IN OF STO C K P O UN DS
D a i ry Ca t t l e
o
C w s ( in f ll u fl ow of m ilk )
C ows ( d y) r

H e i fe r s
B eef Ca t t l e
B re e d i n g c ow s
T w o ye r ol d s
-
a -

C al e sv d y e a rli
an n gs

F a tt en i ng Ca t t l e
Fir s t s t ge o f fatt e i g
a n n

M i d d l e s t ge o f fa tt e i g
a n n

L s t f orty d y s o f f tt e i
a a a n ng

H or s es 1

Br oo d m ar e s
I d l hor
e se s

Y e a rli g n s

B re e di n g e w e s
F at t e i g l am b s
n n

F at t e i g w e th e r s
n n

Q UE S TIONS AND P ROB LEM S

1 C o m p r gr e f o dde r
. a e d d y f o dd r
e nf d an r e as ee .

2 Gi. a m m ry o f t h
ve sud t g f t h ilo a e a van a es o e s .

3 C o m p r t h p ri ci p l il g c ro p
. a e g
e i i g r asno w h y ao m e
s a e s, v n e ns s ar e

b e tt e r th oth r an e s .

4 H ow lo g m y il g b
. n x p o e d t t h e i w itho t i j ri g
a s a e e e s o a r u n u n it s
f e e d i g al e ?
n v u

5 W hy i i t
. t p ro fi t b l e f r t h
s o w e r f tw r thr e o w t
no a o e n o o o e c s o use

a s ilo ?
1 S il g i a t e f f d f or hor
s no al it i p r f tl y f r h
sa e ee ses un ess s e ec es an d

f r f ro m m ol d
ee .
2 60 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E
6 . Ho w m an y m or e ca ttl e w ill be r e q i re d t o e at t h e s il age th at s ho l d
u u

be f e d e ac h d ay f ro m a s ilo 2 0 f e e t i
n d i am e t e r th n f ro m o e 1 0 f t i n
a n ee

d i am e te r ?
7 . W h at o m e o f th e m o s t i mp orta t r e as o s fo r se c r i g a e e
ar e s n n u n n v n

di s tri b u ti o n o f t h e s il ag e as t h e s ilo i s b e i g fi ll e d ? n

8 W h e s ho l d c or b e cu t fo r t h e s ilo ?
. n u n

9 W h e n s ho u l d s w e e t s org h u m b e cu t fo S il age ?
. r

1 0 Ho w m uc h s il ag e m ay b e o b tai n e d f r o m a fi fty b us h e l c or n c ro p ?
.
-

1 1 H o w d o es t h e p i t S ilo c o m p ar e w ith t h e ab o v e g ro u d S ilo i n co

. n n

s tr u c ti o n u s e a d v al u e ?
, ,
n

1 2 H o w m u c h s il age s ho l d b e fe d d il y t o a ye ar l i n g ca l f ? t o c o w s i n
. u a

f u ll fl o w o f m il k ? t o i d l e hor s e s ? t o f a tt e n i n g l am b s ?

1 3 E x p l ai n h o w s il ge k e e p s ?
. a

1 4 W h y w ill s il age m ad e f ro m l e g m e s n o t k e e p s o w e ll as th a t m d e
. u a

f ro m c or n or s org h m ? u

1 5 W h y w i ll s il age m ad e f ro m hollo w s t e m m e d p l a t s o t k e e p w e ll ?
.
-
n n

E XE RCI S E S

1 . cap acity o f a s ilo re quire d t o fe e d a h e rd con si st

C ompute th e
in g o f I O d ai ry cow s in milk 5 d ry cow s 6 y e arling h e i fe rs an d
, , ,

c alve s an d d e t e rmin e t h e l arge s t di a m e te r o f s ilo t h a t would b e

7 ,

practicable fo r s uc h a h e rd .

2 C omput e t h e s ize o f s ilo r e quire d fo r a h e rd o f 2 0 b ee f cow s

.
,

1 8 t w o y e ar o l d s t e e rs
- -
3 0 y e a rlin g h
,
e i f e r s a n d s t e e r s 2
5 c alv e s 3 0 , ,

bre e ding e w e s an d 1 0 idl e work h ors e s W h at is t h e l arge s t diam e

,
.

t e r t h at could b e u s e d ? W h at di a m e te r an d w h at h e ig h t would y o u
re comm end ? Would it be wi s e r t o u s e o n e o r t wo S ilo s fo r t h i s n u m
b e r o f s tock ? H o w m any acre s o f corn s h o uld b e pl ant e d t o s upply
t h e a m o u nt o f S il age re quire d fo r t h i s h e rd ? H o w m any acre s o f
s org h u m ? H o w m any acre s o f kafi r ? W h at would it co s t t o fi ll t h e
s ilo wit h corn s il age f o r t h i s h e rd ?

3 W h at is t h e c ap acity o f a S ilo 3 0 f e e t in h e igh t an d 1 8 fe e t in

.

di m t r H o w m any cow s wou ld suc h a s ilo fe e d fo r o n e h u n dre d

a e e ?

an d e i h ty d ay s ?
g
4 W h at a r e t h e typ e s o f s ilo s i n u s e in your county ? W h at i s t h e
.

S ign i fi canc e o f t h e f act t h at a l m o s t all t h e s e s ilo s ar e o f re c e nt co n

s tructi on ? W h at d o s ilo owne rs th ink regarding t h e valu e o f s ilo s ?

 C H A P TE R XXI I I

THE OR CHAR D CR OP

An or h r d oil ho l d p o
c a o p p o it q liti
s s u sse s s s e ua es in p ro p r p ro p ortio
e ns .

I t ho l d b f r
s u d fi m ; d ye d m oi t ; li g ht
ee an r r an s an d h e av
y , d t
anh b otto m
e

sho l d b o f t h m
u et r th t p — TH O H
e sa e n a u e as e o . E P RA ST U S

337 . Or i gi n of appl e is our most impo rta nt

th e appl e . Th e
f ruit Nativ e to south e ast e rn E urop e and southw e st e rn A sia
.
,

it has now S pre ad by dom e stication to practically all t h e t e m

p e rat e r e gions o f t h e civiliz e d world F rom a sour wild f ruit .
, ,

scarc e ly b e tt e r than th e wild crabs o f t h e U nit e d S tat e s it has ,

b e e n improv e d by man until we now poss e ss s e v e ral thousand

vari e ti e s rip e ning at di ffe r e nt s e asons suit e d to various soils
, ,

and climat e s and satis fying our many tast e s and purpos e s
, .

338 Th e t r ee f r u i ts T h e U nit e d S tat e s is t h e l e ading appl e

. .

producing country of th e world I n a f avorabl e ye ar our appl e .

crop has a valu e o f approximat e ly Ne w vari e ti e s

ar e constantly b e ing originat e d an d som e o f th e s e ar e b e tt e r ,

suit e d to sp e cial purpos e s or b e tt e r adapt e d to n e w localiti e s .

T h e p e ach ranks n e xt to t h e appl e i n importanc e having a ,

valu e o f f rom o n e fourth to o n e third that o f t h e appl e I t prob .

ably originat e d i n C hina I t was e arly introduc e d into E urop e

.

by way o f P e rsia T h e p e ach e s o f t h e U nit e d S tat e s w e re first

.

brought f rom t h e orchards o f E urop e but i n r e c e nt y e ars n e w ,

typ e s hav e b e e n introduc e d f rom C hina .

T h e orange ranks third i n importanc e among our tr e e f ruits .

I t was probably nativ e to I ndo C hina but is now grown in many -

,

2 62
 T H E ORC H A RD C RO P 2 63

s e mitropical s e ctions T h e orange was introduc e d into t h e

.

U nit e d S tat e s f rom south e rn E urop e T h e so call e d . nativ e -

orange s of F lorida a re no doubt tre e s which ran wild from

orange s introduc e d by t h e e arly S panish e xplore rs .

Th e plum ranks f ourth in importanc e O ur old e r vari e ti e s

.
,

such as prun e s damson and e gg plums w e re introduc e d from

, ,

E urop e . I n r e c e nt y e ars anoth e r sp e ci e s t h e J apan e s e plum, ,

has b e e n introduc e d from t h e O ri e nt W ithin t h e last fi fty y e ars

.

FIG . 1 2 7 . An oli ve or h r d i
c a n Ca li f or i
n a

we hav e dom e sticat e d som e o f our native wild plums s e curing ,

such vari e ti e s as W ild G oos e D e S oto and W ayland

, , .

P e ars and ch e rri e s both nativ e to E urop e follow in ord e r o f i m

, ,

portanc e O th e r f ruits as th e dat e and t h e ol iv e ( F ig

.
,
have .

b e e n introduc e d and though not wid e ly grown ar e important

, , .

339 Orch a r d r egi on s of t h e Un i t ed S t at es

. Th e principal .

orchard r e gions o f t h e U nit e d S tat e s ar e t h e grave lly soils o f

Ne w E ngland and N e w York ; t h e B lu e R idg e f oothills and
southward t h e sandy soils o f Ne w J e rs e y t h e re gions about t h e
G re at Lak e s ; som e o f t h e vall e ys o f th e W e st and No rthw e st ,
2 64 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

such as t h e G unnison G rand J unction H ood R iv e r Rogu e

, , ,

R iv e r B itt e r R oot North Yakima W e natch e e

, , ,
t h e S ilt loam or
lo e ss soils o f t h e hills ov e rlooking t h e M ississippi R iv e r and its
tributari e s t h e r e d grav e lly clay loam o f t h e O zarks in M issouri
,

a nd A rkansas ; and t h e d e e p loam o f som e o f t h e prairi e stat e s

and t h e orange districts of F lorida and C ali fornia .

340 Cl i m at e det er mi n e s t h e t y p e of f r u i t t o gr ow
. Th e .

climat e is t h e most important factor i n d e t e rmining t h e loca

tion o f an orchard E ach kind o f fruit has a north e rn limit
.
,

abov e which t h e wint e rs ar e too s e v e re fo r it to liv e ; and most

hav e a south e rn limit b e low which it may b e com e too hot for
,

it to thriv e Th e B aldwin and G r e e ning appl e s for e xampl e

.
, ,

thriv e b e st in t h e North e rn stat e s from Ne w E ngland to M ichi

gan whil e t h e B e n D avis and W in e sap re ach th e ir b e st d e v e lop
,

m e nt from Virginia w e stward through M issouri and A rkansas .

H umidi ty also is an important factor A ppl e s o f t h e N e wtown .

P ippin type ar e w e ll adapt e d to t h e A tlantic and Pacific coast

sta t e s whil e t h e D uch e s s and kindre d vari e ti e s r e ach th e ir b e st
,

d e v e lopm e nt in t h e int e rior wh e re t h e climat e is dri e r S w e e t

, .

ch e rri e s re ach th e ir b e st d e v e lopm e nt in a moist climat e lik e

that o f t h e coast re gions and t h e G re at Lak e s T h e sour .

ch e rri e s thriv e b e st in t h e dri e r contin e ntal climat e s o f t h e

,

M ississippi Vall e y stat e s .

341 Or ch ar d s oi l s
. O rchards grow w e ll in many di ffe re nt
.

re gions but it doe s not follow that any good agricultural soil
,

is adapt e d to f ruit tr e e s A erat io n o f t h e soil is n e c e ssary fo r

.

t h e prop e r d e v e lopm e nt o f f ruit tr e e s b e cause th e ir roots r e

,

quire mor e air than do t h e roots o f most oth e r cultivat e d plants .

”
F ruit tr e e s do not lik e we t f e e t T h e r e fore th e soil for an
.

orchard should drain to a gr e at e r d e pth than is r e quire d for

grains grass e s or oth e r farm crops and must not be wat e r
, , ,

soak e d fo r any gre at l e ngth o f tim e at any s e ason o f t h e y e ar .

A good orchard soil should be loos e porous and m e llow so , , ,

that t h e wat e r p e n e trat e s re adily and to gre at d e pth I n t h e e sti .

mation o f many orchardists t h e subsoil is o f more importanc e

than t h e surf ac e soil A h e avy clay subsoil or a hardpan is
.
2 66 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

pre ve nt sunscald of t h e tre e s and f ruit and to d e cre as e t h e dan

g e r o f inj ury f rom f rosts by r e tarding t h e op e ning o f t h e f ru it
buds in t h e spring I n comparativ e ly l e v e l districts orchards
.
,

should be locat e d on t h e high e r ridge s .

344 Ai r dr ai n age
. I n som e localiti e s air drainage is as
.

important as wat e r drainage C old air is h e avi e r than warm .

FIG . h d i g d li at p l t
1 28 . S a n e c e an s

A C ub an g ro
ve , in whi h o ff
c ( i flow r)
c ee d tob no e an acc ar e g row
n in t h e s h ad e

of or g d p l m tr an e an a ees

air and it drains to t h e low e st l e v e l j ust as wat e r flows to t h e

,

lowe st l e ve l F rosts are more common in low plac e s b e caus e

.
,

t h e h e avi e r cold air has s e ttl e d th e r e

, C ons e qu e ntly orchards .
,

should not be plante d in low f rosty plac e s I n hilly re gions ,

.

t h e bl e ak e st points may e xpos e t h e orchard to winds that ar e

too s e v e re and in such localiti e s t h e sh e lte re d slop e s and vall e ys
,

are pr e fe rabl e e sp e cially i f a still low e r ravin e or riv e r be d is

,

adj ac e nt to drain o ff t h e cold air on f ros t y nights T h e d e pth .

 T H E O RC HA R D C RO P 2 67

at which cold air will stand in low plac e s d e p e nds upon th e ar e a

f rom which cold air drains into it j ust as t h e d e pth o f t h e wat e r
,

i n a lak e or riv e r d e p e nds upon t h e drainage ar e a o f t h e basin .

34 5 B odi e s of w at er
. B odi e s o f wat e r if larg e or d ee p
.
, ,

t e mp e r t h e climat e o f t h e surrounding r e gion Th e wat e r .

warms S lowly in spring thus re tarding t h e Op e ning o f t h e

,

buds and l e ss e ning t h e dange r f rom lat e f rosts A lso t h e .

,

wat e r cools slowly in autumn and pr e v e nts e arly f rosts that

might do s e rious damage to t h e rip e ning f ruit S uch influ e nc e .

is most mark e d on land adj oinin g t h e oc e an and giv e s what is ,

known as a maritim e climat e comparativ e ly f re e f rom abrupt

,

change s in t e mp e rature Lak e s and riv e rs e x e rt a similar i n fl u

.

e nc e although e xt e nding ov e r a much small e r ar e a

,
Th e w e st .

e r n part o f M ichigan fo r e xampl e is a notabl e p e ach r e gion

, , ,

b e caus e t h e pre vailing winds hav e b e e n t e mp e re d in passing

ov e r Lak e M ichigan O n t h e opposit e sid e o f t h e lak e p e ach
.

growing I S not so succ e ss ful b e caus e t h e pr e vailing winds hav e

,

pass e d ov e r t h e land o f W isconsin inst e ad o f ov e r t h e wat e r

o f L ak e M ichigan .

34 6 Va r i et i e s t o pl an t
. A ny orchard r e gion is capabl e o f
.

growing s e v e ral good vari e ti e s E xp e ri e nc e is t h e b e st guid e

.

as to what vari e ti e s to plant F o r t h e hom e orchard th e vari e

.

ti e s S hould b e chos e n to giv e a succ e ssion o f f ruit T h e coll e e .

tion should i nclud e o n e or two tre e s e ach o f e arly vari e ti e s but ,

t h e main orchard should consist o f t h e wint e r vari e ti e s Co m .

m e r cial orchards should consist o f t h e sta ndard vari e ti e s that ar e

known to be adapt e d to t h e re gion and hav e a w e ll e stablish e d -

plac e on t h e mark e t .

34 7 How t o p r ep are t h e l an d T h e pr e paration of t h e land

. .

f o r planting f ruit tre e s is S imilar to t h e pr e paration o f a s ee d

b e d for wh e at or corn or cotton Th e ground should be plow e d
.

d e e p thoroughly harrow e d and put in condition so that wh e n

, , ,

t h e tr e e s ar e plant e d th e y may b e cultivat e d lik e any oth e r

till e d crop Pr e v e ntion o f growth o f w e e ds and cons e rvation o f
.

moisture o f t h e soil are important consid e rations in growing

orchard tr e e s .
2 68 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

34 8 . HOW f ar ap ar t t o p l an t . Th e
distanc e apart to plant
d e p e nds upon t h e locality t h e soil and t h e vari e ty T re e s that
, , .

do not grow large and that w e ar out e arly may be plant e d much
clos e r than thos e that grow large r and liv e longe r S om e tim e s .

f ruit tre e s ar e plant e d clos e r than th e y should stand wh e n f ully

grown and wh e n th ey hav e b e e n b e aring a fe w y e ars and more
,

room is re quire d e ach alt e rnat e tre e is cut out

,
.

34 9 Wh en t o pl an t T r e e s may b e transplant e d in t h e spring

. .

or i n t h e fall I n t h e mild e r climat e s wh e re tre e s ar e not lik e ly

.
,

to be inj ure d by wint e r fall transplanting is to be pre f e rre d be

,

caus e th e r e is more h e at in t h e ground th e n than in t h e spring ,

and n e w root growth is gre atly stimulate d by soil warmth I f th e .

autumn is v e ry dry it is b e st to put o ff planting until spring

,
.

35 0 S h ap i n g t h e r oot b ef or e pl an t i n g
. A ll brok e n or badly .

inj ure d roots S houl d be cut back to h e althy tissu e s T o avoid .

b e nding th e roots in planting all roots S hould be cut back to s ix

,

or e ight inch e s in l e ngth B e nding a root shuts o ff t h e flow of

.

sap j ust as kinking a gard e n hos e ch e cks t h e flow o f wate r I f .

th e small fibrous roots ar e dry bruis e d or d e ad th ey should be

, , ,

trimm e d o ff as th e y ar e not only worthl e ss but pre v e nt t h e soil

,

f rom coming in full contact with t h e main roots .

35 1 S e tt i n g t h e t r ee
. T h e tre e should be plac e d in t h e
.

ground as n e arly as possibl e in t h e Shap e and at t h e d e pth at

which it gr e w in t h e nurs e ry T h e hol e to re c e iv e t h e tre e
.

S hould b e broad e nough to accommodat e t h e natural spr e ad o f

t h e root syst e m A s t h e tre e is h e ld in t h e hol e at t h e prop e r

.

d e pth and in t h e prop e r position t h e soil should be S hak e n from

,

t h e shov e l loos e ly so that it will si ft in b e tw e e n t h e roots and

l e av e th e m in th e ir normal position A t th e sam e tim e t h e tr e e
.

S hould be S hak e n so that its roots will r e tain th e ir natural spre ad

inst e ad of b e ing b e nt down in an unnatural position A s soon .

as t h e low e r roots are cov e re d with a lay e r o f soil t h e soil ,

should be pre ss e d down fi rmly L ay e r a ft e r lay e r o f soil should

.

be tramp e d firmly f rom t h e bottom o f t h e hol e to t h e top and ,

t h e n a lay e r o f loos e soil should be spr e ad ov e r t h e surf ac e to

act as a mulch U nl e ss t h e soil is too we t and h e avy fo r prop e r

.
2 7 0 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

35 3 . P r u n i n g f or Op en f or m
tre e is d e t e r . Th e form of th e
min e d wh e n it is young T h e l e ngth o f t h e bare trunk is .

d e t e rmin e d by r e moving t h e low e r branch e s to t h e h e ight at

which it is d e sire d to hav e t h e h e ad form e d T h e h e ad o f t h e .

tre e should be giv e n an O p e n or a pyramidal form in accord ,

anc e with t h e climatic

conditions und e r which
t h e tr e e is to be grown .

To s e cure t h e ope n h ead -

,

or vas e form t h e main ,

trunk i s cut o ff at t h e
d e sire d h e ight and from ,

thre e to fi ve sid e limbs

ar e r e tain e d to spr e ad

out f rom t h e c e nt e r at
as n e ar t h e sam e angl e
as possibl e T his form .

admits sunlight to th e
c e nt e r o f t h e tre e and
giv e s a short broad tre e ,

that is e asily prun e d ,

spraye d and manage d , ,

and f rom it th e f ruit

may be conv e ni e ntly
F IG 30 . A 1 tr l.l e a d r a pp l
ce n tr a P ick e d eF
( g i 1 29
) e ee

I nth tr t
lS h tr l t h b
ee e ce n allo w d to
s e rn
3 5 4 P
as
ru n i n g
een
f or DYa e °
"

e xt d th t t h whol t p i p y r m i d l i for m r am i dal f or m I n t h e

en so a e e o s a a n .

S h tr i f or b l to r g io of i t light
.

uc a ee s av a e e ns n en se

( D i g r m f ro maU i ar ity o f M o ri )
n ve s py r a m l d al f o r m t h e
i ss
tr e
u
e

is allow e d to re tain its

c e ntral trunk or l e ad e r and sid e limbs ar e allow e d to form
, ,

symm e trically around t h e trunk A fe w o f t h e branch e s ar e .

r e mov e d f rom y e ar to y e ar to allow room for thos e that r e main ,

but t h e natu ral symm e try o f t h e tre e is r e ta in e d T h e pyramidal .

form r e sults in a tall e r tre e as shown in many o f t h e vari e ti e s ,

o f p e ars A d e ns e h e ad is maintain e d on pyramidal tre e s to

.

s e rv e as a prot e ction i n r e gions o f int e ns e sunlight ( Fig I .

 TH E ORC HARD CRO P 2 71

W h e n e ve r a large limb is to be re mov e d it should be cut ,

clos e to t h e trunk as th e wound cannot h e al quickly and t h e

,

n e w growth cannot grow ov e r a proj e cting stub W ounds more .

than o n e hal f inch in diam e t e r should be paint e d with whit e

-

l e ad and oil as a prot e ction against dis e as e and d e cay Th e .

prun e d tr e e will produc e much of its f ru it n e ar its main body

F
( g i
. whil e t h e unprun e d tr e e will shad e its inn e r twig

FIG . 1 31 . A we ll h-
s ap e d a pp el tr e e

growth and produc e most of its f ruit toward its p e riph e ry I n .

t h e latt e r cas e t h e tre e will hav e much wast e spac e and will be
in gr e at e r dang e r f rom winds .

35 5 How t o m ak e a t r ee b ear f ru i t
. T h e growth of f ruit
.

tr e e s consists of wood growth or th e f ormation o f v e ge tativ e

,

parts such as l e av e s and limbs and fruit growth or t h e forma

, ,

tion o f t h e f ruit parts such as t h e flowe rs and t h e fruit its e l f .

W hil e a tre e is making rapid wood growth and whil e its limbs
ar e l e ngth e ning rapidly and many n e w l e av e s ar e b e ing f orm e d ,

t h e supply o f sap and availabl e plant f ood is us e d at t h e growing

2 7 2 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

points to support this v e ge tativ e activity W h e n this growth .

b e com e s l e ss activ e plant food b e gins to be store d S om e o f

,
.

this f ood is store d in t h e buds and f ruit buds may be form e d

, ,

but fruit buds ar e not f orm e d as long as all t h e food availabl e

to t h e tre e is re quire d fo r v e ge tativ e growth T h e re fore som e .

m e ans must be us e d at tim e s to hold t h e wood growth in ch e ck

and to allow a part o f t h e food to go to t h e d e v e lopm e nt o f
t h e n e w f ruit buds .

Pruning may stimulat e or ch e ck wood growth and th e re for e ,

may hind e r or h e lp f ruit fuln e ss according to t h e s e ason o f t h e

,

y e ar in which it is don e .

W int e r pruning which ,

stimulat e s wood growth

and k e e ps up t h e vigor
o f t h e tr e e s i f carri e d ,

to e xtr e m e s re tards f ruit

f uln e ss S umm e r prun .

ing ch e cks v e ge tativ e

growth by r e moving ,

som e o f t h e l e av e s i n
which plant f ood is
be m g e laborat e d and
FIG 3
.2 E
1 ff e ct s o f f il u r e to p r e
. a un i
’

st i mulat e s t h f orma
p p l t re e
a e s
e

tion o f f ruit buds fo r

t h e n e xt y e ar B y a prop e r practic e o f wint e r or summ e r
.

pru ning wood growth and f ruit fuln e ss may be k e pt in prop e r

,

balanc e ; failure to prun e re sults in a ruin e d tre e ( Fig .

35 6 Or ch ar d cul t i v a t i on
.
gen er al F ruit tre e s e sp e cially
.
,

wh e n young re quire good cultivation T h e soil should be plow e d

, .

e arly in t h e spring and harrow e d f re qu e ntly during t h e s e ason .

T h e e xact tim e to stop cultivating vari e s according to di ffe re nt

conditions such as climat e soil and rain fall C ultivation e n
, , ,
.

courage s rapid l e ngth gro wth of th e twigs and rapid thick e ning
-

o f t h e whol e growing lay e r o f t h e tr e e A s l e ngth growth c e as e s

.
-

this t e nd e r n e w tissu e b e com e s stronge r hard e r and more re , ,

s i s ta n t to cold and oth e r inj urious age n c i c s T his hard e ning

.
2 74 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

will yi e ld re asonably good re sults in clov e r sod or e ve n in grass

sod T h e pow e r o f t h e appl e to adapt its e l f to di ffe re nt d e gre e s
.

o f tillag e mak e s it suitabl e to a gr e at vari e ty o f soils and syst e ms

o f farming T ill e d orchards should hav e som e kind of crop

.

re turn e d to t h e soil from tim e to tim e to k e e p up t h e supply o f ,

organic matte r T his may be accomplish e d by cultivation during

.

t h e e arly part o f t h e s e ason and th e n by growing a gr e e n crop

to turn und e r t h e following spring S om e o f t h e crops us e d .

F IG . I 33
. S t ud e n s t j i l
u d g n g ap p e s

fo r this purpos e in th e North are rye crimson clove r and buck , ,

wh e at and in th e S outh cowp e as or soy b eans

, .

358 W h en t o p i ck f r u i t
. W h e n fruit has b e e n prop e rly
.

grown t h e probl e m of its prop e r u s e is o f t h e n e xt importanc e

F
( g i . E arly appl e s should b e pick e d wh e n th e ir s e e ds
b e gin to turn brown and b e fore t h e f ruit is m e llow Th e f ruit .

can be handl e d with l e ss bruising and k e e ps b e tt e r if pick e d

, ,

b e fore it is m e llow F all and e arly wint e r appl e s should be

.
-

pick e d as soon as th e y are fairly w e ll color e d I f on account .

,

o f hot w e ath e r in e arly autumn th e y b e gin to drop badly b e fore

,
 T H E ORC H A R D C R O P 2 75

th ey ar e we ll colore d th ey should be pick e d e arly e nough to

,

save wast e e v e n though th e y ar e not w e ll colore d Lat e wint e r

, .
-

appl e s should be allow e d to hang on t h e tre e s until th ey ar e full

s iz e and hav e good color A ppl e s lik e oth e r fruit should be
.
, ,

pick e d wh e n dry and should be k e pt as cool as is f e asibl e with

,

out fre e zing T h ey should n e v e r be pil e d in t h e sun but should

.
,

be handl e d in t h e shad e o f tre e s or in a sh e d If plac e d in a .

building cooling v e ntilation should be s e cur e d

, .

P e ars should be pick e d whil e th ey are ye t hard but wh e n ,

th e ir skin shows by its y e llowing tint that rip e n e ss is approach

ing T h ey should be rip e n e d in a cool dark plac e such as a
.
, ,

c e llar T h e y are o f fin e r quality wh e n rip e i f e ach sp e cim e n is

.

wrapp e d in pap e r as soon as it is pick e d T h e y should b e .

rip e n e d in box e s bask e ts or in thin laye rs on sh e lv e s P e rish

, ,
.

abl e f ruits like p e ach e s plums and ch e rri e s should b e pick e d

, ,

wh e n w e ll colore d but whil e th ey are firm .

QUE S TIONS AND P ROB LE M S

"
1 . W h at ar e th e m o s t i m p ort t o r c h r d c ro p s
an a i n th e U n ited S ta te s ?
in yo u r lo cal i ty ?
2 W h at are t h e p r i n c i p a l or c h a r d r eg io n s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ?
.

3 I n w h at w ays d o c li m a t e an d lo catio n d e t e r m i n e t h e ki n d o f f r u it
.

t o g ro w ?

4 I n gro wi n g o r c h ar d s w h y i s fe rtility o f t h e s oi l o f l e s s i m p or ta n ce
.

th an dr ai n age ?
5 W h a t s oil s ar e b es t f or o rc h ar d s ?
.

6 W h a t p re cau tio n s s ho u l d b e o b se rv e d i n c h o os i n g a l ocatio n f or t h e

.

o r ch ar d ? W h a t ar e t h e m o s t f av or ab l e or c h ar d s it e s i n y o u r v i c i n it y ?

7 W h a t k i n ds o f f r u it s s ho u l d b e p l an t e d f or t h e ho m e fa r m or c h ar d ?
.
-

8 P r e p ar e a p l an ti n g d i ag r am f o r a ho m e f ar m or c h ar d i n d i ca ti n g t h e
.
-
,

n u m be r an d ki n d s o f t r e es an d t h e d i s tan ce ap ar t th ey s ho u l d b e p l an t e d .

9 W ri te a s e ri e s o f d ir ec tio n s f o r p l an ti n g y o u n g app l e t re e s
. .

1 0 W h a t are t h e r e as o n s for r o o t p ru n i n g w h en p l an ti n g tr e e s ? T op
.
-

p run i n g ?
1 1 V i s it a n e i g h b ori n g or ch ar d s e l e c t o n e t re e as t h e b as i s for w o rk
.
, ,

w r ite a s t at e m e n t o f w h at p ru n i n g t h e t re e n ee ds an d l at er i n cl as s co m
, , ,

ar e r es u lts
p .
2 7 6 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C ULT U R E
1 2. W h at i s t h e r e l atio n o f p r u n i n g t o f r u it fu l n e s s ?
13 . W h e n an d u n de r w h at c o n d itio n s s ho u l d t h e or ch ar d be thoro ug hly
cu lti vate d
14 .
p r W h at
e ca ti o s s ho u l d b e o b s e rv e d i n p i c ki n g a p p l e s a d p e a r s ?
u n n

1 5 H o w i s f ru it s tor e d i n y o r lo c ality ? i n c o m m e r ci al c o ce r n s ? C n
. u n a

o u s gge s t i m p r o v e d m e tho d s o f s tori g f r u it ?

u n
y
1 6 F ro m w h a t s o urces d o t h e app l e s c o m e th a t a e s ol d i n y o u r
. r

m a rk e t s ?

E XE R CI S E S

1 . t h re e s i m ila r apple s a n d w e ig h t h e m accurat e ly Place

S e cure .

o n e w h e r e it i s co n s t antly e xpo se d t o t h e ai r o f t h e s c h o olro o m W i th .

a clot h rub f rom a not h e r al l o f t h e oily m a t e ri al f ro m t h e ap p l e s kin

an d pl a ce t h i s a p p l e b e s id e t h e fi r s t but rub it a gain e ac h d ay

, Cu t .

t h e t h ird ap pl e i n t o h alv e s an d pl ac e t h e pi e c e s b e s id e t h e ot h e r
appl e s W e igh t h e t h re e apple s f ro m d ay t o d ay an d de te rm ine an d
.
,

e x pl ai n t h e re l ativ e l o s s in w e i g h t f ro m e a c h

2 I f a f arm e r n e a r your s c h ool will coo p e ra t e s e l e ct an appl e tre e

.
,

o n his f arm prune an d cultivate an d s pray it an d write a re cord o f

, ,

w h at y o u h av e do n e Le ave t h i s re cord in a s c h o o lbook fo r t h i s p u r

'

po s e an d l e t e ac h s ucce e ding cla s s follow th e s am e pl an e ac h cla s s

, ,

re cordi n g t h e re s ult s h o w n o n t h e tre e s productio n o f apple s T h i s

’
.

pl an m ay b e adopt e d wi th pro fi t fo r o t h e r kind s o f tre e s if t h e re is

av ail abl e op p ortunity fo r e x p e ri m e nt a l work .

3 T ran s pl ant s om e fruit tre e s t o t h e s c h ool ground s e v e n t h ou gh

.
,

t h e y cannot re main t h e re t o grow pe rman e ntly M ak e s ure t h at .

prope r m e t h od s o f pl anting an d pruning are u sed .

4 S tudy f ruiting branc h es o f t h e v ari ou s f ruit tre e s cut in wint e r

. .

O b s e rve t h e diffe re nce b e tw e e n t h e l a rge blunt globul ar h airy f ruit

, , ,

buds an d t h e s mall fl at point e d wood bud s Note t h e location o f th e

, , .

fruit bud s o n t h e tre e C ontra st t h e po s ition o f t h e f ruit bud s o f t h e

.

pe ac h ( on t h e long n e w w h ip s at t h e oute r e xtremitie s o f th e limbs)

,

wit h t h at o f th e f ruit bud s o f t h e appl e o r p e ar ( o n t h e s h ort f ruit

s purs f art h e r b ack in t h e tre e o c at e t h e f ruit s c ar s w h e r e appl e s
) L .

o r p e a rs h av e b e e n born e in pre viou s y e ars a f ruit re a c h e d m a

( I f .

t u ri ty t h e s car will b e l a rge an d pro m in e nt w h il e i f t h e f ruit dropp e d

,

pre m ature ly t h e s car will b e s m alle r ) C an y o u tell o n w h at ye ars

.

a n ap pl e o r p e a r tre e h a s b o rn e f ruit by ob s e rvin t h e f ruit s ca r s o n

g
2 7 8 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E
The App l e an d h ow t o G r o w it F a r m er s B u l l et i n 1 1 3 U n ite d S tate s
’
,

D e p art m e n t o f A g ri cu lt u r e.

T h e H o m e F r u it G a r d e n : P r e p ara ti o n an d C a r e F a r i n er s B u l l et i n 1 5 4
’
,

Un it e d S ta t e s D e p ar t m e n t o f A gri cu lt u r e .

Th e A pp l e i n C ol d S tor age F a r m er s B u l l et i n 4 8 B u re au o f P l an t I n du s
’
, ,

t ry U n it e d S ta t e s D e p a rt m e n t o f A g ri cu lt u r e
,
.

A me ri can V a ri e ti e s o f G ar de n B e an s F a r m er s B u l l et i n 1 09 B u r e au o f
,
’
,

P l an t I n d u s t ry U n ite d S ta te s D e part m e n t o f Agr icul tu r e

, .

T h e C ol d S t o r age o f S m all F r u it s F a r m er s B u l l et i n 1 08 B u r e au o f P l an t
’
, ,

I n du s try U n it e d S ta te s D e p art m e n t o f Ag ri cu ltu r e

, .

O r c h ar d F r u it s i n V irg i n i a an d t h e S o u th A tl an ti c S t at e s F a i i n er s B u l l et i n
‘ ’
,

1 35 B u r e au o f P l an t I n d u s try U n i t e d S t at e s D e p a rt m e n t o f A gr i c u lt u r e
, , .

O rc h a r d G r e e n M an u r e C ro p s i n C a li f or n i a F a r ner s B u l l et i n 1 9 0 B u r e au
’
-
,
i ,

o f P l a n t I n d u s t ry U n it e d S t a t e s D e ar t m e n t o f A ri cu lt u r e
, p g .
 C H A P TE R XX IV

THE W OOD CR OP

M y p r ay e r s ith thi I d to h rg
w s us e c a e

A pi o f l d t ry l r g ee ce an , no ve a ,

W h r i th r ho l d g r d
e e n e b
e s u a a en e

A lc ea r p ri g flo w i g
s n l ly n c e as e e s s ,

A d wh r
n to ro w t h w hol th r ho l d
e e, c n e e, e e s u

A p t h b fo
a c d o f g w m g w oo d
e un ro .

A l l thi d m or t h g o d h
s an t e e s av e s e n

A d I m h
n a rtil y o t t H O RA C E
ea c n en .
—

35 9 . Th e i m p ort an ce A sia North A m e rica

of t h e w ood cr op .
, ,

E urop e and A ustralia hav e approximat e ly

,
squar e
mil e s of fore st lands an ar e a almost e qual in e xt e nt to t h e total
,

land are a of North A m e rica T h e e xt e nt o f fore st lands in .

S outh A m e rica and A f rica is not known Russia l e ads t h e .

nations in t h e e xt e nt o f h e r m e rchantabl e for e sts ; t h e U nite d

S tat e s ranks s e cond ; and C anada third Th e for e st r e gions ,
.

o f t h e t e mp e rat e zon e s a r e t h e most productiv e o f high grad e -

,

m e rchantabl e timb e r T h e tropical re gions produc e a gr e at

.

vari e ty o f timb e r much o f which is v e ry h e avy and hard I t

, .

is value d highly fo r sp e cial purpos e s but is not suitabl e fo r ,

ge n e ral structural mat e rial Th e f ore sts o f t h e U nit e d S tat e s

.

yi e ld a high e r grad e o f s tructural lumb e r than do t h e f ore sts

o f any oth e r country .

360 Th e f or e st i n du s t r y
. T h e f or e st industry at t h e pr e s e nt
.

tim e ranks n e xt to t h e strictly agricultural industri e s in volum e

and in t h e w e alth produc e d A ll gre at industri e s d e p e nd dire ctly
.

2 79
2 80 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

or indire ctly upon t h e products o f t h e fore sts fo r som e o f th e ir

n e c e ssary suppli e s T h e r e is no articl e e xc e pt foodstu ffs and
.
,

t e xtil e s that is of gr e at e r impo rta nc e to t h e w e l fare of civili

,

zat io n than wood and its products

'

N otwithstanding t h e fact .

that we ar e tod ay using more st e e l and concre t e in t h e i n

d us t r ie s than e v e r b e for e e ach y e ar finds an incre as e d d e mand
,

f o r wood I n t h e U nit e d S tat e s we ar e using t h e timb e r

.

thre e tim e s as fast as it is b e ing grown our u s e of wood p e r ,

capita b e ing more than that of any oth e r p e opl e U nd e r .

FIG . 1 34 . f rm w oo d lot
Th e a

Suc h a w ood lot ad d s b oth b e auty d tility to t h f rm

an u e a .
( Photog rap h fro m
U it d
n e St t F or t S r i )
a es es e v ce

prop e r manag e m e nt how e v e r our fore st lands ar e capabl e o f

, ,

producing all th e timb e r that we shall n e e d in t h e future .

361 F or e s t s of t h e Un i t ed S t a t es T h e f ore sts o f t h e U nit e d

. .

S tat e s cov e r an are a o f about squar e mil e s ( or about

o n e third o f t h e total ar e a divid e d into fi v e f or e st r e gions
) ,

known by th e ir g e ographic locations .

362 Th e Nort h er n f or e st r egi on

. T his re gion originally con .

ta i n e d t h e high e st grad e o f timb e r that has e v e r be e n cut It .

was t h e hom e of t h e whit e pin e which e stablish e d t h e re pu ,

tat io n o f t h e U nit e d S tat e s throughout t h e world as a for e st

r e gion Th e tre e s o f t h e North e rn fore st ar e whit e pin e r e d

.
,

pin e j ack pin e sp ruc e fi r tamarack birch mapl e b ee ch ash

, , , , , , , , ,

ch e stnut and h e mlock

, .
2 82 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

367 . F or es t s m odi fy cli m a t e I t is w e ll known that fore sts

.

re duc e t h e wind v e locity along t h e surf ac e o f t h e ground within

th e ir t e rritory T h e r e duction of t h e wind v e loci ty in addition
.
,

to e qualizing atmosph e ric t e mp e ratur e r e duc e s t h e e vaporation,

f rom t h e l e av e s and soil T h e av e rage humidity of t h e atmos

.

h r e within a f or e st is always much gr e at e r than In t h e O p e n

p e

count ry F ore sts ar e gr e at cons e r v e rs o f moisture b e cau s e t h e

.
,

roots op e n t h e soil an d enabl e t h e rain or snow wat e r to fi nd a

re ady passage into t h e substratum and t h e blank e t o f l e av e s
,

and twigs ov e r t h e surfac e op e rat e s as a sponge to absorb t h e

moisture and to pre v e nt surfac e run o ff thus insuring a more -
,

uni form flow o f wat e r in t h e stre ams throughout t h e y e ar T his .

is a matt e r o f t h e gr e at e st importanc e in irrigabl e s e ctions o f

t h e country which must hav e a continuous supply o f wat e r
,

throughout t h e growing s e ason to mature t h e cultivat e d crops .

368 F or e st s p r e v ent fl ood s T h e r e tardation o f m e lting snows

. .

and sur fac e run o ff wat e r is also a gre at f actor in pre v e nting
-

floods during s e asons o f h e avy pre cipitation O th e rwis e damage .

,

to prop e rty e rosion o f soil and possibly t h e loss o f liv e s in t h e

, ,

riv e r vall e ys many mil e s from t h e sourc e o f rain fall or snow fall
might r e sult .

369 S t a t e an d n a ti on al ow n ers h i p A bout o n e f ourth o f t h e

. .

timb e rland o f t h e U nit e d S tat e s has b e e n s e t asid e as stat e and

national for e sts T h e purpos e o f th e s e f ore sts is to i nsure a
.

futur e supply o f timb e r and to prot e ct t h e agricultural and oth e r

inte re sts within drainage basins o f t h e str e ams that hav e th e ir
sourc e within t h e re gions cov e re d by th e s e fore sts I t is t h e .

work of t h e F ore st S e rvic e which has control o f t h e national

,

f or e sts to put into e x e cution t h e r e gulations pre scrib e d by t h e

,

U nit e d S tat e s gov e rnm e nt fo r t h e cutting and handling o f timb e r

in th e s e fore sts .

37 0 Gov er n m en t an d p r iv a t e f or e st pol i ci e s Practical fore st ry

. .

d e mands that all mat e rials within t h e fore st be put to th e ir gre at e st

u s e f o r t h e gr e at e st numb e r o f p e opl e conc e rn e d and e v e ry ,

matur e tre e that is not n e e d e d to prote ct t h e wat e rsh e d should

be cut and saw e d into lumb e r to m e e t t h e n ee ds of t h e hom e
 TH E WO O D C RO P 83

build e rs manu facture rs and oth e r consum e rs T h e policy of

, , .

t h e privat e timb e rland own e rs until within r e c e nt y e ars has , ,

b ee n that o f robbing t h e land o f t h e standing timb e r without

re gard to a future crop and t h e practic e o f l e aving t h e d e ad
,

timb e r and unus e d part of t h e tr ee s on t h e land has re sult e d in

FIG
35 ff
. e1 t o f thi
. E i g pc o i r e d g ro w
nn n th u n n c e as

In a d t d tr grow m or r p i d ly i h i gh t th i d i m t r T h
e n s e s an ees e a n e tr l p rt an n a e e . e ce n a a

of thi s sectio f lo dg p ol p i tr gr w whil th tr w r row d d T h o t r

n o a e e ne ee e e e ees e e c e . e u e

p rt g r w f t r thi
a e a e i g took p l
nn n ( Photo g r p h from U it d S t t F or t S r i )
ac e . a n e a es es e v ce

f or e stfir e s that hav e d e stroy e d millions o f acre s of valuabl e

growing timb e r M any of t h e r e gions that onc e support e d
.

spl e ndid f or e sts ar e now barre n wast e s .

Lumb e ring is usually a wast e ful op e ration and und e r car e ,

l e ss m e thods far more mat e rial is d e stroye d than is mark e t e d .

U nd e r prop e r r e gulation how e v e r lumb e ring can be carri e d on

, ,
2 84 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT UR E

with a small amount o f wast e an d with v e ry littl e inj ury to t h e

young timb e r and t h e dange r of fi r e following cutting can be
,

e ntir e ly e liminat e d .

37 1 F a r m w ood l ot
. O f t h e 6 1 7 1 8 7 square mil e s o f timb e r
.
,

land h e ld und e r privat e own e rship in t h e U nit e d S tat e s about ,

o n e f ourth is includ e d in what is t e rm e d farm wood lots and ,

is own e d by t h e farm e rs throughout t h e agricultural r e gions

o f t h e U nit e d S tat e s T h e prop e r handling o f th e s e wood lots
.

is a matte r o f gre at importanc e in t h e e conomic manag e m e nt

o f t h e farms T h e wood lots may consist o f natural or plant e d
.

timb e r T h e y occupy lands t h at ar e e ntire ly acc e ssibl e and

.
,

a r e as a whol e mor e productiv e than much o f t h e land within

th e for e st r e gions U nd e r prop e r manag e m e nt th e s e wood lots

.

a r e capabl e o f producing t h e high e st grad e o f timb e r and may

also produc e a gre at d e al o f small mat e rial fo r constant farm

use ( F i g .

37 2 M an agem en t of t h e w ood l ot T h e obj e ct to be s e cure d

. .

in t h e manage m e nt o f a wood lot is a full stand o f growing

timb e r o f t h e high e st possibl e grad e To accomplish this .

I A ll in fe rior sp e ci e s and d e fe ctiv e and dis e as e d tre e s must

.

b e cut to mak e room fo r tre e s o f gr e at e r valu e ( F i g I .

2 A ll m e rchantabl e tre e s must be cut and r e mov e d as soon

.

as th ey hav e r e ach e d financial maturity .

3 A ll O p e n spac e s mad e by t h e r e moval o f tre e s must be

.

plante d with s e e ds or s e e dlings o f d e sirabl e sp e ci e s as soon as

possibl e aft e r t h e ground has b e e n cl e are d .

I n t h e artificial wood lots wh e r e t h e catalpa black locust r e d , ,

oak ch e stnut or e ucalyptus are growing re production may be

, , ,

s e cure d by stump sprouts and i n this cas e planting will be u n

,

n e c e ssary F re qu e ntly it is possibl e to save tim e in t h e rotation

.

o f a timb e r crop by planting und e r t h e matur e tre e s with a shad e

e nduring sp e ci e s such as t h e whit e pin e spruc e r e d c e dar and

, , , ,

ch e stnut s e v e ral y e ars b e fore t h e mature tre e s are cut W h e n

, .

this m e thod is practic e d gr e at care must be e x e rcis e d in cutting

,

and re moving t h e mature tre e s in ord e r to avoid inj uring t h e

,

young stand .
2 86 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

RE F E RE NCE S

GRA VE S ,
H E NR Y S P ri n ci p l e s of Han d li n g W oo d Lots
. .

G R E E N S B P ri n ci p l e s o f A m e ri can F or e s try
,
. . .

T h e W oo d Lo t B u l l et i n 4 2 F or e s t S e r v i ce U n it e d S ta t e s D e p ar t m e n t o f
, , ,

Agri cu lt u r e .

F or e s t P l an ti n g i n W e s t e r n K an sas B u l l et i n 5 2 F or e s t S e r v ce U n i t e d
,
i ,

S t at e s D e p art m e n t o f A gri c u lt u r e .

A P ri m e r of F or e s try B u l l et i n 2 4 P a rts I an d I I F or e s t S e r v i ce U n it e d
, , ,

S ta t e s D e p art m e n t o f A g ri cu lt u r e .

T h e M ap l e S ug ar I n d u s t ry B u l l et i n 5 9 F or e s t S e rv i ce U n it e d S t a t e s
, , ,

D e p art m e n t o f Agr i cu lt u r e .

T h e T i m b e r S u pp l y o f t h e U n it e d S ta t e s Ci r c u l a r 9 7 F or e s t S e r v i ce
, , ,

U n it e d S t a t e s D e p art m e n t o f A g ri cu lt u r e .

P r e s e rv a ti v e T r e at m e n t o f F e n ce P o s ts Ci r cu l a r 1 1 7 F or e s t S e rv i ce
, , ,

U n it e d S t a t e s D e p a rt m e n t o f A g ri c u lt u r e .

S ugge s ti o n s t o W oo d Lo t O w n er s i n t h e O hio V all ey Re g io n Ci r cu l a r 1 3 8 , ,

F or e s t S e r v i ce U n it e d S t at e s D e p a rt m e n t of A gri cu lt u r e
,
.
 CHA PTE R X XV

P LANT DI S E AS ES

373 . HOW p l an t di s ea s e s t cr op s F arm crops ar e sub

aff ec .

j e ct to dis e as e s j ust as p e opl e a re and many dis e as e s o f plants

,

ar e in f e ctious j ust as ar e many o f t h e dis e as e s o f animals

,
Th e .

more ge n e rally a give n crop is grown in a community t h e more ,

wid e spr e ad and num e rous t h e dis e as e s o f t h e crop b e com e Th e .

longe r a crop is grown i n a fi e ld without rotation t h e gre at e r ,

is t h e numb e r o f dis e as e s a ffe cting t h e crop D is e as e s hav e.

b e com e so common among som e o f our impor tant orchard

and gard e n crops that syst e matic spraying is n e c e ssary to hold
t h e dis e as e s in ch e ck . T h e y e arly loss in th e U nit e d S tat e s
.

f rom potato blight alon e is e stimat e d at f rom

grain smuts mor e than
,
f rom grain rusts n e arly ,

and from cotton wilt no l e ss than,

37 4 Di s ea s e s due t o p ar a s i t i c p l an ts T h e most important

. .

plant dis e as e s are caus e d by plant parasit e s and th e s e are t h e

,

only on e s which will be discuss e d at this tim e Parasitic plants .

do not tak e food mat e rials dire ctly f rom t h e soil and air but live
on oth e r plants and in so doing th e y o ft e n caus e dis e as e s o f
,

t h e plants on which th e y liv e . T h e r e ar e parasitic flow e ring

plants and parasitic bact e ria and fungi
, .

375 P ar a s i t i c fl ow er i n g pl an ts
. T h e dodd e r and t h e mistl e
.

t oe ar e w e ll known parasitic flow e ring plants

-
Th e dodd e r is a
.

ye llowish mor e or l e ss twining plant which wraps its e l f around t h e

,

st e ms of clov e r al fal fa and oth e r plants B y m e ans of rootlik e

, ,
.

2 87
2 88 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

suck e rs it pi e rc e s th e s e plants and e xtracts th e ir j uic e s for

f ood Th e plant attack e d b e com e s stunt e d and t h e yi e ld o f clov e r
.

and al fal fa is s e riously re duc e d wh e n fi e lds ar e badly in fe st e d

with dodd e r M istl e to e ( Fi g . w e ll known from its wid e .

spread u s e at C hristmas tim e liv e s on t h e branch e s of tre e s , .

I ts suck e rs p e n e trat e t h e bark and e xtract its food M istl e to e .

i s a common p e st on ornam e ntal and fore st tre e s throughout

t h e S outh and S outhw e st .

37 6 B act er i a B act e ria . .

ar e e xc e e dingly abundant ,

occurring in t h e air wate r , ,

soil and in bodi e s o f ani ,

mals T h e y a re invisibl e to .

t h e nak e d eye T h e y may .

liv e singly or in groups in

t h e substanc e on which th e y
fe e d T h e y r e produc e by .

dividing in two t h e whol e ,

proc e ss o ft e n taking l e ss than

hal f an hour so that und e r ,

favorabl e conditions a small

numb e r o f th e s e plants may
FIG .
36 M i tl e to
1 .
p l t p r it e
s e a an
produc e hundre ds o f thou a as

Th l of t h k tr yo g d m ll
s an d s i n a f e w hours
e e av e s e oa e e ar e un an s a ,

h f m i tl to o p i o
.

an d th b e un c es o s e e c ns cu us
M
.

( P hoto r
g p h b y D W La B r y) r .
ost bact
.
e ri a a r e e i th e r
. a

harml e ss or b e n e ficial but ,

som e caus e dis e as e T ub e rculosis and typhoid f e v e r ar e d ue to

.

t h e growth o f harm ful bact e ria i n t h e human body ; and t h e

wilt o f m e lons and cucumb e rs t h e wilt o f tomato e s and potato e s , ,

t h e w e ll known p e ar blight ( F i g I
-
and t h e crown gall com .

mon to appl e s ros e s al fal fa and many oth e r plants ar e w e ll

, , ,

known bact e rial dis e as e s .

37 7 F u n gi . F ungi ar e also e xc e e dingly abundant and ar e

.

found living on d e caying organic matt e r ( saprophyt e s ) such as l e a f ,

mold rottin g wood and manure and as parasit e s on living plants

, , , .

T h e y do not hav e tru e root syst e ms but mass e s o f rootlik e thre ads ,
2 90 TH E E S S ENT IA LS O F A GR I C U LT UR E

portions o f t h e tre e s e v e ry fall and wint e r C utting out blight e d .

twigs imm e diat e ly a ft e r blossoming is also h e lp f ul .

T h e black knot o f plums and ch e rri e s and t h e black rot o f

appl e s ar e v e ry common f ungous dis e as e s which lik e t h e p e ar ,

blight may be controll e d in part by car e ful pruning and burn

,

ing o f th e affe ct e d branch e s ,

twigs l e av e s and f ruit , , .

37 9 Di s ea s es con t r ol l ed .

w h ol l y or i n p ar t b y cr op
r ot a t i on C otton wilt is .

caus e d by a fungus which

liv e s i n t h e soil and e nt e rs
t h e roots o f t h e cotton plant
wh e n t h e plant is young
F
( g i T h e myc e l ium .

growing up into th e s e parts

soon plugs th e wat e r carrying -

v e ss e ls of t h e root and st e m ,

t h e wat e r supply is thus cut

o ff and t h e plant wilts On e , .

kind o f spore is produc e d

within t h e v e ss e ls o f t h e
cotton plant and wh e n t h e ,

plant di e s anoth e r kind is ,

f orm e d on t h e out e r bark o f

t h e st e m T h e s e spor e s ar e .

F I G 1 38 E ff e c t o f otto w ilt
. . s scatt e re d by winds and i n
c n

Th p l
e t i dy i g b
an s it w t r
n rry i g s e cts and h e lp to spre ad
e c au s e s a e -
ca n ,

ti
s s ue s logg d by t h otto w ilt f g
are c e
t h e dis e as e to oth e r plants
e c n- un us .

( Aft r O rto )
.

e n

T his parasit e produc e s two

oth e r kinds o f spor e s in t h e soil and th e s e h e lp to S pre ad t h e ,

dis e as e T his f ungus may liv e in t h e soil from y e ar to y e ar and

.
,

cotton plant e d on such soil may b e com e dis e as e d I n addition to .

be ing spr e ad by spore s t h e fungus is distribut e d by dire ct growt h

,

through t h e soil by b e ing carri e d f rom plac e to plac e by cultiva

,

tors plows drainage wat e r t h e fe e t o f hors e s and cattl e and in

, , , ,
 P LA NT D I S EA S ES 2 91

stabl e manure O th e r w e ll known dis e as e s which lik e cotton

.
-
,

wilt may liv e in t h e soil are flax wilt t h e root rot o f tobacco
, , ,

and t h e dry rot of t h e I rish potato T h e most practical m e thod .

o f control known fo r soil in fe cting dis e as e s is crop rotation

-
On .

badly in fe ct e d soil it is som e tim e s n e c e ssary to discontinu e a

,

c e rtain crop f o r a long p e riod in som e cas e s p e rman e ntly , .

lot h
FI G . 1 39 . App l e b c

Th l f h
e ea m y p or
as an
p how i g r dd i h p ot ; tw p p l how t h h r
s e cu s s n as e s s s o a es s e c a

t i t i b lot h
ac e r s c ; t h t w g how t w
c es e ik r d to thi d i
s s ; t h g r tly m g fi d
o c an e s ue s s e as e e ea a ni e

p or
s t t h rig ht how h w t h
es a e s
p or g r m iot ( P hoto
e sg r p h b y D
esE L w )e na e . a s . . e is

380 Di s ea s es w h ol l y
. or i n p ar t con t r ol l ed b y s p r ay i n g T h e .

lat e potato blight is caus e d by a fungus which attacks t h e l e av e s ,

usually a ft e r t h e blossoming p e riod T his fungus first app e ars .

on t h e foliage and produc e s an abundanc e o f spor e s S om e .

o f th e s e spor e s ar e scatt e r e d by t h e wind to oth e r plants and

som e ar e wash e d by rain into t h e soil wh e re th e y in fe ct t h e ,

tub e rs and produc e a dry rot S om e o f t h e dis e as e d tub e rs wh e n

.

plant e d t h e n e xt s e ason may produc e dis e as e d plants and an

2 92 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT UR E

abundanc e of
spore s which again may ca u s e wid e spre ad i n
,

fe c t io n .Lat e blight can b e controll e d by spraying t h e potato

plants with B ord e aux mixture two or thre e tim e s during t h e
s eason at int e rvals o f from t e n days to two w e e ks b e ginning ,

wh e n t h e plants ar e about six inch e s high S pore s falling on .

S pray e d plants ar e poison e d by t h e spray b e for e th e y can grow

su ffi ci e ntly to in fe ct t h e potato plants C are should b e tak e n .

not to plant potato e s in fe ct e d with t h e dis e as e .

381 Appl e b l ot ch
. A ppl e blotch ( F ig 1 39 ) is anoth e r typ i
. .

cal dis e as e which can be controll e d by spraying I t is caus e d by .

a fungus which occurs

on t h e f ruit twigs and , ,

l e av e s o f t h e appl e t h e ,

principal damage b e
ing don e to t h e f ruit .

T h e blotch app e ars as

a hard brown S pot on
t h e f ruit as small can ,

k e rs or slightly e nlarge d
crack e d are as on t h e
F I G 1 4 0 B ro w n rot o f p h an d as light
. .

t gS e ac es
,

Th h gr w p r y d tr ( A ft r brown 01 y e llow spots

ese p e ac es e on un s a e e es . e ‘

S ott d Ay r )
c an e s
on t h e l e av e s Th e .

dis e as e producing fungus live s through t h e wint e r in t h e

-

cank e rs on t h e twigs and in t h e spring produc e s spore s which

ooz e out i n gre at numb e rs T h e s e ar e distribut e d by wind .

and rain and probably by ins e cts W h e n th e y fall on t h e .

f ruit and ge rminat e a myc e lium is produc e d which p e n e trat e s

,

t h e skin again causing blotch

,
Th e dis e as e is common in t h e
.

c e ntral M ississippi Vall e y r e gion and t h e south e rn hal f o f t h e

appl e b e lt S praying with B ord e aux mixtur e is an e ffe ctiv e
.

pre v e ntiv e .

E xampl e s o f oth e r dis e as e s distribut e d principally by spore s

and controll e d by t h e appl ication o f S prays ar e t h e brown rot
o f p e ach e s F and plums h arly blight f pot to s
( gi 1 4 0) . t e e o ,
a e ,

t h e scab and bitt e r rot o f appl e s and t h e l e a f curl o f p e ach e s ,

.
2 94 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

383 . t r ea t m en t of s m u ts I n t h e smuts which

P r ev e n t i v e .

ar e carri e d f rom y e ar to y e ar by spore s adh e ring to t h e s ee d ,

smut in fe ction can be pre v e nt e d by som e disin fe cting tre atm e nt

which kill s t h e spore s and do e s not inj ure t h e grain for s e e d .

T re atm e nt o f s e e d wh e at i n wat e r at a t e mp e rature o f 1 32 d e

gre e s F to I 33 d e gre e s F fo r f rom t e n to fi ft e e n minut e s or
. .
,

in a formalin solution compos e d o f o n e pound o f formalin to

forty fi ve gallons o f wat e r until e v e ry k e rn e l is thoroughly we t
-
,

d e stroys t h e spore s I f t h e tre atm e nt is prop e rly don e t h e s e e d

.
,

is not inj ure d and t h e dis e as e is pre ve nt e d T r e atm e nt fo r oats .

,

F IG . 1 43
. C or n smu t
Th e g ri h
a ns av e o
be c me c o m p l t ly o p i d d g r tly d i tort
e e cc u e an ea s ed by smu t .

( P hotog r p h b y E C J oh o )
a . . ns n

barl e y and sorghum smuts ar e S imilar T h e planting o f s e e d

, .

f rom a cl e an fi e ld which has not b e e n contaminat e d in smutty

,

sacks bins or machin e ry will r e sult in a cl e an crop

, , , .

T h e loos e smuts o f wh e at ( F i g 1 4 2 ) and barl e y a ffe ct not only .

t h e k e rn e ls but t h e cha ff producing at h e ading tim e a sooty

,

mass o f spore s which ar e scatt e re d by t h e wind W h e n th e s e .

'

spore s lodge in t h e fl ow e rs o f t h e wh e at or barl e y th e y ge r ,

minat e and grow insid e t h e d e v e loping s e e d Th e wh e at smut .

in fe cts only wh e at ; t h e barl e y smut only barl e y T h e pre s e nc e .

o f smut in t h e s e e d cannot b e d e t e ct e d but wh e n t h e s e e d is ,

plant e d and ge rminat e s t h e smut grows also insid e o f t h e plant

,

until t h e h e ad is r e ady to form wh e n in plac e o f a sound h e ad ,

a smutt e d h e ad occurs A s t h e smut plant is inclos e d within t h e

.
 P LA NT D I S EA S E S 295

s e e d and do e s not cling to t h e outsid e it is v e ry di ffi cult to p r e ,

v e nt loos e smuts I t may be don e how e v e r by soaking t h e s e e d

.
, ,

in col d wat e r fo r fi ve
hours and th e n i m
m e rsing it in hot wat e r
at a t e mp e ratur e o f 1 2 9
d e gre e s F fo r wh e at .

and 1 2 6 d e gr e e s F .

fo r barl e y fo r t e n and ,

thirt e e n minut e s r e s p e c
t i ve l y T h e smut g e rm .

is more d e licat e than t h e

see d its e l f and is kill e d by
F I G 1 44 P ot to b s ca
t h e ris e i n t e mp e ratur e
. . a
,

Th e r p tio p o t h rf of t h p ot to
e u ns u n e su ac e
whil e t h e s e e d r e mains
e a ar e

d to t h d i
ue e ( A ft r C orb tt)
s e as e . e e

practically uninj ure d .

F o r corn smut ( F ig 1 4 3) no e ffe ctiv e pr e v e ntion is known

. .

Potato scab ( F ig .also c aus e d by fungous growt h is comm on ,

to potato e s all ov e r t h e
.

U nit e d S tat e s T his dis e as e

.

can b e controll e d by planting

cl e an s e e d in cl e an soil or by
tr e ating t h e u ncut s e e d tub e rs
fo r two hours or mor e in a
f ormalin solution compos e d o f
o n e pint o f f ormalin to thirty

gallons o f wat e r .

384 Di s ea s e s con t r ol l ed i n
.

p ar t b y gr ow i n g r es i s t an t
v ar i et i es Rusts in grains ar e
.

common i n almost all grain

producing re gions but th ey ,

a r e most abundant i n humid

m 4 5 S t e m s o f w h e at w ith r s t 1 . u

r e gions T h e y ar e caus e d by Th p r it li w ithi t h t m d

.
e a as e ve s n e s e ,
an

f u n gous grow t h and ar e l l l dl w h p or f orm d t h rf i p en s e s ar e e ,

e su ace s ru

t d p ro d i g t h r dd i h or b row i h u re ,
uc n e e s n s
cat e d by t h e
y e l l OW l S l l b I OW Il
p t h ( Aft r F r m d J h o )
‘ ‘
-
, a c es . e ee an an o ns n
2 96 T H E ES S E NTI A LS OF A GR IC ULT UR E

r e ddish brown or black spots on st e ms ( Fig 1 4 5) and l e av e s o f

-
,
.

t h e a ffe ct e d plants T h e r e ar e s e v e ral sp e ci e s o f r u sts e ach

.
,

S p e ci e s b e ing confin e d more or l e ss clos e ly to its own particular

host plant W h e n t h e spore s ar e scatte re d and fall on n e w

.

wh e at or oat plants and t h e w e ath e r conditions ar e favorabl e ,

t h e in fe ction o f n e w host plants ta k e s plac e .

Th e pre v e ntion of rusts is v e ry di ffi cult I ndividual tre atm e nt .

o f plants cannot be und e rtak e n S inc e t h e grain fi e lds are e x

'

t r e m e l y e xt e nsiv e spraying is out o f t h e qu e stion

,
S inc e t h e .

rust is not transmitt e d through t h e s e e d it cannot be controll e d ,

FIG . 1 46 . o
ilt i f t d oil
C w p e as on w -
n ec e s

T he va ri ty k ow
e n n as T h I ro t th
e l ft i r i t t to t h d i
n
”
a e e s e s s an e s e as e ; th t
a at th e
right i o r i t t ( Aft r O rto )
s n n e s s an . e n

by s e e d tre atm e nt and crop rotation is o f littl e h e lp Th e only

, .

m e thod o f controlling grain rusts is to grow vari e ti e s o f grains

which ar e r e sista nt to t h e dis e as e S om e ar e alre ady known .
,

such as t h e duru m wh e ats common on t h e gre at plains o f ,

t h e middl e N orthw e st C rossing with th e m is b e ing carri e d

.

on and th e re is promis e that valuabl e re sistant vari e ti e s may

,

b e obtain e d Th e u s e o f vari e ti e s o f plants r e sistant to dis e as e

.

is w e ll illustrat e d by t h e growing o f rust re sistant asparagus -

,

r e c e ntly d e v e lop e d by t h e U nit e d S tat e s D e partm e nt o f A gr icu l

ture wilt r e sistant cowp e a s ( Fi g
,
-
and wilt re sistant cotton .
-
.

E ve n t h e ch e stnut bark dis e as e ( F ig

-
which has re c e ntly .

d e stroye d whol e f ore sts o f ch e stnuts in t h e E ast probably will ,

not inj ure t h e Japan e s e ch e stnut or its hybrids .

2 9 8 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

Q UE S TIONS AND P ROBLE M S

1 . W h at ar e th e m os t i m p ortan t p l an t d i se ase s of yo u r lo cality ? of

yo u r s ta te ?
2 . r e fr o m yo u r co u n ty as se ss or a s tat e m e n t o f l as t yea r s p ro duc
S e cu
’

tio n o f w h e at o ats o r b arl ey Assu m i n g th a t 5 p e r ce n t o f t h e cro p w as

, ,
.

d e s t r oye d b y s m u ts an d 5 p e r ce n t by r u s t s e s ti m at e w h at th e se d i s e as e s ,

c o s t y o u r c o u n ty l as t ye ar ?

3 H o w d o p l an t p r as it e s an d p l a t s ap ro p hy t es d i ffe r ?
. a n

4 D e s c ri b e t h e p a r as iti c fl o w e ri n g p l an t k n o w n as d o dd e r
. .

5 W h at ar e bac t e r i a a d f g i ? A e al l b act e ri a a d f gi p r as iti c ?

. n un r n un a

6 W h a t ar e t h e m or e i m p ort an t m e tho d s o f d i s tri b tio o f b ac t e ri a

. u n

a n d f u gi ? n

. h t
7 W a a e t e p h ri n i
c p
r a l m e tho d s o f c o n trol o f p l a t d i s e s e s ? n a

8 W h a t m e tho d s o f c o trolli g o p r e e ti g p l a t d i s e as s ar e s e d
. n n r v n n n e u

i n yo u r lo cality ?
9 S e cu re a ag ri cu lt u r al e x p e r i m e t s t a tio n b ll e ti g i i g d ir e c tio s
. n n u n v n n

f or tr e a ti g w h e a t a d o at se e d fo s m t a d p re p e a b ri e f s p e ci fi c o u tli n e
n n r u ,
n ar

o f t h e thi n g s th at s ho l d b e d o n e u .

1 0 D e s cri b e s o m e m e tho d s o f san it atio t o p r e e t p l a t d i se s e s

. n v n n a .

1 1 W h at i s m e an t by q ar an ti n e agai s t p l a t d i s e as e s ? D o e s y o u r
. u n n

s t a t e e n f o rce s u c h q u ar an ti n e ?

E XE RCIS E S
1 . A t
s u dy of bact eri a .

M A TE R I A L A c o m p o un d m i cro sco pe w ith e qu i p m e n t ; a p i e ce o f s tal e

:

b re ad ; an d a t u m b l e r o f w a t e r .

Pl ace a s m all pi e c e o f bre ad in a tumbl e r o f w ate r an d l e t it s tand

twe nty four t o forty eig h t h ours E xamin e a drop o f t h e liquid unde r
- -
.

t h e micro s cop e A large numb e r o f form s o f b acte ri a will be notice d ;

.

al s o sm all anim al s ar e lik e ly t o b e pr e s e nt S ome o f t h e b act e ri a will .

app e ar t o b e s p h e ric al ot h e rs rodlike o fte n forming long c h ain s

, ,
.

M any s wi m rapidly acro s s t h e fie ld .

2 B act er i a f r om s oi l an d ai r
. Boil s om e s w ee t e n e d w at e r in t h re e
.

g l as s fl as k s unti l a ll li fe in t h e w a t e r i s d e s troy e d ( t e n m inut e s

) .

A fte r th e w ate r h as cool e d drop a pi e ce o f fi eld s oil into o n e fl ask

,
.

Allow anot h e r fl a sk t o s tand e xpo se d t o room atmo sp h e re fo r twenty

four h ours K e e p t h e ot h e r fl a sk con stantly clo s e d A ft e r t h re e d ay s
. .

mak e a m icro scOp ic s tu dy o f s ome o f t h e w ate r from e ac h fl ask .

 P LA NT D I S EA S E S 2 99

3 . B r ead m ol d .

M A T E RI A L l e r s ; s t al e b r e ad ; s m all pi e ce s o f ca r db o ar d ; h a d
: Tum b n

l e n se s ; co m p o u d m i cro sco p e n .

D ip s om e s tal e bre ad in w ate r pla c e it in a tumble r an d cove r , ,

with a pie c e o f cardboard Le t it s tand in a warm place fo r f ro m .

t h re e d ays t o a w e e k R e m ove t h e bre ad and notice t h e grayi sh .

w h ite m as s o f mold w h ich cov e rs it Ex am in e t h is und e r a h and .

l e n s noticing t h e myce liu m T h e d ark color i s d u e t o t h e form ation

,
.

o f s porangi a M ou n t s om e o f t h e fungu s in a drop o f w ate r u nd e r

.

t h e micro s cop e an d notic e t h e myce lium s porangi a an d s pores

, , ,
.

R EF E RE NCE S

D U GG A R , B M F u n g o us D i se ase s o f P l an t s G i n n an d C o m p an y
. . . .

FRE E M A N, E M M i n n e s ot a P l a n t D i se ase s W e bb P ub li s hi n g C o m p an y
. . . .

S T E V E N S F L an d HA L L , J G
, . .
,
D i s e ase s o f E c o n o m i c P l an t s Th e. . .

M ac m ill an C o m p an y .

Th e D eve lo p m e t o f F ar m C ro p s R e s is tan t t o D is eas e Y e ar B ook o f th e

n ,

U n it e d S ta t e s D e p art m e t o f A gri cu lt r e 1 908 n u , .

W ilt D i s e ase o f C otto W a t e r m e lo a d C o w p e a B u l l et i n 1 7 D i v i s io n

n, n, n , ,

o f V e ge t ab l e P a tholo g U it e d S t a t e s D e p ar t m e n t o f A gr i c lt r e
n u u
y , .

T h e R s ts o f G r ai i t h e U it e d S ta t e s B u l l et i n 2 1 0 B r e a o f P l an t
u n n n , ,
u u

I d s t ry U ite d S t te s D e p art m e n t o f Ag ri cu lt u r e
n u ,
n a .

C otto n W ilt F r m er U it e d S t at e s D e p ar t m e n t o f
’
,
B u l l et i n 1 33
a s ,
n

Agri cu ltu r e .

T h e M or e I m p ort a t I s e c t an d F n g o us E n e m i e s o f t h e F r it a d F oli age

n n u u n

o f t h e A pp l e B l l et i 3 92 U n it e d S ta t e s D e p a rt m e n t o f
’
F rme ,
a rs u n ,

Ag ri cu ltu r e .

P otato T be r D i s ease s F a r i n er B u l l et i n 5 44 U n ite d S tat e s D e p art m e n t

u ,
s
’
,

o f Agr i cu l t r e u .

T h e S m t s o f W h e at O at s B a rl ey an d C or
u ,
F a r m er s B u l l et i n 5 07
, ,
n,
’
,

U n it e d S ta t e s D e p art m e n t o f A g r i c u lt r e u .

S p r ayi g P e ac h e s f o r t h e C o trol o f B ro w
n R o t S cab an d C u rcu lio
n n , , ,

F a r m er s B u l l et i n 4 4 0 Un it e d S ta t e s D e p ar t m e n t o f Agr i cu lt u r e
’
, .
 C HA PTE R X XV I

I NS ECTS ON THE FAR M

A n d th e lo t
cu s s wen t
o r t h l d o f E gy p t d r t d i l l t h
u p al l ve e an , an es e n a e

b or d r o f E g y p t ;
e s ry g ri o w r th y ;
ve F th y o r d t h f o f
ev us e e e or e c ve e e ac e

t h w hol
e rth th t t h l d w d rk d ; d th y d i d t
e ea , so a e an ry h r bas a en e an e ea e ve e

o f t h l d d l l t h f r it o f t h tr w hi h t h h il h d l f t ; d th r
e an , an a e u e ees c e a a e an e e

r m i d t y gr
e a ne no thi g ith r tr or h r b o f t h fi l d thro gh l l t h
an een n , e e ee e e e , u a e

l d o f E gy p t T H E B L
an .
— IB E

38 6 . Th e i m p or t an ce of i n s ects
b e st authoriti e s agre e . Th e
that t h e inj uri e s caus e d by ins e cts e qual at l e ast 1 0 p e r c e nt
o f t h e valu e o f f arm crops T his e normous loss is so constant
.

that fe w r e aliz e t h e total damag e which has now r e ach e d a ,

billion dollars annually T his is e qual to t h e e ntire e xp e nditure s

.

o f t h e national gov e rnm e nt or it is more than four tim e s t h e,

annual national prop e rty loss by fi r e .

F our fi fths o f all known sp e ci e s o f animals ar e ins e cts A bout .

di ffe r e nt sp e ci e s hav e alr e ady b e e n d e scrib e d but it ,

is e stimat e d that ov e r sp e ci e s e xist .

T h e r e ar e many ins e cts how e v e r which contribut e dire ctly , ,

to t h e w e alth o f t h e world Th e silkworm produc e s ov e r $ 2 00

.
,

OOO OO O worth o f silk annually

,
and t h e hon eyb e e produc e s ,

i n t h e U nit e d S tat e s alon e ov e r worth o f hon e y

a y e ar O th e rs contribut e to t h e int e r e sts o f man as in t h e cas e
.
,

o f thos e which pollinat e t h e e conomic plants or thos e which

pre y upon or liv e within t h e bodi e s o f d e structiv e ins e cts thus ,

pre v e nting th e ir d e pre dations

302 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

388 . I n s ect s s i n f or m Ne arly all ins e cts in

u n de r go ch an ge .

th e ir d e v e lopm e nt u nd e rgo v e ry r e markabl e change s o f form

e xpr e ss e d by t h e t e rm m e t a m o m nos i s Th e e gg o f a grass .

hopp e r produc e s a cr e atur e which e xc e pt fo r t h e abs e nc e of ,

wings re s e mbl e s t h e adult T his f orm known as t h e ny mp n

, .
, ,

fe e ds and grows molts s e v e ral tim e s and d e v e lops into t h e

, ,

adult G rasshopp e rs chinch bugs and dragon fli e s hav e this

.
, ,

typ e of li fe history .

O n t h e oth e r hand t h e e gg o f a moth produc e s a cat e rpillar

, ,

which is t h e activ e fe e ding stage or t h e stage in which t h e i n ,

s e ct do e s its s e rious inj ury Th e .

cat e rpillar f e e ds molts and grows , , ,

and wh e n f ully grown it S pins , ,

in many cas e s a firm casing o f ,

sil k known as a cocoon I n this .

prot e ctiv e cas e it is trans form e d

into a p up a which is t h e inactiv e , ,

or dormant stage o f d e v e lopm e nt ,

.

T h e pupa tak e s no f ood I t re .

s e mbl e s n e ith e r t h e cat e rpillar nor

F I G 1 49 M o th P rt o f
. q h t h e moth I n many cas e s it pass e s
u a s a S u as
.

b g
u — d p t e d f or p i r c i g
a a d e n an
t h e W i nt e r I n th i s stag e so that
S c ki g ( E l rg d ) ( R d r w
,
u n . n a e e a n

f ro m C o m to k ) t h e pupal stage vari e s from a fe w

s c

days in summ e r to s e ve ral months

in wint e r F inally t h e pupal sh e ll splits op e n and t h e adult
.
,

moth ( Fig 1 50) e m e rge s with wings so ft and limp but e xpand
.

ing and hard e ning in a fe w hours B utt e rfl i e s b e e tl e s fli e s .

, , ,

b e e s and ants hav e this typ e o f li fe history

, .

I ns e cts o f t h e latt e r typ e are said to hav e a compl e t e m eta

morphosis whil e thos e o f t h e f orm e r hav e an incompl e te m e ta
,

morphosis T h e growing stag e fo r all ins e cts having compl e t e

.

m e tamorphosis is t h e l a r v a known as t h e cat e rpillar o f t h e ,

moth or butt e rfly and t h e maggot o f t h e hous e fly .

T hre e distinct typ e s o f inj urious ins e cts will be discuss e d

h e re —o n e a p e st on stapl e crops anoth e r a p e st on f ruit and , ,

anoth e r a p e st on t h e l e ading fib e r plant .

 I NS E C T S O N TH E FA RM 303

389 . Th e ch i n ch b u g — di s t r i b ut i onchinch bug o n e o f . Th e ,

t h e gr e at e st p e sts to grain and grass crops is f ound g e n e rally ,

distribut e d ove r t h e U nit e d S tat e s e ast of t h e 1 0 5t h m e ridian .

T h e worst inj ury how e v e r occurs to t h e small grains and to

, ,

corn in t h e C e ntral S tat e s and it has b e e n e stimat e d that t h e

,

av e rage annual loss to crops amounts to

390 Lif e h i st ory an d h ab i ts of t h e ch in ch b u g T his ins e ct
. .

pass e s t h e wint e r as an adult i n clumps of grass in corn shocks , ,

and und e r rubbish T h e adults e m e rge f rom hib e rnation f rom

.

FIG . 1 50 . Stg a es i n th e d ev e lo p m t o f t h
en e c or n - e arorm w

A, e gg ; B, ca et rp ill r ; C
a , p up a ; D , a d lt ( Al l
u . l rg en a ed .
) ( Aft r H d l
e ea e e an d

M c C o l l oc h )

M arch to M ay and mov e to t h e small grai n fi el d s A ft e r f e e d .

ing fo r som e tim e t h e f e mal e s b e gin d e positing e ggs on t h e

roots or in th e l e a f sh e aths o f t h e plants ( F ig .

T h e s e e ggs hatch i n f rom two to thr e e w e e ks and t h e young

bugs fe e d in t h e small grain fi e lds until harv e st wh e n th e y
-
,

migrat e to t h e cor n fi el ds H e re th e y r e ach maturity and e ggs

.

ar e laid on t h e corn plants or on t h e grass e s in t h e cornfi e ld .

T h e s e e ggs hatch in about two w e e ks and t h e s e cond brood f e e ds

and mature s in t h e co rn fi e l d s G e n e rally all t h e bugs hav e .

r e ach e d maturity f rom t h e middl e to t h e last o f S e pt e mb e r .

W h e n t h e food is gon e or cold w e ath e r com e s t h e adults migrat e ,

to th e ir wint e r quart e rs .
 0
3 4 T HE E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT UR E

39 1 . M e t h od s r
of con t ol l i n g th e ch i n ch two
bu g . T h e re ar e

tim e s in t h e y e ar wh e n t h e chinch bugs can be succ e ss fully com

bat e d T h e first occurs during t h e summ e r wh e n t h e bugs migrat e
.

f rom t h e small grain to corn and t h e oth e r occurs in t h e fall

,

a ft e r t h e bugs ar e firmly e stablish e d in winte r quart e rs Th e .

probl e m o f summ e r d e struction involv e s t h e n e c e ssity o f con

s t r u ct i n g dry w e ath e r -

and we t w e ath e r bar -

r ie rs D uring dry
.

w e ath e r a d e e p furrow
should be plow e d around
t h e in f e st e d fi e ld j ust

b e for e harv e st Th e .

Sid e s and bottom o f

this furrow should be
re duc e d to a fi n e dust
by dragging a h e avy log
back and forth in t h e
furrow T his furrow .

should be dragge d e v e ry
day during t h e migra
tion and t h e bugs de
stroy e d in it by burning
th e m with a gasolin e
torch I n w e t w e ath e r .
,

it is n e ce s s ar to run
F I G 1 51
. S t ge i t h d
. a s lo p m e t o f t h e
n e e ve n y
hi h b g c nc u a barri e r o f coal tar or
crud e oil around t h e
in fe st e d fi e ld Post hol e s ar e dug at int e rvals o f tw e nty fe e t
.

along t h e insid e o f this barri e r and t h e bugs on b e ing trapp e d

,

in th e s e hol e s ar e d e stroy e d by k e ros e n e .

W int e r d e struction involve s thorough fall burning o f clump

forming grass e s wh e r e th e s e grass e s ar e t h e principal cov e r .

W h e n bugs ar e found hib e rnating i n corn shocks and und e r

l e av e s and rubbish th e s e plac e s shoul d be re novat e d during
,

t h e fall so as to pr e v e nt t h e n e xt spring s crop o f ins e cts

’
.
306 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

394 . M e t h od s
t t h e codl i n g m ot h
of con r ol l i n g T h e codling .

moth is now controll e d almost univ e rsally by spraying t h e tr e e s

with an ars e nical poison in t h e form o f a liquid O f lat e t h e .

ars e nat e o f l e ad appli e d at t h e rat e o f f rom two to thre e pounds

,

to fi fty gallons o f wat e r has b e e n us e d almost e ntir e ly S e v e ral

, .

tre atm e nts a ye ar ar e n e c e ssary for t h e b e st r e sults T h e first .

S hould be giv e n j ust as t h e p e tals ar e f alling T his should b e .

f ollow e d in thre e w e e ks by a s e cond S pray F o r t h e s e cond brood .

o f codling moths a tre atm e nt S hould

be appli e d about t e n w e e ks a ft e r t h e
first spraying .

39 5 . Th e cott on -b ol l w eev i l —
di s
t r i but i on . T his
ins e ct a nativ e o f ,

C e ntral A m e rica gradually work e d its ,

way up through M e xico and was first

notic e d in T e xas about 1 8 9 0 I t is .

now distribut e d throughout t h e gr e at e r

part o f most o f t h e cotton growing -

state s and a cons e rvativ e e stimat e

,

shows that sinc e t h e w e e vil has i n

vad e d this count ry it has caus e d a
108 8 Of annually
otto oll il
.

FIG .
53
1 b C w n- e ev
396 Lif e h i st or y an d h ab its of t h e
.

( En l rg d i ti m ) ( A m ;
a e S x es .
.

H t r un d Pi r )
e an e ce cott on b ol l w e ev i l
-
T h e adult is a .

small brownish stout b e e tl e about

, ,

square or t h e boll ( F ig 1 Th e inj u ry is don e both by t h e

.

adults I n th e ir f e e ding and e gg laying and by t h e grubs which ,

hatch f rom e ggs laid within t h e bolls or t h e square s B oth t h e .

square s and th e bolls ar e attack e d and th e ir cont e nts so dam

age d that th ey di e or fail to produc e fib e r Th e adult w e e vils .

f e e d e ntire ly during t h e da '

y .

T h e adult b e e tl e s b e gin to e m e rg e f rom th e ir hib e rnation

soon a ft e r t h e cotton is up and continu e to e m e rge until ,

about t h e tim e wh e n t h e cotton square s b e gin to f orm T h e .

 I NS EC T S ON T HE F A RM 0
3 7

b ee tl e s fe e d on t h e f oliage and as soon as t h e square s are

,

form e d t h e fe mal e s lay th e ir e ggs within th e m ; as t h e grubs

d e ve lop t h e square s usually fall to t h e ground T h e grubs
, .

pupat e within t h e squar e s and soon a s e cond ge n e ration o f

,

adults is out T h e tim e f rom e gg to adult with favorabl e

.
,

climatic conditions is from two to thre e w e e ks F our or fi ve

, .

ge n e rations of th e s e ins e cts are produc e d in o n e s e ason T h e .

F IG . 1 5 4. ff
E t o f t
ec sh e c otto b oll w e e il n- v

Th e l r of t h boll w
a va e e ev il i how i t h
s s n t r f b d or q r
n e ce n e o a u s u a e , an d of a b oll ;
it d troy t h
es s tr l p rt of b oth
e ce n a a

f e mal e b ee tl e s pre fe r th e square but wh e n square s are no longe r

,

availabl e e ggs are laid in t h e bolls

,
.

I n som e localiti e s t h e migration o f t h e adult boll w e e vils

b e gins by t h e middl e of A ugust H ow e v e r it is t h e gre at dis .
,

i o n o f t h e e arly f all which carri e s t h e ins e ct f ar into t h e n e w

p e r s

t e rritory I t is gradually spre ading ov e r all t h e cotton producing

.
-

stat e s W ith t h e adv e nt of cool w e ath e r in t h e fall t h e adult

.

w e e vils in t h e cott on fi e lds s e e k prot e ction against t h e wint e r

and thus fly f rom t h e fi e lds in e v e ry dire ction T h e y may h ibe r .

nat e in h e dge s woods co r n fi e l ds haysta cks farm buildings

, , , , ,

an d in trash and w e e ds i n t h e cotton fi e lds .

30 8 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

397 M et h od s Of con t r ol l i n g t h e cott on b ol l w eev i l

. Th e -
.

most important m e ans o f control is a thorough cl e aning o f t h e

cotton fi e lds as soon as t h e cotton is pick e d T his S hould i n .

cl u de t h e d e struction o f all stalks d e ad bolls and crop r e m, ,

nants I n this way t h e gr e at bulk o f t h e adult b e e tl e s and

.

t h e immatur e sta g e s in t h e squar e s and bolls ar e d e stroy e d .

T his m e thod wh e n suppl e m e nt e d by a thorough cl e aning o f

,

t h e h e dge s f e nc e rows and oth e r wast e plac e s r e sults in t h e

, , ,

d e ath o f a large proportion o f t h e w e e vils .

A noth e r m e ans o f control e sp e cially in localiti e s wh e r e ch e ap

,

labor may b e had is by gath e ring t h e fall e n squar e s H ow e v e r

,
.
,

si nc e many o f t h e l ar vm in th e s e squar e s ar e parasitiz e d th e s e ,

gath e re d squar e s S hould not be burn e d but be plac e d in wire

cage s so that t h e parasit e s may e scap e Th e wire on t h e cage s .

should be tight e nough to r e tain t h e w e e vils but not tight e nough

to pre v e nt t h e e scap e o f t h e para s it e s I f t h e squar e s ar e burn e d .

t h e e n e mi e s o f t h e w e e vil ar e d e stroy e d .

A ny practic e that will h e lp to ge t t h e cotton plant e d a nd

matur e d e arly will h e lp to avoid s e rious inj ury b e caus e t h e ,

cotton will be w e ll along b e f or e t h e w e e vils hav e b e com e abun

dant W int e r plowing e arly spring planting providing fo r
.
, ,

pl e nty o f spac e b e tw e e n t h e rows t h e u s e o f e arly maturing ,

-

vari e ti e s and f r e qu e nt cultivation i n t h e growing s e ason are

,

advisabl e .

39 8 Hel pf u l i n s ects
. A study o f ins e cts such as can be
.
,

mad e with simpl e apparatus ( F ig will S how that many ar e

.

us e ful and many harm ful T h e hon eyb e e s ar e us e ful b e caus e

.

th e y supply f ood O th e rs as t h e silkworm supply mat e rials

.
, ,

fo r clothing T h e pr e dacious ins e cts ar e thos e which attack

.

oth e r ins e cts d e vouring th e m bodily t e aring th e m to pi e c e s or

, , ,

sucking th e ir li fe blood G ood e xampl e s o f th e s e ar e ladybirds

.
,

dragon fli e s grou nd b e e tl e s robb e r fli e s lac e wings and tige r

, , , ,

b e e tl e s .

T h e parasitic ins e cts di ffe r f rom pre dacious on e s in that th e y

sp e nd all or a large part o f th e ir li fe cycl e within t h e bodi e s o f
th e ir victims and thus d e stroy th e m T h e s e are t h e ichn e umon
, .
31 0 TH E E S S E NT IA LS O F A GRI C ULTUR E

400 F al l p l ow i n g
. an d d is k i n g . M any inj urious ins e cts such ,

as cutworms corn e ar worms wir e worms and white grubs pass

,
-
, , ,

t h e wint e r as larv ae and pup ae in t h e soil or hib e rnat e about ,

t h e roots o f w e e ds and grass e s B r e aking up t h e soil in t h e

.

lat e fall and e xposing th e s e wint e ring forms to th e ir natural

e n e mi e s and to un favorabl e w e ath e r will gr e atly r e duc e th e ir

numb e r D isking al fal fa is an e ffe ctiv e m e thod o f d e stroying

.

grasshopp e rs army worms and cutworms

, ,
.

4 01 P l ace an d t i m e of pl an t i n g T oo f re qu e ntly corn and

. .

oth e r c e r e als ar e plant e d in plac e s wh e r e th e y will be subj e ct e d

to t h e attack o f i ns e cts that ar e alre ady pre s e nt C orn following .

grass or clov e r sod is lik e ly to be attack e d by cutworms and

whit e grubs and i f plant e d in marshy tracts is in dange r from
, ,

wire worms and billbugs Planting at t h e prop e r tim e is a p ro t e c

.

tion to many crops for e xampl e wh e at sown a ft e r t h e first w e e k ,

in O ctob e r is usually f re e from t h e attack o f t h e H e ss i an fly .

4 02 Cr op r ot a t i on
. B y a thorough syst e m o f crop rotation
.

th e incr e as e o f many ins e ct p e sts may be ch e ck e d or pr e v e nt e d .

T his will starv e out such an ins e ct as t h e W e st e rn corn root -

worm which is n e v e r inj urious to t h e corn aft e r t h e land has

,

b e e n in small grain W hit e grubs cutworms wire worms plant

.
, , ,

lic e and t h e H e ssian fly may be controll e d in this mann e r

, .

403 Good s oi l cl ean s eed , an d t h r if t y p l a n t s

.
, T horough .

pre paration o f t h e soil induc e s rapid gro wth and thri fty vigorous ,

plants I t also disturbs and e xpos e s t h e ins e cts that ar e in t h e

.

ground Plants which ar e in good thri fty condition ar e b e tt e r

.
,

abl e to r e sist t h e attack o f ins e cts Plants in a w e ak condition .

,

or with no vitality soon succumb to t h e attack o f an ins e ct

,

e n e my A good stand l e ss e ns t h e dange r f rom inj urious ins e cts

. .

T h e fi e ld partly grown up with fore ign w e e ds and grass e s will

e ncourage p e sts h e nc e t h e importanc e o f w e e d f r ee s e e d
,
-
.

404 B a r n y a r d f ow l s an d n at i v e b i r d s
. C hick e ns guin e as .
, ,

ducks turk e ys and ge e s e ar e continually in s e arch o f thos e

, ,

in s e cts that may b e found upon low plants and in grass e s and
w e e ds and und e r rubbish and fall e n l e av e s G rasshopp e rs hav e
, .

o ft e n b e e n controll e d by th e s e fowls .
 I NS E C T S O N TH E FARM 3 1 1

W ild birds d e p e nd v e ry large ly on ins e cts fo r f ood and con ,

s t i t u t e o n e o f t h e most valuabl e m e ans o f ins e ct control W e re .

it not fo r our birds t h e d e pre dations o f ins e cts would be much

gre at e r A m e rica is f ortunat e i n having a large numb e r o f
.

birds and o f th e se v e ry fe w ind e e d ar e d e structiv e to farm

,

and orchard crops .

QUE S TIONS AND P R OB LE M S

1 . W h at ar e th e t
lo p m t o f i s t ?
s ag e s i n th e d e v e en n ec s

2 . H ow a e t h e m o th p rt o f i e t r e l t e d t th e ir f oo d h b it s ?
r u a s ns c s a o a

3 . N am e t l a t a d oz i e ct s w hi c h a i j rio s i y o r lo cality
a e s en ns re n u u n u

an d de s ri b
c wh r d h w e h ki d li e
e e e an o ac n v s .

4 . I w h a t w ay a e i s e c t b e fi c i al ?
n s r n s ne

5 . H ow m c h i j ry i e ti m t e d t o b e d o e b y i se t i th e U it e d
u n u s s a n n c s n n

S t te
a s ?
6 . it i m p orta t t o k o w th e li f hi tor y d h b it f i s c t ?
W hy is n n e s an a s o an n e

7 T ll b ri fl y t h li f hi s tory o f t h c hi c h b g o f t h e c o d li g m oth
. e e e e e n u , n ,

a d
n f t h e otto b oll w e il
o c d t h e b t m tho d o f p r e
n- tio o f e h
e v ,
an es e s ve n n ac .

8 H o w w ill l
.
-
f r m i g rot tio f ro p a d g oo d f r m i g c o trol
c e an a n ,
a n o c s, n a n n

m y f t h s e rio s i s c t p e t s ?
an o e u n e s

9 I w h a t w ay s
. n e b ir d i m p orta t i t h e g ro w i g o f c ro p ? W h at
ar s n n n s

lo l ti e b ir d s e o f m o t i m p orta ce t o yo r c ro p s ?
ca na v ar s n u

10 W h t . yo r s t t e l aw s r l a ti g t o t h e p rot e ctio o f b ir d w hi c h
a are u a e n n s

h av e g ri c lt r l i m p ort a c ?
a u u a n e

E XE R CIS E S
1 . I n s ect A s c h o ol co ll e ctio n s h o wi n g t h e life h i s to ry o f
t
s u dy .

i n j uri o u s an d o f b e n e fi ci al i n s e ct s s h o uld co n s i s t n o t o n ly o f s p e ci
m e n s s h o wi n g t h e d i ffe re n t s t ag e s o f d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e i n s e c t s b u t
o f s a m l e s o f t h e ir w o rk
p .

2 Col l ect i n
.
g S e l e ct bri g h t s till w a rm d ay s a n d wi th t h e n e t s w e e p
.
, ,

t h e p l an t s al o n g t h e r oad s id e s an d in m e a d o w s C o ll e ct i n se ct s in .

w h e at co rn an d in o rc h ard s w o o d s a n d fi e l d s ; lo o k u n d e r s t o n e s in
, , , , ,

wo o d pile s a n d in rubbi s h ; S ki m t h e s urfac e an d s crap e t h e b otto m

,

o f p o n d s an d s tre a m s ; vi s it e l e ctric li h t s at n ig h t
g .

3 P r es erv i n g i n s ect s
. Pre se rv e e ggs l arv ae a n d s o ft b o di e d in
.
, ,
-

s e ct s i n a
3 p e r c e n t s o luti o n o
-
f f o r m—
a li n o r i n a
7 p
o e r c e n t s o l u t i o n — -
3 1 2 TH E ES S ENT IA L S o r A G R I C ULT UR E

of alco h ol Adult in s e cts s h ould be pinned an d ke pt in a small bo x

.

s uc h a s an e m pty ci g ar b ox .

4 A s t udy of t h e l if e h i s t ory of t h e cabba ge bu t t erfl y

. T h i s wo rk .

m ay b e gi n e it h e r in t h e fall o r in t h e s pri n g T h e c abbage butte rfl i e s .

s h ould b e co l l e ct e d an d o n e p a ir pl a c e d in e ach o f a num b e r o f

s cre e n e d br e e ding c age s E ach cage s h ould contain a sm all potte d

.

cabb age pl an t o r fre sh cabb age le ave s s tanding in wate r .

By cl o s e o b s e rv ation t h e f ull li fe cycl e m ay b e s e e n i n cluding ,

e gg l a rv a pup a a n d adult ; t h e h abit s a n d s tructur e s m a b e de te r

, , , y
m ine d ; an d a co lle cti o n illu s trating t h e li fe cy cle m ay b e prepare d .

O t h e r in s e ct s m ay b e s tudi e d in s i m ila r w ay s .

RE F E RE NCE S

C H ITTE N D E N , F . H . I n sec st I j rion u us to V e ge tab l e s . O r an ge J u dd

o
C m p an y .

C O M S TO C K J , . H . M an u a l f o r t h e S t u dy of In sec ts . o
C ms to c k P b li s hiu ng

o
C m p an y .

K E LLO G G V ,
. L . A m e r i ca n I s e c t s H e r y n . n H olt an d o
C m p an y .

S A N D E RS O N , E . D I n s e ct P e s ts o f Fa r m
.
,
r
G a de n , an d O c a d r h r . J oh n

W il e y S o ns .

S A N D E RS O N, E . D .
,
an d J ACKSON ,
C . F . E l e m t ryen a En to m olo gy . G i nn

an o
d C m p an y .

S LI N G E R L A N D , M V . .
,
an d C RO S B Y , C . R . F r u it I n s e ct s . T h e M acm ill an
o
C m p an y .
31 4 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

Sugge ste d t h e sprays fo r oth e r ins e cts Th e cank e rworm

use o f .

and t h e codling moth o ft e n caus e d s e rious loss and orch ard ,

grow e rs w e re gre atly in n e e d o f m e ans o f control .

A s e arly as 1 8 7 8 re sults w e re publish e d which indicat e d such

a d e gre e o f succ e ss that num e rous oth e r e xp e rim e nts w e re
und e rtak e n and sinc e that tim e many bull e tins and s e v e ral
,

books hav e b e e n publish e d on t h e subj e ct M any m e n hav e .

F IG . 1 56 . A g as oli ne p ow r r yi
e —S p a ng m ac hi ne

sp e nt y e ars in e xp e rim e nting with ch e micals and applianc e s ,

and t h e manu facture o f spraying mat e rials and spraying ma

chin e ry is now an important indust ry .

406 I n s ecti ci d e s
. T h e potato b e e tl e and t h e codling moth
.

a re common ins e cts which consum e t h e tissu e and a r e kill e d by

sprays containing poison ( F ig I n such cas e s compounds

.

o f ars e nic ar e most e ffe ctiv e A rs e nat e o f l e ad and Paris gr e e n

.
,

which is a combination o f copp e r and ars e nic are ch e ap and ,

a re g e n e rally us e d Paris gre e n acts rath e r more quickly is

.
,
 S P R A Y I NG 3 I 5

more lik e ly to inj ure plant tissu e and is l e ss adh e siv e than ,

ars e nat e o f l e ad .

W h e n quick r e sults ar e d e sire d Paris gr e e n and ars e nat e o f

l e ad are som e tim e s us e d in combination Th e usual propor .

tions fo r this combination ar e two pounds o f ars e n at e o f l e ad

and on e hal f pound o f Paris gre e n to fi fty gallons o f wat e r
-
.

T his has b e e n e ffe ctiv e i n cas e s wh e r e cank e rworms w e r e

so num e rous as to thr e at e n e ntire d e foliation o f appl e tre e s .

F IG
57 . oili
1 g li m .l p h rBp r y n e -s u u s a

A l
c as s o f Ge org i hi gh hool p p l g tti g om fi t h d
a -
sc u i s e n s e rs -
an l
u s ab e i n form tio
a n

b o t t h p r p r tio
a u e f p r y g ol t o
e a a n o S a in s u i ns

Th e ins e cts which hav e sucking mouth parts are kill e d by

applying mate rials which d e stroy t h e body tissu e or smoth e r ,

t h e ins e ct by closing its spiracl e s or br e athing tub e s O f this ,

.

group t h e S an J os é scal e is o n e o f t h e most d e structiv e p e sts ,

and t h e most e ffe ctiv e control o f it is s e cure d by coating

t h e plants with a combination o f lim e and sulphur known as ,

lim e sulphur wash ( F i g

-
.

T h e r e ar e many sp e ci e s o f aphids or plant lic e which som e , ,

tim e s caus e s e rious loss T h e gr e e n m e lon lous e and t h e brown

.

plum lous e ar e common and occasionally t h e appl e aphid is so,

31 6 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C ULT U R E

num e rous in e arly spring as s e riously to inj ure t h e young f ruit

buds I n gre e nhous e s t h e ins e cts which attack Ch rysanth e mums
.
,

l e ttuc e and many oth e r plants ar e usually controll e d by h e avy

,

fum e s o f tobacco smok e but f o r outdoor crops tobacco d e coc ,

tions soapsuds and an e mulsion o f k e ros e n e and soapsuds ar e

, ,

most us e d .

407 S p r ayi n g f or f u n gou s di s ease s

. I n t h e multiplication .

o f fungi larg e numb e rs o f spor e s a r e f orm e d T h e s e S pore s a r e .

scatt e r e d and ge rmi

nat e upon t h e sur fac e s
o f plants Th e spor e s .

and t h e young fungous

plants ar e so much
more d e licat e than t h e
tissu e o f t h e host p lant
that it is possibl e to
u se ch e mical solutions

su ffi ci e ntly strong to
d e stroy th e m without
inj uring t h e host plant .

W e ath e r condi tions

must be obs e rve d care
fully b e fore apply ing
th e s e mixture s as in ,

F IG 58 S i m p l e p r ay i g o tfit
. 1 . moist w e ath e r copp e r
s n u

m ll b h or for it tio wh r b t m ll solutions caus e spray u

F or s a us es, s ua ns e e u a s a

a mo unt f p y i g i t b 1 t h h "d p m p d
o s ra n s o e ( on e ’ 6 a u an

th p tt ri g b r h e s d q ta
burn
e n
andus
i n v e ry
ar e a e ua e ,

hot dry w e ath e r l i m e ,

sulphur l e ad wash has also b e e n inj urious in t h e sam e way

-
.

408 Th e copp er s p r ay s
. A numb e r o f copp e r compounds .

ar e us e d as sprays T h e most common o f th e s e is coppe r sul

.

phat e which is u s e d alon e in solution or in combination with

, ,

lim e A combination o f copp e r sulphat e and lim e is call e d

.

B ord e aux mixture nam e d f rom B ord e aux F ranc e wh e re it , , ,

was first us e d in t h e prote ction o f vin e yards against thi e v e s I t .

was thus discov e re d that it prote ct e d also against dis e as e .

3 1 8 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

4 1 0 Han d . s p r ay er s F o r small orchards and gard e n work .

a hand pump is r e comm e nd e d ( F i g T h e knapsack spray e r .

is us e ful fo r gard e ns and vi n eyards F o r gard e ns o f consid e rabl e .

are a a hand pump mount e d upon a barre l which can be trans

port e d by m e ans o f a cart S hould be us e d Th e pump should .

b e a f orc e pump o f consid e rabl e pow e r t h e working parts o f ,

which ar e o f such mat e rial as will not corrod e f rom contact with
t h e ch e micals B rass alloy or porc e lain linings ar e ch e ap e r
.

than solid brass parts but ar e l e ss durabl e , .

4 1 1 P ow e r s p r ay e rs
. F o r larg e r plantations t h e siz e and .

capacity o f t h e pumps should be incre as e d ( F i g P robably .

most orchard own e rs find that fo r an are a o f t e n acr e s or mor e ,

a pump driv e n by a gasolin e e ngin e is e conomical and e ffici e nt .

A conv e ni e nt siz e d tank fo r S pray mixture s is o n e containing

-

two hundre d or two hundre d and fi fty gallons t h e siz e d e pe nd ,

ing som e what upon t h e topography as it is re adily s e e n that in ,

an orchard or fi e ld with an un e v e n surfac e t h e dra f t will be much

h e avi e r than upon l e v e l ground .

Th e wat e r supply is a v e ry important consid e ration and s u ffi ,

ci e nt re s e rvoir capacity S hould b e arrange d to allow t h e con

ve n i e n t mixing o f t h e mat e rials and filling t h e tanks with t h e

l e ast possibl e e xp e nditure o f tim e I n many cas e s particularly .

,

t h e first S prays f o r t h e cank e rworm and codling moth t h e most ,

e ffi ci e nt work is don e within a comparativ e ly f e w days and i f ,

any consid e rabl e ar e a is to be cov e re d all possibl e hast e must ,

be us e d .

Q UE S TIONS AND P ROB LE M S

1 W h t x p e ri e e s gge t e d t h
. a e of nc
p r y f t h u g r l p s e use s a s or e ene a re

ve nt io f i j ry b y i
n o c ts ?
n u n se

2 H w
. t h f e d i g h b it
o ar e f i e t r l t d to o trol b y p r y i g ?
e e n a s o ns c s e a e c n s a n

3 W h t c o m m o i s ti i d
. a d t p rot e t p l
n n t g i t i ct
ec c e s a re u s e o c an s a a ns n se s

th t o m t h ti s ?
a c nsu e e sue

4 H w m y th S
. o
J e s l b co troll d ?
a e an os ca e e n e

5 W h t m tho d
. a d f
e d tro y i g p hi d o p l
s a r e u se t li i g r e or es n a s, r an ce , n e n

ho s s ? o n o t d oor ro p ?
u e u c s
 S P R A Y I NG 3 1 9

6 . W h at de te r m i n es the ki n d of Sp a ry to be used an d i ts m e an s of

ap p li ca ti o n ?
7 . ri i r e t ki n ds o f ap p a r at us u se d i s p r ay i n g
D esc be t h e d ffe n n .

8 W h a t i s o e o f t h e m o s t d e s tr c ti v e i n sec t p e s t s o f y o r lo c ality ?
. n u u

o n e o f t h e w or s t f n g u s p e s t s ? u

E XE RCI S E S
Se l e ct x p e ri m e t a f n g o us d i se as e o i s e ct p e s t w hi c h i s i j rio s
fo r e n u r n n u u

t o s o m e o f t h e c ro p s o f t h e c o m m u ity W rit e t o y o u r s t t e ag ri c lt r al n . a u u

c oll e ge f or d ir e c tio s i c o trolli g th e se d i se as e s a d p e s t s

n n n U de r th e e n n . n s

d ir e c tio s d e m o s tr tio s o f g r e a t i m p ort a ce m ay b e m d e i t h e u s e o f

n n a n n a n

s c h S p r ay s as t h e B or d e a x m ixt r e k ro se e e m l s io
u a d li m
u s l ph r u ,
e n u n, n e- u u .

I n A pp e d i x I d ir c tio s a e g i e n r e g r d i g t h e ki n d o f S p r y t o s e a d
n e n r v a n a u n

t h e ti m e t o app ly i t f o r v ario u s i s e c t an d f g u s p e s t s n un .

RE F E RE NCE S

B A ILE Y L H .P r i n cip l e s o f F r u it G row i n g Th e M acm ill an C o m p an y

. The . .

D UG G A R B M ,
F u n g o us D i s e ase s o f P l a t s G i n n a d C o m p an y
. . n . n .

LO D E M A N E G T h e S p r ay i n g o f P l an t s T h e M ac m ill an C o m p an y
,
. . . .

S E A R S F C P ro d uc ti v e O r c h a r d i n g J B Li pp i n cott C o m p an y
, . . . . . .

S T E vE N S F L an d H A L L G L
,
. .
,
D i se as e s o f E c o n o m i c P l an t s
, . Th e . .

M acm ill an C o m p an y .

F u n g i c i d e s an d T h e ir U se i n P r e ve n ti n g D i s eas e s o f F r u it s F a r m er s .
’

B u l l e t i n 2 43 U n it e d S t at e s D e p a rt m e n t o f A g r i cu lt u r e
, .

S o m e F actor s I n fl u e n c i g t h e E ffi c i e n cy o f t h e B or d e au x M ixt u r e B u l l et i n
n .

2 65 B u r e au o f P l a n t I n d u s try U n i t e d S t a t e s D e art m e n t o f A g ri c u lt u r e
, p , .

S e l f B oil e d Li m e S l p h u r M i xt u r e as a P ro m i s i n g F u n g i c i d e
- -
u F a r m er s .
’

B u l l et i n 4 4 0 U n it e d S tat e s D e p a rt m e n t o f Ag ri c u lt r e
,
u .
 C H A P TE R X XV I I I

FE E DI NG ANI MALS

He cau s e th th e gr as s to g row f or t h ttl e ca e, an d h rb f or

e r i
th e se v ce of
m an : th t h
a e ma y b ri n g f orth f oo d t o f
ou t h rth e ea .
— T H E B I B LE

41 2 . Ani m al p rodu ct s a r e cost l y animals dige st l e ss . F arm

than thre e f ourths o f t h e fe e d that
is give n th e m A bout hal f .

o f t h e dig e st e d portion is r e quir e d fo r maint e nanc e or f or ru n ,

ning t h e machin e ry o f t h e body O nly o n e fourth to o n e third .

o f t h e total nutri e nts that a r e f e d a r e th e r e for e availabl e f o r t h e

production o f m e at milk e ggs wool or o f e n e rgy fo r work

, , , ,
.

T h e proc e ss e s o f mastication dige stion and production use , ,

e n e rgy also and th e r e is r e cov e r e d in t h e animal product not

,

more than 2 0 p e r c e nt or o n e fi fth o f t h e total nutri e nts fe d

, ,
.

A n animal is a more e ffici e nt machin e how e v e r than any ye t , ,

d e vis e d by man M an s b e st machin e is t h e st e am e ngin e which

.
’

re turns at t h e driv e wh e e l about 1 0 p e r c e nt o f t h e e n e rgy

contain e d in t h e coal which is burn e d .

4 1 3 Th e u s es of f eed
. F ood f o r maint e nanc e includ e s that
.

which is n e c e ssary to k e e p t h e body t e mp e rature uni form .

T h e re fore a part o f t h e food e at e n by e v e ry animal is us e d

as h e ating fu e l T h e animal body is a v e ry compl e x machin e
.
,

and lik e any oth e r machin e its parts ar e constantly w e aring

, ,

out I f th e s e parts ar e not r e paire d f rom day to day t h e ma

.
,

chin e ge ts out o f ord e r and fails to work S om e o f t h e fe e d .

e at e n go e s to r e plac e t h e tissu e worn out or to k e e p t h e body

,

in re pair E n e rgy is also constantly re quire d to s e cure ch e w

.
, ,

32 0
32 2 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

addition fo r t h e production o f wool S win e grow and fatt e n

,
.

rapidly h e nc e th e ir gre e din e ss T h e r e for e it would be absurd

,
.
,

to f ee d all kinds o f animals in t h e sam e way an d without r e gard

to t h e kind o f product th e y manu factur e .

41 6 Di ge st i on of f eed
. Th e f e e d must first b e dige st e d in .

t h e animal body M ost dige stiv e chang e s ar e du e to t h e action

.

o f t h e fe rm e nts or e nzym e s pr e s e nt in t h e dig e stive j uic e s

, ,
.

E ach fe rm e nt produc e s its own p e culiar r e sults ; f o r e xampl e ,

diastas e conv e rts starch into a form o f sugar p e psin r e nd e rs a ,

part o f t h e prot e ins o f t h e food solubl e and lipas e acts upon ,

col o n , or l a rge i n tes t i

r ec tum a n us

s to ma ch
roo f of m ou t h

bi l e d uc k
s a l i va r y d u ct s

p a n cr ea ti c duct

s ma l l i n tes t i n es col on . or l a rge i ntes ti ne

FIG . 1 60 . i
T h e d ge s ti ve tr t o fac a h og .
( D i ag ram f ro m I o w a S t t
a e C oll e ge )

t h e fats of the food

also play an important part i n
. B act e ria
dige stion o f food attacking t h e food chi e fly i n t h e large int e s
,

tin e I t is f rom t h e small int e stin e that most o f t h e dige st e d

.

mat e rial pass e s into t h e blood to be carri e d to t h e di ffe re nt

parts o f t h e body
4 1 7 Or gan s Of d i ge sti on
. D ige stion b e gins with mastication .

and continu e s up to t h e tim e t h e undige st e d part o f t h e food

l e av e s t h e body ( Fi g M ost animal s masticat e or ch e w.

th e ir food as th e y e at it and at t h e sam e tim e saturat e t h e food ,

with saliva C attl e and sh e e p ch e w th e ir food only su ffi ci e ntly

.

to allow it to be s wallow e d and r e masticat e it lat e r F owls .

swallow th e ir food whol e and grind it in th e ir crops and giz

zar d s ( F i g T h e hors e and t h e hog hav e comparativ e ly
.
 F E E D I NG A N I M A LS 32 3

S impl e dige stiv e tracts T h e cow t h e sh e e p and t h e d e e r

.
, , ,

known as ruminants hav e a complicat e d s e t o f four stomachs

, ,

by m e ans o f which th e y ar e abl e to dige st large quantiti e s o f

coars e and comparativ e ly unnutritious fe e d T h e animals such .
,

as t h e ruminants which hav e subsist e d fo r c e nturi e s u pon coars e

,

foods hav e a longe r

ph y ar nx
dige stiv e tract than
do thos e which have
liv e d upon a more
conc e ntrat e d di e t
d
F
( g i
. T h e di
g e s t i v e tract o f cat P t i l a
r ove n r cu u or

gl d l t m h
an u ar s o ac
t l e 1 8 about tw e nty
tim e s as long as t h e
body ; o f sh e e p and m t i fffi’ ’
u ftaar
z
goats it is about
tw e nty s e v e n tim e s ;
-

of t h e hog about
f our te e n tim e s and
o f t h e hors e only
"
about e l e v e n tim e s .
m ca ecu
‘

Th e ruminants with , m l l i t ti s a n es n es

th e ir large stom
y d t na r uc
ac h s,
can utiliz e
much coars e mat e
rial which would
oth e rwis e be wast ed .

F I G 1 6 1 Th e d i g ti e tr t o f hi
es k v (
ac D i gr m a c c en a a
Th e dige stive tract
. . .

f ro m I o w a S t t C oll g e ) a e e
o f th e chick e n is
v e ry di ffe r e nt f rom that o f t h e oth e r animal s d e scrib e d T h e .

chick e n has no m e ans o f ch e wing its food th e re fore t h e f ood ,

is swallow e d whol e and go e s dire ctly into t h e crop wh e r e it ,

is moist e n e d and so ft e n e d ; th e nc e it go e s through t h e tru e

stomach into t h e gizzard wh e re it is ground by t h e gritty
,

mat e rial pre s e nt T h e craving o f chick e ns fo r gritty mat e rials

.

is th e r e fore e asily und e rstood .

32 4 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

41 8 . r an i m al s com p a r ed D i ffe re nt bree ds

I m p r ov ed an d p oo .

o f t h e sam e sp e ci e s and di ffe r e nt individuals o f t h e sam e br e e d

app e ar to hav e approximat e ly e qual dige stiv e pow e r I t is a .

common notion that t h e improv e d bre e ds o f farm animals dige st

th e ir food more compl e t e ly than do t h e unimprov e d kinds I t .

is tru e that t h e improv e d strains ar e capabl e o f dige sting large r

quantiti e s o f food within a giv e n tim e but th e re is no re ason to ,

p an c r e a ti c d u ct

p ha r y n
'

r ec tu m

om a s u m, o r d u cts

r et i cu l u m , or ho n eycom b
aBo ma s um, or
re n n e t ( t r ue s toma ch)
i n tes t i n e

FIG . 1 62 . i
T h e d ge s ti ve tr t o fac a c ow .
( D i ag r a m f ro m I o w a S t t
a e C oll e ge )

b e li e v e that th e y dige st th e ir f ood or s e cure nourishm e nt f rom

it any more compl e t e ly than do t h e u nimprov e d sorts .

4 1 9 Di ge sti b i l i ty Of f eed s
. S om e f oodstu ffs ar e mor e e asily
.

dige st e d than oth e rs M ilk fo r e xampl e is easily dige st e d

.
, ,
.

G rains and oth e r foods lik e bran and lins e e d m e al ar e compara

t i ve l y e asily dig e st e d C oars e woody f odd e rs lik e corn stov e r
.
, ,

or wh e at straw ar e dige st e d v e ry incompl e te ly and with gre at

,

di ffi culty I nd e e d in masticating and dige sting som e v e ry poor

.
,

mat e rials more e n e rgy is re quire d than t h e mat e rials yi e ld wh e n

dige st e d T h e re fore t h e more o f such m at e r ial an a nimal is
.

forc e d to consum e t h e l e ss it is nourish e d, .

32 6 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

animal is growing rapidly a much large r quantity will be r e quire d

f o r t h e n e w tissu e to b e built as w e ll as f o r old tissu e to be
r e paire d C ows in m ilk and laying h e ns re quire much prot e in
.
,

b e caus e e ggs and milk contain much prot e in .

422 S ou r ce s Of p r ot ei n
. A ll prot e in fe e ds are not o f e qual
.

1
valu e A nimal prot e ins are ge n e rally mor e compl e t e ly and
.

more e asily us e d than ar e t h e prot e ins o f v e ge tabl e s T h e .

poultry man knows that laying h e ns will do b e tt e r i f giv e n skim

mil k or m e at m e al along with t h e usual grains and gre e n f e e d
-
.

I n fatt e ning calv e s fo r t h e S how m il k in abundanc e is us e d , .

S kim milk and tankag e with grain f orc e pigs to t h e limit o f

, ,

th e ir capacity .

T h e r e is a gre at variation i n t h e valu e o f di ffe re nt v e ge tabl e

prot e ins A part o f t h e prot e in o f corn is incapabl e o f pro
.

d u ci n g growth in young animals and is call e d an incompl e t e

prot e in T his probably e xplains why young pigs confin e d in a
.

d ry lot and fe d e xclusiv e ly on corn soon b e com e unthri fty and

som e tim e s die o f starvation although th ey hav e al l t h e corn ,

th e y will e at M ost coars e fe e ds ar e low in prot e in but th e

.
,

hays mad e f rom t h e l e gu m e s ar e r e lativ e ly rich in prot e in

which is o f good quality T hus colts calv e s and lambs wh e n .
, ,

fe d on corn and wh e at straw or mill e t or timothy or prairi e

hay grow slowly or c e as e to grow and soon S how a ge n e ral
, ,

lack o f thri ft ; whil e thos e fe d on corn and on hay mad e f rom

l e gum e s grow rapidly .

W ool production is stimulat e d som e what by t h e addition o f

prot e in to t h e ordinary farm ration Th e coat o f hair o f hors e s .
,

cattl e and hogs is lustrous and silky wh e n prot e in is fe d lib e r

,

ally and is pal e and harsh wh e n prot e i n is d e fici e nt in t h e ration .

A large r and stronge r bon e is produc e d wh e n pl e nty o f prot e in

o f t h e prop e r sort is combin e d with su ffi ci e nt min e ral i n gr e d i

e nts .W ithout prot e in in abundanc e t h e min e rals ar e in e ffe ctive

i n bon e building T h e prot e in supply pr e s e nts o n e o f t h e prin
.

c i pal probl e ms conn e ct e d with prop e r f e e ding o f animals .

1 P rot i th t h
e ns a av e be en w ork d o r d org iz d
e ve an an e as a part o f t h e an im l
a

o
b dy , s uch m ilk as , e gg s , d ri d b loo d m
e t m tm l , ea , ea -
ea , an d t k g
an a e .
 F EE D I NG ANI M A LS 32 7

423 . Car b oh y dr a t e s substanc e s includ e t h e sugars and

. Th es e
starch e s and also t h e c e llular walls o f plants call e d c e llulos e or
crud e fib e r T h e c e re als s u ch as wh e at rye barl ey and corn
.
, , , , ,

and such crops as kafi r milo and sorghum f urnish a p r e p o n

, , ,

d e ranc e o f starchy or carbohydrat e mat e rials Th e fat in t h e

, ,
.

animal body in t h e milk and in t h e wool is mad e fo r t h e most

, ,

part f rom carbohydrat e s and crud e fib e r S ta rch is first change d .

into solubl e sugars and t h e sugars ar e th e n conv eye d in t h e

,

blood to t h e tissu e s wh e r e th e y ar e us e d to giv e e n e rgy or

, ,

wh e r e t h e various e nzym e s conv e rt th e m into fat .

424 F at s. M ost f e e ds contain mor e or l e ss fat or oil F at

. .

may furnish e n e rgy fo r work or may be stor e d I t is not how .

,

e v e r stor e d i n quit e t h e sam e f orm in which it occurre d in t h e

,

plant E ach sp e ci e s o f animal mak e s its own sp e cial sort o f

.

fat W e all r e cogniz e t h e di ffe re nc e b e tw e e n mutton tallow and

.

butt e r fat and t h e di ffe r e nc e b e twe e n t h e oily fats o f t h e hog

and t h e hard tallowy fats o f t h e b e e f st e e r
, .

T h e fats hav e a high e r nutritiv e valu e than t h e sugars or

starch e s A pound o f fat wh e n burn e d produc e s about two
.

and o n e fi fth tim e s as much h e at as do e s a pound o f starch

-
.

T h e re for e fats ar e e stimat e d to b e two and o n e fi ft h tim e s as -

valuabl e as starch e s as a sourc e o f e n e rgy .

425 M i n er al n u t r i en t s T h e min e ral e l e m e nts f urnish build

. .

ing mat e rial fo r t h e body and add palatabl e laxativ e and stim , ,

u l at iv e prop e rti e s to t h e ration T h e y also f urnish e ss e ntial

.

constitu e nts fo r t h e dige stiv e j uic e s C alcium furnish e s about .

0
7 p e r c e nt o f t h e min e ral e l e m e nts that e nt e r into bon e phos ,

p h o ru s mor e than 2 7 p e r c e nt and magn e sium about

,
o n e hal f
of 1 p e r c e nt E ggsh e ll is almost pur e calcium carbonat e
. .

M ost c e r e als ar e d e fici e nt in calcium T his is e sp e cially tru e .

o f corn and t h e young growing pig or lamb is u nabl e to

,

s e cure e nough calcium f rom corn Phosphorus is anoth e r min .

e ral e l e m e nt which is us e d i n t h e building o f bon e and fo r ,

rapidly growing animals many c e r e als ar e d e fici e nt in this

e l e m e nt Potassium is anoth e r e l e m e nt e sp e cially important
.

i n t h e so ft tissu e s .
32 8 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT UR E

Th e common mat e rials that ar e rich in min e rals ar e milk ,

m e at m e al tankag e al fal fa clov e r rap e blu e grass bran wood

-
, , , , , , ,

ash e s bon e m e al and lim e ston e

, ,
.

4 2 6 A b al an ced r at i on
. A nimals r e quir e prot e in carbo hy .
,

d r at e s and ash in varying amounts and proportions A balanc e d

, , .

ration has t h e prop e r proportion o f prot e in carbohydrat e s and , ,

ash to s e rv e t h e particular n e e ds o f t h e animal Th e qu e stion .

is constantly pr e s e nting its e l f as to t h e sourc e o f prot e ins to

balanc e t h e c e r e als and hays which contain too large a propor ,

tion o f carbohydrat e s to m e e t t h e n e e ds o f animals that ar e

growing working or producing m e at milk e ggs or wool
, , , , , .

S kim milk m e at m e al or tankage f rom t h e packing hous e s

,
-
,

ar e f amiliar f orms o f animal prot e in ; and cottons e e d m e al ,

lins e e d oil m e al bran middlings al fal fa hay clov e r hay

-
, , , , ,

p e anuts rap e soy b e ans and cowp e as are common sourc e s

, , ,

o f v e g e tabl e prot e in Th e locality in which o n e liv e s usually

.

has its own particular e conomical prot e in f e e dstu ffs .

42 7 W h y an i m al s f a tt en W h e n t h e animal has t h e chanc e

. .

to e at more food than is r e quire d f o r mainte nanc e and fo r t h e

production o f n e w muscl e bon e skin and hair it usually stor e s , , , ,

this food in t h e f orm o f fat and may u s e it lat e r wh e n f ood may

b e scarc e W h e n t h e animals w e re running wild th e ir stor e of
.

fat was t h e only prot e ction th e y had against hard tim e s .

M an consum e s larg e quantiti e s o f fat fo r f ood S inc e t h e .

e arli e st tim e s h e has us e d various v e g e tabl e oils such as oliv e ,

oil fo r this purpos e W h e n man l e arn e d how to grow grain in

,
.

large quantiti e s h e soon took advantage o f t h e fat producing -

pow e r o f dom e stic animals S trains or bre e ds w e re d e v e lop e d .

which w e re sp e cially capabl e o f producing fat i n large quan

titi e s and e conomically D airy cows capabl e o f producing th e ir .

own w e ight o f butt e r fat i n a singl e y e ar w e re d e v e lop e d .

M any bre e ds o f s o call e d lard hogs w e re d e v e lop e d S trains o f

-
.

b e e f cattl e capabl e o f fatt e ning v e ry young have b e e n produc e d .

T h e gr e at e st d e v e lopm e nt i n fat production has b e e n within

v e ry re c e nt yea rs sinc e corn production has b e e n so e xt e nsiv e ly
,

d e v e lop e d corn b e ing t h e gre at e st fat producing grain known

,
-
.
 CHA PTE R XXIX

HOR S E S AND M ULE S

S o d id thi hor x l o m m o
s se e ce a c n on e

I h p i o r g olor p
n s a e, n c u a e, c , a c e an d b o ne .

B ro d b r
a t f ll y m ll h d
e as , u e e, s a ea an d o tril w i d
n s e,

H i g h r t hort c r tr i ght l g
es , s e a s, s a e s an d p i g tro g
as s n s n .

L ook w h t hor ho l d h h t l k SH
Q

, a a se s u av e e d d
i no ac . A K E S P E A RE

42 8 . I m p ort an ce of h ors e s T h e r e a r e o n e hundre d million .

hors e s i n t h e world o f which o n e fi fth ar e i n t h e U nit e d S tat e s

, .

T h e r e a r e also e ight and a quart e r million mul e s in t h e world ,

hal f o f which are i n t h e U nit e d S tat e s principally i n t h e south ,

e r n and south c e ntral stat e s

-
Th e A m e rican f arm e r e mploys mor e
.

labor saving machin e ry and us e s more hors e pow e r than do e s any

-

oth e r farm e r Th e scal e o f int e llig e nc e and t h e incom e o f t h e

.

farm e rs o f t h e world ar e large ly associat e d with th e s e f actors .

42 9 E a r l y h i st or y of t h e h or s e
. T h e A rabians w e r e t h e .

first p e opl e to d e v e lop t h e hors e to a high d e gre e o f e xc e l

l e nc e T h e y us e d th e ir hors e s f or riding long distanc e s at a
.

rapid rat e and f re qu e ntly re quire d th e m to go many hours

,

without f ood or wat e r U nd e r such conditions only t h e hardi e s t

.

surviv e d M ore ov e r t h e hors e was t h e A rab s only companion

.
,
’

much o f t h e tim e cons e qu e ntly t h e hors e most sought was t h e

o n e poss e ssing t h e gr e at e st d e gre e o f int e llige nc e and most

capabl e o f b e ing a good companion T hus t h e A rabian hors e .

has long b e e n not e d f o r its e nduranc e courage int e llige nc e , , ,

and f ri e ndly disposition .

 H O R S E S A ND M U L E S 33 1

Th e dra ft typ e o f hors e or F l e mish hors e was d e ve lop e d in

, ,

t h e low country o f northw e st e rn E urop e F rom t h e F l e mish .

hors e hav e com e all our typ e s o f h e avy hors e s ( Fig .

T h e s e two rac e s t h e o n e light activ e and e xtr e m e ly i n t e l l i

—
, ,

ge nt ; t h e oth e r h e avy slow of av e rage int e llige nc e but with

, , ,

F IG . 1 64 . i io
C mb n ng s tr eng th , b e au y , t en du r an c e , a n i t e ll g
d n i e n ce

T he P e r h ro t llio
c e n s a n l dl e f o n s e , h m p io
”
c a n at th e I n e t r t o l L i S to k
na i na ve c

E xp o itio 9 s n ,
1 1 3

good dispositions hav e f urnish e d th e f oundation fo r n e arly all

bre e ds o f mod e rn hors e s D i ffe re nt parts o f t h e hors e ( F igs 1 6 5
. .

and 1 7 3) hav e b e e n d e v e lop e d with S p e cial r e fe re nc e to t h e

di ffe re nt us e s to which th e y hav e b e e n put .

4 30 Th e Ar ab i an h or s e T h e A rabian hors e s w e re t h e first

. .

to be known as a bre e d T h e y ar e f rom 1 4 to I . hands in1

h e ight and w e igh f rom 8 50 to 1 000 pounds I n color th ey are

, .

1 A h an d is fo r i ch
u n es .
332 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

bay brown ch e stnut and occasionally black or gray T h ey

, , ,
.

poss e ss good action and gre at int e llige nc e .

4 31 Th e Th or ou gh b r ed Th e n e xt bre e d to b e com e w e ll e stab

. .

i s h e d was t h e T horoughbre d or t h e running hors e T his bre e d ,

.

is native to E ngland and is an o ff spring o f t h e A rabian hors e ,

modifi e d in part by t h e d e mand o f t h e E nglish p e opl e fo r a rac e

oi t i j dg i g hor
FI G . 1 65 . Th e p n s n u n a se

1 m o th ;
,
uo tr l ; 3 hi ; 4 o ; 5 f ; 6 for h d ; 7 y ; 8 ; 9 low r
2 ,
n s i ,
c n ,
n se ,
ace ,
e ea ,
e e ,
e ar ,
e

j w;a thro tl t h ;
1 0, w i dpip ; a r t ; 3 W th r ; 4 ho l d r ; 5 b r t ;
a c 1 1 ,
n e 12 ,
c es 1 ,
i e s 1 ,
s u e 1 ,
e as

16 m ; 7
,
ar l b ow ; 8 for rm ; 9 k ;
1 , e o ; f tlo k joi t ; p t r ;
I ,
ea 1 ,
nee 2 0, can n n 2 1 ,
e c n 22 ,
as e n

2 3 foot ; 4 for fl
, k ; 5 h rt g irth ; 6 o p li g ; 7 b k ; 8 loi ; 9 r r fl k ;
2 ,
e an 2 , ea 2 ,
c u n 2 ,
ac 2 ,
n 2 ,
ea an

3 b ll y ; 3
0, e h ip ; 3 ro p ; 33 t il ; 34 b tto k ; 35 q rt r ; 36 th i gh ; 37 t fl ;
1 ,
2 , c u ,
a ,
u c s ,
ua e s , ,
s i e

38 g ki ,
low r thigh ; 39 ho k ( Photogr p h from P rd U i r ity )
as n , or e ,
c . a u ue n ve s

hors e It range s i n h e ight from

. to hands and w e ighs ,

f rom 9 00 to 1 1 00 pounds Th e colors ar e bay brown ch e stnut .

, , ,

with a consid e rabl e numb e r o f blacks and grays I t poss e ss e s .

gr e at running sp e e d and is int e llige nt but is v e ry m e ttl e ,

S om e and som e tim e s di ffi cult to manag e T his br e e d has contri b .

u t e d to t h e improv e m e nt o f our pr e s e nt day hors e s notably -

,
334 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

harn e ss hors e s i n t h e world hav e v e ry tru e w e ll balanc e d , ,

-

action and poss e ss re markabl e e nduranc e and gr e at i n t e l l i

,

g e nc e I n h e ight th e y vary f rom 1 4 to

. hands and in ,

w e ight f rom 9 00 to 1 2 00 pound s T h e ir colors are usually .

bay brown ch e stnut or black and th e re ar e a fe w grays and

, , , ,

roans S tandard B re d hors e s trav e l at a trot or pac e and som e

.
,

ar e also abl e to trav e l at both gaits and ar e known as doubl e

gait e d hors e s T h e pacing gait is t h e fast e r o f t h e two

. .

4 33 Th e M or gan h ors e
. T his br e e d is a branch of t h e .

S tandard B re d hors e and was found e d by J ustin M organ a ,

hors e o f T horoughbre d anc e stry T h e s e hors e s w e r e d e ve lop e d .

i n V e rmont and Ne w H ampshire e arly i n t h e nin e t e e nth ce n

tu ry T h e y ar e small ranging in h e ight f rom
.
,
to 1 6 hands ,

and w e ig h f rom 9 50 to I 1 50 pounds T h e ir colors ar e usually .

bay ch e stnut brown or black T h e y poss e ss n e ith e r e xtre m e ly

, , ,
.

high action nor gre at sp e e d but are not e d for th e ir e ndura nc e , ,

int e llige nc e and good dispositions , .

4 34 Th e A m e ri can S a ddl e Hors e T h e A m e ricans w e re t h e

. .

first p e opl e to d e v e lop a distinctiv e bre e d fo r saddl e purpos e s .

T h e S addl e H ors e was d e v e lop e d i n K e ntucky T e nn e ss e e , ,

M issouri and Virginia fo r t h e u s e o f m e n who op e rat e d larg e

, ,

plantations ( F i g Th e A m e rican S addl e H ors e stands

.

pre emin e nt as a riding hors e and also as t h e most b e auti ful and
most v e rsatil e o f all hors e s T his hors e range s in h e ight from .

1 5 to 1 6 hands and i n w e ight f rom 9 00 to 1 2 00 pounds

,
The .

colors are black bay brown or ch e stnut and th e re ar e som e

, , , ,

grays and roans T h e y poss e ss fi n e styl e and action and hav e

.
,

b e auti ful h e ads long w e ll arch e d n e cks and b e auti ful tails w e ll
, ,
-
,

carri e d T h ey a r e re quir e d to p e rform at fi ve gaits

. t h e walk ,

t h e trot t h e cant e r t h e rack and e ith e r t h e running walk t h e

, , , ,

fo x trot or t h e slow pac e

, .

4 35 Th e P er ch e r on
. T his is t h e most popular and t h e most
.

wid e ly distribut e d dra ft hors e i n t h e U nit e d S tat e s T h e bre e d .

originat e d i n t h e small district in northw e st F ranc e known as

La P e rch e and was d e v e lop e d f rom t h e nativ e hors e s ( which
,

posse ss e d som e F l e mish blood) with t h e in fusion o f A rabian ,

 H O R S E S A ND M U L E S 335

blood which gov e rnm e nt brought to t h e district in

t h e F r e nch
1 82 0. T h e individuals w e igh f rom 1 600 to 2 2 00 pound s and ,

range in h e ight f rom to 1 7 hands T h e usual colors ar e .

gray and black but oth e rs ar e ch e stnut bay brown and roan
, , , , .

T h e P e rch e r ons ar e int e llige nt hav e good dispositions and, ,

FIG . 1 67 . The A m e ri c an S ad d l e H or s e

poss e ss av e rage s tyl e fo r dra ft hors e s with su ffi ci e nt action fo r ,

th e ir w e ight A mong oth e r F re nch bre e ds are t h e B oulonnais

.
,

Niv e rnais B re tons and A r de n n ais non e o f which ar e w e ll

, , ,

known i n A m e rica A ll o f th e s e br e e ds are known as F re nch

.

D raft H ors e s .

436 Th e B el gi an
. T h e B e lgian hors e is rapidly gaining in
.

popularity i n A m e rica ( F ig I t has b e e n d e v e lop e d f rom

.

t h e old F l e mish hors e with v e ry littl e if any, admixtur e o f ,

336 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

oth e r blood Th e hors e s range in h e ight f rom

. to 1 7
hands and i n w e ight f rom 1 600 to 2 4 00 pounds Th e colors
,
.

ar e ch e stnut brown roan black or gray Th e B e lgian hors e

, , , , .

is o f compact typ e and has a v e ry wid e d e e p body and ,

e xtre m e ly h e avy muscl e s E v e ry point o f its stolid body and .

o f its con f ormation indicat e s unusual str e ngth and e nduranc e .

FIG . 1 68 . Th e B e g l i hor e
an s

P ol e N ord ,
”
h
t h e c am p io n l i
Be g an s a t ll o i n, t r tio l L i
In e na na ve S to k E xp o itio
c s n, 1
91 3

4 37 . Th e En gl i s h S h i r e . Th e E nglish S hire F
( gi . 1 69 ) is
nativ to e th e
low lying counti e s o f e ast c e ntral E ngland T h e
- -
.

F l e mish hors e int e rmix e d with t h e nativ e hors e s o f E ngland

has produc e d this bre e d T his hors e and t h e B e lgian ar e .

t h e large st o f t h e dra ft br e e ds T h e S hire rang e s in h e ight .

f rom 1 6 to hands and w e ighs f rom 1 7 00 to 2 4 00 pounds

,
.

Th e colors ar e black brown bay gray roan and ch e stnut and

, , , , , ,

i n most cas e s th e s e hors e s hav e white on fe e t l e gs and h ead , ,

.
3 38 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

44 0 . M ul e s
mul e is a hybrid having a mare for its
. Th e ,

dam and a donk e y fo r its sire I t di ffe rs f rom t h e hors e in that .

it S hows many o f t h e characte ristics o f its pat e rnal anc e stors ,

having longe r e ars a Roman nos e small f e e t and cl e an limbs

, , , ,

with only a coars e scanty growth o f hair on t h e tail and man e

,

Fi T h mul e is small e r than t h e dra ft hors e b e ing

( g . e ,

F IG . 1 70 . C h am p io n l l
C y de s da e t llios a n, In t r tio l L i
e na na ve S to k c

x o itio 9
E p s n, 1 13

f rom 4 to
1 1 7 hands in h e ight and w e ighing f rom 8 0 0 to 1 500

pounds I t is hardy and poss e ss e s t h e f aculty o f b e ing abl e to

.

tak e care o f its e l f O n this account t h e mul e is a v e ry sat is fac

.

'

tory animal to plac e in t h e hands o f t h e l e ss i n te l l ige n t far m

labore rs I n color it is bay brown gray or dun T h e color most
.
, , ,
.

d e sire d is black with a tan nos e and flan k T e xas M issouri

, .
, ,

K e ntucky G e orgia T e nn e ss e e M ississippi O klahoma A rkan

, , , , ,

sas and Kansas ar e t h e principal produc e rs and us e rs o f mul e s

,
.

T h e mul e is t h e principal work animal i n t h e cotton stat e s .

 H O R S E S A ND M U L E S 339

44 1 . F eedi n g t h e h ors e
hors e s are what is t e rm e d . S om e
e asy k e e p e rs which m e ans that th ey re quir e a comparativ e ly
,

small amount o f fe e d and ar e always in good condition T his .

FIG . 1 71 . A p riz i i
e -w n n n g s tri ng of m l u es

quality is usually associat e d with a qui e t disposition and good

dige sti on H ors e s that r e quire a larg e amoun t o f fe e d fo r a
.

giv e n s e rvic e ar e usually lacking in quality ( Fi g They .

ar e o f a n e rvous t e mp e ram e nt and hav e a t e nd e ncy to bolt

FIG . 1 72 . G oo d an d p oor e n du an c e r
T h e se are b oth rm y rt ll ry hor
a a T h hor
i e th 8 y r
ses ld h
. b e se on e ri ght i s 2 ea s o ,
as een

2 r
3 ye a s i n a rm y r d i
s e v i ce t ll f irl y good hor T h
,
an s s i th l ft i 6 y r
a a se . e o n e on e e s ea s

o l d , h as b e e n
y r i
1 rm y r
ea n a d i rly r d y t b d rd d T h d ff r
se v i ce , a n s n ea ea o e i s ca e . e i e e n ce

is q l ty
in ua i form tio t m p r m t d b l ty t tiliz fo d
,
co n a n, e e a en ,
an a i i o u e o
34 0 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

th e ir fe e d I n this cas e much of t h e f e e d pass e s through t h e

.
,

syst e m without b e ing dige st e d b e caus e o f improp e r mastication ;

and much o f t h e e n e rgy produc e d by t h e dige st e d food is waste d
in us e l e ss f r e tting .

4 42 Adap t t h e f eed t o t h e di ges t i v e h ab i t s

. C ompare d with .

oth e r farm animals t h e dig e stiv e tracts o f t h e hors e ar e limit e d

,

in capacity T h e dige stiv e apparatu s o f t h e hors e is also more

.

d e licat e than that o f t h e hog ox or sh e e p and as a re sult , , ,

dige stive disturbanc e s ar e more common among hors e s than

among t h e oth e r animals nam e d Th e prop e r fe e ding o f t h e .

hors e th e re fore r e quir e s gre at e r int e llige nc e and more care

, ,

than t h e f e e ding o f any oth e r dom e stic animal I t is n e c e ssary .

to f e e d hors e s f r e qu e ntly and in mod e rat e quantiti e s with f ood ,

that is palatabl e and o f m e dium bulk .

44 3 Th e st an d ar d h or s e r a t i on Th e standard hors e ration

. .

o f t h e country is oats and timothy hay or prairi e hay or a com ,

bination o f oats and corn an d a mixture o f timothy and clov e r

hay B e sid e s poss e ssing t h e n e c e ssary nutri e nts in about t h e
.

prop e r proportions th e s e foodstu ffs ar e usually f re e f rom dust

,

and hav e t h e prop e r bulk H ow e v e r oats and timothy hay have

.
,

b e com e so e xp e nsiv e that th e re is a constant d e mand for a ration

that will s e rv e t h e purpos e s e qually w e ll and be ch e ap e r F o r .

hors e s that ar e idl e or working mod e rat e ly many combinations ,

can b e mad e that a r e quit e as e fli ci e n t and much ch e ap e r F o r .

t h e brood mar e s and growing hors e s b e tt e r rations than t h e stand ,

ard ration ar e r e adily availabl e F or t h e light hors e that is r e

.

quir e d to mak e long hard driv e s and for t h e city hors e hard at
, ,

work no e ntire ly satis factory substitut e fo r oats and timothy or

,

prairi e hay has b e e n found .

444 M ost f a r m f eeds a r e s u i t ab l e f or h ors e s

. F o r idl e and .

mod e rat e ly work e d hors e s and mul e s any o f t h e common fe e ds ,

produc e d on t h e far m may b e f e d provid e d th e y are palatabl e , ,

cl e an and sound and t h e prop e r balanc e b e tw e e n prot e in and

, ,

carbohydrat e s is maintain e d T h e b e st and most e conomical .

rations a r e compos e d o f mixture s o f a numb e r o f fe e ds ; H ors e s

and mul e s wh e n fatt e ning r e lish a wid e vari e ty o f fe e ds
, ,
.
34 2 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

large quantiti e s b e caus e o f its som e what laxativ e quality S horts

, .

and middlings i f fe d alon e f orm a pasty mass wh e n mix e d with

, ,

saliva and do not furnish su ffi ci e nt bulk W h e n middlings ar e .

sprinkl e d on chopp e d hay or straw t h e r e sults hav e b e e n satis ,

f actory but th e ir u s e is not common L ins e e d m e al and cotton

s e e d m e al ar e good prot e in suppl e m
.
,

e nts to rations fo r hors e s .

I f f r e sh and pur e e ith e r o f th e s e by products may be fe d to

,
-

hors e s and mul e s up to o n e and o n e hal f pou nds daily or may -

compos e o n e e ighth of t h e grain ration Rye ground or roll e d .

, ,

S m a l l ca n n o n,
07 51 51 1 71 4 5 07 ”
‘

S ea t of l o w spl i n t
ex tr em i ty o f
m all s ca n n o n , or

t , bo n e , s o m e t zm es m i s ta ke n f or

’
F zr s t p l za l a n x S es a m o za bon es

S e con d p it a l a n x
N a v i c ul a r bo n e , t /ze s ea t f
o fa j i t a—j o n i t
’
l a m e n es s a n a n a m c ul a r d i s ea s es
La te r a l fi br o-ca r t i l a g e , t /ze
s ea t of t l ze s zd e bo n e
T11 t r ti p /za l a n x , or fi
co n 6on e

F IG . 1 74 . Th e s tr t r o f hor
uc u e a
’
se s leg in r l tio to
e a n de f t e c s an d d i s e as e s

and combin e d with barl e y and oats is a good hors e fe e d and is ,

us e d e xt e nsiv e ly fo r this purpos e in countri e s wh e re it is t h e

principal grain grown .

44 5 Rou gh age . M ix e d clov e r and timothy hay is e xc e ll e nt

.

fo r hors e s C lov e r hay wh e n cl e an and w e ll cure d is a good

.

fe e d fo r all kinds o f hors e s and mul e s e xc e pt thos e doing rapid ,

work I t is e sp e cially valuabl e fo r colts and brood mare s C lov e r

. .

’
hay fre qu e ntly contains dust which a ffe cts t h e hors e s br e athing ,

and l e ss e ns his e nduranc e A l fal fa hay re s e mbl e s clov e r but

.
,

conta ins more prot e in I n t h e re gions wh e re al fal fa is grown it

.

is fe d e xt e n s iv e ly and with good r e sults to all age s and kinds o f

hors e s and mul e s I n t h e humid re gions and e sp e cially among
.
,
 H O R S ES A ND M U LE S 34 3

l iv e rym e n th e r e i s som e pr e j udic e against al fal fa on account o f

,

t h e g e n e ral b e li e f that it ov e rworks t h e kidn e ys A part o f this .

pre j udic e is no doubt d u e to t h e fact that too much al fal fa is fe d ,

and part is d u e to t h e fact that t h e hay was harv e st e d too gr e e n .

A l fal fa to be f e d to hors e s should be cut wh e n th e plant is in

, ,

full bloom or lat e r than fo r cattl e sh e e p or hogs C owp e a hay

, , , .

i s S imilar in composi
tion and e ffici e ncy to
clov e r and al fal fa and ,

lik e th e m it is a good
fe e d fo r hors e s work
ing mod e rat e ly .

O at hay wh e n cut ,

i n t h e dough stage ,

mak e s v e ry nutritiv e
and highly satis factory
roughage fo r hors e s
and mul e s S orghum .

hay is us e d e xt e nsiv e ly
.

in many localiti e s with '

good r e sults as a hors e

fe e d. F or f att e ning
mul e s and hors e s it is ,

highly e st e e m e d C orn .

F IG Th ol o f hor f oot . e s e a se s
’

stov e r is a ch e ap and
low r b ord r f t h w ll ; 6 6 t h b r ; ; b lb
a, e e o e a e a s c
‘

c, u s
r u ha e
, ,
s at l s faCt OI o f th h l fr g ; wh t li t wh i h
y g g
‘

’
th pl
’

o e ee a, e o e, i e ne , or ace a c

fo r idl e h O I S CS I f f e d
‘
h .
r ho il ho l d t r hoo f wh hor
o s e -s i ho
e na d s u en e en a se s s

in e xc e ss without oth e r
fe e d it may caus e impaction and d e ath I f prop e rly balanc e d .

with nitrog e nous f e e ds oat straw may be us e d as a roughage fo r

,

h ors e s and mul e s M ill e t hay is not a sa fe roughage fo r hors e s

.
,

sinc e wh e n fe d i n large quantiti e s or for a long tim e it caus e s , ,

swoll e n j oints l am e n e ss and oth e r s e rious re sults O rdinarily

, ,
.

too much hay is f e d to work hors e s e sp e cially to thos e doing

,
,

hard work A hors e cannot work to advantage wh e n its stomach

.

is ov e rload e d with hay A bout o n e f ourth o f t h e daily allowanc e

.
34 4 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

should be fe d in t h e morning a v e ry littl e at t h e noon hour , ,

and t h e re maind e r at night M any trans fe r and e xpre ss com

.

n i e s o ft e n u s e no hay at t h e n oo n hour
p a .

446 S i l a ge f or h or s es
. S ilag e is not r e comm e nd e d as a
.

hors e fe e d e xc e pt by t h e most car e f ul fe e d e rs U nd e r no cir .

cu m s ta n ces S hould moldy silag e b e f e d as bo th hors e s and ,

mul e s are p e culiarly susc e ptibl e to t h e inj urious e ffe cts o f molds ,

som e o f which ar e fatal F roz e n silage is lik e ly to produc e

.

colic and v e ry sour silage is apt to produc e dige stiv e disturb

,

a n ce s . S ilage fo r h o r se s a n d mul e s should b e mad e f rom r e la

t i ve l y matur e corn and b e w e t e nough to pr e v e nt t h e growth o f
molds and should be fe d p e rf e ctly f r e sh I f th e s e pr e cautions .

ar e tak e n silag e mak e s an e xc e ll e nt f e e d fo r brood mar e s idl e

, ,

hors e s and growing colts and may b e fe d up to tw e nty or twe nty

, ,

fi v e pounds daily for a thousand pound hors e I n all cas e s it -

.

S hould b e f e d in conn e ction with a dry roughag e .

44 7 .How m u ch t o f eed w or k h or ses A hors e at work r e .

quire s more fee d than wh e n idl e b e caus e it is e xp e nding more

e n e rgy E nough f e e d must be giv e n to f urnish t h e e n e rgy
.

e xp e nd e d or t h e hors e will los e i n w e ight E xact rul e s fo r

, .

f e e ding cannot be laid down but hors e s working mod e rat e ly or

, ,

colts growing rapidly will r e quir e e ach day about a pound of

,

grain and a pound o f roughage fo r e v e ry o n e hundre d pounds

o f w e ight Th e condition o f t h e animal is a sa fe gu id e
. If th e .

animal is b e coming thin i ncr e as e t h e fe e d I f it is b e coming

, .

fat r e duc e t h e grain T h e obj e ct S hould be to k e e p t h e work

, .

animals in a thri fty condition .

44 8 Idl e h ors es n ee d p l en t y of r ou gh age

. I dl e hors e s have .

ampl e tim e to consum e and dige st roughage and th e re fore do ,

not re quire large quantiti e s o f grain I t is with this class of .

hors e s that e conomy n e e ds most to b e e n forc e d T h e y S hould .

,

how e v e r b e mad e mod e rat e ly fat by spring so that th e y will be

, ,

abl e to do t h e h e avy work o f plowing cultivating harv e sting , , ,

and mark e ting as during th e work s e ason th ey cannot eat

, ,

dige st and assimilat e e nough to m e e t t h e re quire m e nts mad e

,

o f th e m and to pre v e nt th e m from b e coming po or

, .
 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

4 50 Var i e t y of f eed s r eq u i r ed f or f a tt en i n g h ors es an d m ul es

. .

I n fatt e ning hors e s and mul e s it is important to supply th e m

with a vari e ty o f palatabl e f e e ds so as to induc e th e m to e at as ,

much as possibl e I t is only by this m e ans that rapid and i n e x

.

p e nsiv e gains can be mad e H ors e s and mul e s lik e all oth e r .
,

animals mak e rapid in e xp e nsiv e gains wh e n thin and slow

, , , ,

costly gains wh e n n e arly fat .

S TA ND A RD R A T I O N S F O R F A TTE N I N G H O R S E S A ND M ULE S

B o ng/cag e B o ng /t ag e
C lo e r o l fal fa h ay
v r a Clo r or al fal fa h
ve a
y
S org h u m h ay an d c or n s to ve r O a t s tr w a d c or
a n n s tov e r

Gr a i n Gr a i n
Com 9 p a s
,
rt Com 8 pa s
,
rt
Li n s e e d m e a , l 1 pa rt i
L n se e d m e a , l 2 pa rt s
S he af o ts
a

B o ng /t ag e R o ug aag e
C lo e r h ay al fal fa a
v ,
nd C or s il ge oa t s tr
n a ,
aw , a n d

s or g h m h ay u ti m othy h ay
45 1 . W a t er i n g . U nd e r
natural conditions hors e s r e main
clos e to wat e r and drink f re qu e ntly Th e more n e arly th e s e .

conditions can be suppli e d fo r dom e stic hors e s t h e b e tt e r will

b e t h e r e sults Pur e wat e r consta ntly acc e ssibl e to t h e animal s
.

wh e n at pastur e is v e ry important O pinions di ffe r as to how .

fre qu e ntly work stock should be wat e r e d and as to wh e th e r

t h e wat e r should b e giv e n b e for e fe e ding or a ft e r f e e ding If .

t h e wat e r is giv e n b e f ore f e e ding som e p e rsons b e li e v e that too ,

much wat e r will b e drunk and not e nough fe e d will be e at e n .

O th e rs b e li e v e that i f t h e wat e r is giv e n imm e diat e ly a ft e r

t h e m e al much o f t h e undig e st e d food will be wash e d f rom t h e
,
 H O R S E S A N D M U LE S 34 7

stomach T h e pr e vailing practic e among good hors e m e n is to

.

giv e wat e r both b e for e and a ft e r fe e ding T his insure s t h e tak .

ing o f wat e r in mod e rate quantiti e s and pre v e nts gorging I t .

is unsa fe to wate r hors e s whil e th e y ar e h e at e d .

4 5 2 M a r k e t cl a ss e s of h ors es
. T h e l e ading hors e and mul e .

mark e ts o f t h e U nit e d S tat e s ar e at C hicago S t L ouis Kansas ,

.
,

C ity O maha B u ffalo and B oston

, ,
A mong t h e class e s which
,
.

a r e f ound on th e s e mark e ts a r e dra ft hors e s farm hors e s , ,

FIG . i t h f oot o f hor

1 76 . Th e p oi t
n s in j udg n g e a se

A b tto m f
,
o r g l r f r h oo f B
o a o tr t d fo t ; C too w i d p o iti ; D t
e u a o e : ,
a c n ac e o ,
-
e s on ,
oo

narrow p o itio ; E ri g b l d i g t h r lt of hro fo d r ; F i d V w f

s n ,
n ui n as e e su c n ic un e ,
s e ie o an

up ri ght foot ; G i d V w f orm l hoof ; H i d V i w of lop i g t

,
s e ie o d l w h l
a n a ,
s e e s n o e an o ee

expre ss hors e s carriage hors e s saddl e hors e s army hors e s and

, , , ,

S outh e rn hors e s .

T o s e ll b e st on t h e mark e t hors e s should poss e ss quality strong , ,

con formation and good disposition T h e y should be fat

,
first .
,

b e caus e th e y look b e tt e r and ar e r e ady to go into hard work ,

and s e cond b e caus e buy e rs tak e a fat hors e as e vid e nc e o f his

,

good fe e ding quality and p e rfe ct h e alth D ark solid colors ar e .

,

pre fe rre d E ach y e ar large numb e rs o f hors e s ar e sold as

.

”
misfits b e caus e th e y do not b e long to any particular class .

S uch misfits must be sold at a low pric e I n j udging hors e s .

at t h e mark e t many points o f good or bad quality ar e consid e re d .

A fe w o f th e s e points with t h e associat e d quality ar e shown in

F igs 1 6 5 and 1 7 3 1 7 6
.
—
.
34 8 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

4 53 . A su m m ar y Of t h e m ar k et cl a ss e s Of h or se s an d m ul es .

Th e sp e cifications o f e ach o f th e mark e t class e s ar e bri e fly con

d e n s e d i n t h e f ollowing tabl e
I T HE H O RS E
.

TH E H E A VY T YPE

H E I G HT W E I G HT TY PE

D r ft ra e s, h an d s 1 600— 2 2 00 W a lk
F rm C h
a k un s, h an ds 1 2 00— 1 500 W alk
E xpr r e sse s, h an ds 1
300—1
5 50 S low trot
W g o H or
a n ses, 1
5 h an d s 1 1 00— 1
500 S lo w trot

THE LI G H T T YPE

GA I I’ ‘
RE Q UI RE D
H E I G HT W E I G HT FOR M O ST O F A C TI O N TY PE
TH E I R W O RK

Ca rri ag e hor s e s,

—1 6 h an d s 1 000- 1 2 00 S lo w trot H i gh an d C o m p ac t , w i t h w e ll
s ty li h s fill d b o dy
e an d

w ith q lity ua

R o dt r a s e s, 1
5
h d an s go o-
1 1 00 T rot h t r gy o
S m ew a an ,

w ith q lity d ua an

F i v e -ga it d e s add e , l t mi s a na

1 5
—1 6h an d s 900—1 1
50 W a lk , trot , E y as M h q lity
, ucd ua an

c an t e r , r ac k , ty li h
s y m ms try
, w ith
s e ,

an d s lo w w ith b ti f l h d e au u ea ,

ga it m od r k d t il
e n ec , an a

T hr e e -ga it e d, spe ed

1 6 h an ds
9 00— 1 2 00 W a lk , t r o t , an d E asy, Mu c h q lity d ua an

c an e t r sty li h s , s y mm try b e , e au

w ith ti f l h d d
u ea an

mod r e nec k w ith ty l

, s

i hl y d o k d
s c e

t il
a
350 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E
11 . W h at t
r d hor s e r a tio n i y o r lo c li ty ? Ho w doe s thi s
is th e s an da n u a

c o m p r e w ith t h e s ta d a r d r a tio s g i v e n i n th i s t e xt ?
a n n

1 2 M a k e u p f ro m t h e f e e d s o f y o r n e i g h b orhoo d a r atio s it b l e fo r
. u n u a

hor s es w orki g m o de r at e l y ; fo r hors e s be i n g d ri v e n r ap i dly ; f or i dl e

n

hor se s ; f o b roo d m are s ; fo r gr o w i g c olts

r n .

1 3 U n d e r w h a t c ir c m s t an ce s s ho u l d s il age b e f e d t o hor s e s ?
. u

1 4 W h a t ca ti o n s ho l d b e o b s e r e d i t h e w at e r i n g o f hor s e s ? i n
. u u v n

g roo m i g ? i b l
n an k e ti g ? n i n c li i
pp g ? i n tr a i n
n i g y o u n g hor se s ? n n

1 5 T o w h a t l e ad i g m a r ke ts o f t h e w orl d a e hor se s s hi pp e d f r o m y o r
. n r u

lo c lity ?
a

1 6 F i n d a hor s e th a t i s n o t accu s to m e d t o h av i g w t e r o ffe re d hi m

. n a

b e f or e h e r e ce i v e s h i s m or i g r atio M e asu r e t h e am o u t o f w at e r h e
n n n . n

d ri n k s a d o n t h e f ollo w i n g d ay w a t er h i m b e for e h e i s f d i n t h e m or i g
,
n e n n

a d af t e r h e i s f e d as w e ll n oti n g a y d i ffe r e ce th a t th e r e m ay b e i n t h e
n ,
n n

a m o u t o f w a t e r t k e n o n t h e t w o d ays
n a .

1 7 W h a t s p e ci al ca r e s ho u l d b e t ak e o f t h e hor se s fe e t ? W h a t a e
’
. n r

t h e p ri c i p al d e fe c t d e e lo p e d i hor se s fe e t ? ’
n s v n

1 8 W ith t h e s c or e ca r d s g i e i ap p e n d ix e s C D an d E scor e ( 1 ) a
. v n n , , ,

d raf t hor s e ( 2 ) a li g ht hor se an d ( 3) a m u l e

, , .

E XE RCIS E S
The tud e nt s work in j udging h ors e s and m u l e s will b e gre atly
s
’

h e lp e d by a care ful s tudy o f t h e illu s tration s o f t h i s c h apte r p ar t icu ,

l arl y F i gs 1 65 1 7 3 1 7 6 It will al s o h e lp i f t w o ani m al s o f t h e s am e

.
,
—
.

cl as s but o f v e ry diffe re nt qu ality m ay b e s e l e ct e d fo r s tudy .

1 J ud gi n g d raf t h or s es
. S ize a n d w e igh t a r e d e te rmini n g factor s
.

i n t h e cl a s s i fi c ation o f draft h or s e s T o b e long t o t h i s cl as s a h ors e .

s h ould w e i g h 1 600 pound s o r mor e a n d s h o u ld b e a t l e as t I h and s

h ig h V alu e incre ase s wit h s iz e ot h e r t h ings b e i n g e qu al
.
, .

T h e draft h or s e S h ould b e d e e p wide an d co m p act o f body an d , , ,

s h ould c a rry hi s w e ig h t u ni formly T h e t o p lin e S h ould b e s trong .

a n d s h ort w h il e t h e u nd e rlin e s s h ould b e long a n d s tra i g h t

, Qu ality .

i s an e s s e nti al t o good se rvice It i s indic at e d by fi n e h air ; cl e an s tro n g

.
,

j o ints ; cl e an fl at l e gs ; an d tou gh fi r m fe e t T h e h e ad s h ould b e

, ,
.

cle anly de fi ne d an d bony in a ppe arance wit h good width o f fore h e ad ,

.

T h e h e ad s h ould b e proportion at e t o t h e body n e it h e r t oo l arge ,

n o r t o o sm all wit h cl e an muzzl e m e diu m e a r bri h t e e bro a d f ore

, g y , , ,

h e ad an d a cl e an t h ro atl atc h A t h i ck t h ro atlatc h u su ally indicate s

, .

poor wind Th e ne ck s h ould b e o f m e diu m le ngt h wit h a slig h t

”
.
,
 H O R S E S A ND M U L E S 35 1

cre s t an d s h ould b e we ll m u s cl e d Th e s h o uld e rs S h ould be l o n g a n d

, .

s l o pin g in o rd e r t o g iv e bre aki n g s urf a c e f o r t h e coll a r a n d t o l e s s e n

,

t h e concu s s ion o f h ard s tre e t s G ood m u s cul a r d e v e lop m e n t o f ar m

.

an d for e ar m i s e s s e nti al T h e wit h e rs s h ould b e o f m e diu m h e ig h t

. .

A b ack with a clo s e coupling an d wit h a lo n g h e avy m u s cl e d cro u p is ,

-

a co n form a tio n r e pr e s e n ting t h e greate s t s tre ngt h Long w e ll s p r u n g .

,
-

rib s wit h a d e e p a n d w e ll fi l l e d re ar fl an k m ak e room fo r a w e ll

-

d e ve lo pe d dige s t ive ap paratu s an d s tron g vital organ s M u s cular .

d ev e lop m e nt o f t h e h in d qu ar t e rs is e s s e n t i al T h e dra ft h orse s h ould .

s t and s qu a r e ly o n i t s l e g s T h e l e gs s h o u ld b e cl e an wit h bo n e o f
.
,

ood s iz e a n d wi th s tron g j oint s T h e p as t e r n S h ould b e s lopin a nd

g .
g ,

t h e h o ck s s h ould b e l arge a n d o f re gul ar s h ap e .

C o n s tituti o n i s i n dic at e d by a d e e p bro ad c h e s t toge t h e r with a , ,

w e ll s pru n g rib a de e p body brig h t e y e s a n d g re at e ne rgy

-
, , , .

Th e action o f draft h or s e s i s i m por t a n t T h e s trid e a t t h e w alk .

a n d trot s h o uld b e l o n g s traig h t a n d re gul a r

,
C o rre ct con form a tion
, .

iv e s e l a s tici t y t o t h e w alk an d t h e trot in al l h or s e s R e a s on abl e

g .

g race a n d s tyl e o f c a rri age ar e d e m and e d .

T h e s core c ard i s m ad e o n t h e b as i s o f o n e h u n dr e d p o i n t s In .

s c o ri n g a ni m al s t h e point s o f d e s cri p ti o n con form atio n o r qu ality , ,

s h ould b e s t at e d . T h e p art s w h ich d o n o t co n fo rm t o t h e d e s cripti o n

o n t h e s core c ard c annot b e g iv e n a p e rf e ct s cor e .

2 J u dgi n g l i gh t h or s es S tyl e acti o n a n d s p e e d ar e f a ctors o f great

. .
, ,

i m port an ce in de te rm ining th e valu e o f lig h t h o rs e s T h ey s h ould s h o w .

m e diu m widt h an d d e pth o f body a n d t h e wid t h s h ould b e ca rri e d ,

e v e nly fro m f ront t o r e a r T h e t o p lin e s h o uld b e s tron g an d S h ort

.
,

w h ile t h e unde rlin e s h o uld b e lon g an d s traigh t Qu ality is indic ate d .

i n t h e lig h t h ors e as i n t h e dra ft h o r se by a fi n e co a t o f h air a n d by

, , ,

cl e anly m a rk e d f e atur e s an d j o int s S inc e m o s t o f t h e lig h t h or s e s

’
.

work is do ne at th e tro t t h i s gait is i m p ortant At bot h t h e w alk an d

,
.

t h e trot t h e ligh t h or s e s s trid e s h o uld b e lo n g s tr ai g h t an d re gul a r

’
, , , ,

s h o wi n g s tyl e an d e ase o f m ov e m e nt It i s n o t e s se ntial t h at t h e

.

ligh t h ors e s h ould h av e p articularly h e avy bon e s .

T h e h e ad s h ould b e sy mm e tric al T h e e y e s h o uld b e bri g h t an d .

t h e e ar e r e ct ; t h e n e ck lo n g w e ll arc h e d with a cl e an t h ro atl atc h ;

, ,

t h e s h o uld e r s long an d s lo pi n g with wit h e rs o f go o d h e i g h t

,
Th e .

b ack s h o uld be s trong an d t h e croup w e ll mu s cle d a n d n o t droopi n g ;

t h e t ail s h ould b e s e t h ig h an d c arri e d i n a m e di an li n e w e ll o u t
from t h e body . Both fo r e an d h i n d fl ank s s h ould S h ow m e diu m
35 2 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

de pt h T h e fee t an d l egs s h oul d se t s qu are ly und e r t h e b o dy wit h

.
,

s loping p as te rn s an d s tro n g h ock s .

3 J u d gi n g m ul es
. S ince t h e mule i s e s s e ntial ly a dra ft an i m al f or
.

u s e unde r conditi o n s w h ic h d e m a n d bo t h s tre ng t h an d agility th e ,

c h ie f points in j udging re l at e t o s ize w eigh t an d action T h e be st , , .

m ul e s are t all a littl e m o re le ggy t h an h ors e s com pact in build

, , ,

cle an cut in l e gs h e ad an d n e ck an d o f go o d t empe ram e nt Th e

-
, , , .

p o ints ar e b e s t s e t fort h in t he s core c ard .

REF E RE NCE S

C RA I G , J O HN A J u dgi n g Li v e S to c k K e n yo n Pr i n ti n g C o m pan y
. . .

GAY C W ,
P ro d uc ti e H or s e H b a d y J B Li p p i n c ott C o m p an y
. . v us n r . . . .

J O H N S TO N J H S T h e H or se B ook S a d e r s P b li s hi g C o m pa y
, . . . . un u n n .

P L UM B C S Typ e s a d B r e e d s o f F ar m A i m al s G i n n an d C o m pa n y
, . . n n . .

Th e P ri n c i p l e s o f H or e F e e d i g F r m er B u l l et i 1 7 0 U it e d S t at e s
’
s n ,
a s n ,
n

D e p a rt m e n t o f Ag r i c lt u r e u .

H or se S ho e i g F m er B u l l et i
n ,
1 79 U n it e d S t at e s D e p art m e n t o f
ar s
’
n ,

Agr ic ltu r e u .
3 54 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

D airying f urnish e simm e diat e and constant re turns and is ,

adapt e d to farm e rs with small capital as w e ll as to thos e with

large capital T h e pric e o f milk and o f butt e r fat is n e v e r subj e ct
.

to gre at fluct uations but is more ste ady and uni form than t h e,

pric e o f most oth e r farm products K e e ping dairy cows on t h e .

y o f q lit yF IG . 1 77 . A l ad ua

T h Hol t i K P Po t L w orl d d y b tt r r ord b y ” ’

e w s e n co ,
m d . . n i ac as s , a e a s s e ve n - a u e ec

p ro d i
uc n
g p o d f b tt r S h w
un ol
s o d f or u ed w t.h m oth r of
e as s an as e e a

b ll whi h b ro ght
u c uSh w br d d d lop d by M F r i M J o of
e as e an eve e r . an c s . n es

C li to
n N w York w h
n ,
e t th g of , y r o W th
a ty m
e a d d r gr t
e 2 2 ea s , i s can e an s an un e ea

pp o itio f ro m h i r l ti
O s n d i ghb or b g r i i g p r b r d to k
s e a ve s an ne s, e an a s n u e- e s c

farm f urnish e s mploym e nt t h e y e ar round and this e nabl e s

e ,

t h e farm e r to ge t a b e tt e r class o f farm labor .

4 5 6 Th e d a i r y h e r d T h e first e ss e ntial fo r profitabl e dairying

. .

is good cows T h e profitabl e dairy cow is o n e that will mak e

.

t h e maximum production on t h e minimum quantity o f food .

F r e qu e ntly good milk cows ar e f ound among ordinary scrub

,

cattl e or among b e e f bre e ds but such cows a re not so lik e ly to ,

transmit th e ir milking qualiti e s to th e ir o ffspring as are t h e cows

 DA I RY C A TT L E 3 55

b e longing to t h e S p e cial dairy bre e ds No e ntire ly succ e ss ful .

dual purpos e bre e d o f cattl e has y e t b e e n produc e d T h e re fore

- 1
.

t h e gr e at e st profit can b e mad e f rom sp e cial dairy cattl e that

hav e b e e n d e v e lop e d by careful bre e ding and s e l e ction through
p e riods o f f rom o n e hundre d and fi fty to two thousand y e ars .

FIG . 1 78 . Th e w orl d r or d J r y w ’
s- e c e se co , S po h 9 t h o f H oo d F r m
ia 1 , a

Re c ord i n 1 91 4 m lk
: i p d ; b tt r f t
,
oun s u e a , 9 99 p o dun Th s. r g w of t h
e av e a e co e

Un i t d S t t p ro d
e a es bo t po uce s a u 120 un d of b tt r f t i
s u e
y r
a n a ea

Th e bre e ds now classifi e d as dairy cattl e ar e J e rs e ys G u e rn ,

s eys A yrshir e s H olst e ins B rown S wiss D utch B e lte d and

, , , , ,

M ilking S horthorns .

4 5 7 J er s ey s
. Th e J e rs e y ( F i g 1 7 8 ) is p e rhaps t h e most
. .

wid e ly distribut e d br e e d o f dairy cattl e in t h e U nit e d S tat e s ,

as is indicat e d by t h e fact that th e re hav e b e e n a gre at e r num

b e r o f this br e e d r e gist e r e d than o f any oth e r br e e d T h e hom e .

o f this br e e d is t h e island o f J e rs e y t h e larg e st in t h e group o f t h e ,

C hann e l I slands Th e maj ority o f t h e animals ar e o f a solid

.

color o f y e llow or gray fawn with a black nos e and black tongu e ,

1 C ttl th t o m b i t h q liti o f g oo d d iry d g oo d b f i m l

a e a c ne e ua es a an ee an a s .
356 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

and switch H ow e v e r th e re ar e many brok e n colore d J e rs eys

.
,
-
,

t h e bodi e s o f which a r e f awn with whit e spots T h e J e rs e y is .

small t h e cow wh e n mature w e ighing from 8 00 to 1 000 pounds

, , ,
.

T h e milk o f t h e J e rs e y is v e ry rich i n butt e r fat t h e av e rage ,

t e st f o r t h e bre e d b e ing about p e r c e nt T h e f at globul e s .

in t h e milk ar e large and t h e butte r fat is highly colore d and

,

is e asily churn e d Th e color and richn e ss o f h e r m ilk mak e s

.

t h e J e rs e y a gr e at favorit e as a f amily cow T h e cows o f this .

bre e d ar e v e ry e conomical produc e rs o f butt e r fat .

FIG . 1 79 . A w orl d r or d
’
s- e c G ue r nse
y , M ay R i l m a
In 1 91 4 thi s G ue r y w p rod
n se co u ce d p o un ds of bu tt r f
e at

458 . Gu er n s ey s T h e G u e rn s e y
bre e d ( F i g 1 7 9) had its
. .

origin on t h e island o f G u e rns e y t h e s e cond large st island in ,

t h e C hann e l I sland group C ows o f this br e e d ar e som e what

.

larger than t h e J e rs e ys av e raging about o n e thousand pounds

,

in l iv e w e ight T h e charact e ristics o f th e G u e rns ey ar e som e

.

what similar to thos e o f t h e J e rs e y Th e color may be e ith e r .

t h e solid l e mon or orange fawn or f awn with whit e markings ,

.

T h e y a r e n e v e r gray or black T h e nos e is bu ff and t h e switch .

,

and tongu e ar e ge n e rally whit e T h e ir milk is not quit e so rich .

35 8 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT UR E

angular dairy typ e that is e xhibit e d by high class J e rs e ys or -

H olst e ins I t is som e what smooth e r ov e r t h e should e rs back

.
, ,

and hips and shows slightly more o f t h e b e e f typ e particularly

, ,

in t h e hind quarte rs Th e A yrshire cow is e sp e cially not e d fo r

.

h e r symm e trical udd e r T h e milk has an av e rage composition .

of p e r c e nt butt e r fat which mak e s this br e e d good fo r u s e

,

FIG . 1 81 . W orl d ’
s-m ilk r ord Hol t i
-
ec w T illi A l
s e n t co , e c ar ra

Re c ord i n 1
91 4 : m ilk , 5 po d
2 Th
un r g d iry w of th U it
s . e av e a e a co e n ed S tt
a es

g i ve s abo t 4 u po d o f m ilk
000
y r
un s a ea

in t h e production o f mark e t milk T h e s e cattl e ar e e xc e ll e nt .

rustl e rs and good bre e d e rs and t h e calv e s are v e ry strong ,

and h e althy .

4 60 Hol st e i n s
. T h e H olst e in br e e d originat e d i n H olland
.
,

and has b e e n bre d in that re gion fo r at l e ast two thousand y e ars .

D uring that tim e th e r e has b e e n v e ry littl e if any mixing with , ,

outsid e blood T h e H olst e ins are t h e large st o f t h e dairy bre e ds

. .
 D A I R Y C A TT L E 3 59

S inc e anci e nt tim e s H olland has b e e n not e d fo r its butt e r its ,

ch e e s e and its imm e ns e ox e n T h e av e rag e w e ight o f t h e mature

,
.

co w is about 1 2 00 pounds but individual cows o ft e n w e igh as

,

much as 1 4 00 pounds Th e col or markings o f this bre e d ar e

.

black and whit e A s a rul e bre e d e rs pr e fe r animals on which

.

t h e colors ar e e v e nly divid e d T h e cows hav e qui e t dispositions

. .

A s milk produc e rs t h e H olst e in cows ar e un e xc e ll e d ( F i g 1 .

T h e y produc e more milk and at l e ss cost p e r pound , t han do e s

,

FIG . 1 82 . A ty p i l B ro w
ca n Sw i ss c ow

any oth e r bre e d Th e milk is not v e ry rich howe v e r; av e raging

.
,

about 3 5 pe r c e nt butt e r fat F o r a dairy bre e d th e s e cattl e

. .
,

rank high as b e e f produc e rs T h e calv e s are large at birth .

,

gro w rapidly and mak e e xc e ll e nt v e al Th e H olst e i n is w e ll

, .

adapt e d fo r supplying milk fo r citi e s or factori e s .

4 61 B r ow n S w i ss
. T h e B rown S wiss as th e y ar e known
.
,

in A m e rica re pr e s e nt o n e o f t h e l e ading br e e ds which has b e e n

, ,

d e v e lop e d i n S witz e rland ( F i g I t is probably o n e o f t h e

.

old e st bre e ds known I n th e ir native land t h e B rown S wiss ar e

.

class e d as a dual purpos e br e e d and in A m e rica w e re form e r ly

-
,
360 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

e xhibit e d both as b ee f cattl e and as dairy cattl e but ar e now ,

class e d as a dairy bre e d only T h e cows av e rage from 1 2 00 to

.

1 4 00 pounds in w e ight Th e color o f t h e B rown S wiss vari e s

.

f rom brown to silve r gray r e s e mbling t h e color o f som e famili e s

,

o f J e rs eys T h e y giv e a mod e rat e amount o f milk containing

.

abou t p e r c e nt o f butt e r fat .

4 62 Du t ch B el t ed T his oddly colore d br e e d had its origin

. .

in north e rn H olland and its d e v e lopm e nt is consid e re d a r e

,

markabl e accomplishm e nt in t h e way o f bre e ding I n siz e th e s e .

cattl e re s e mbl e t h e Ayrshire s but th e ir g e n e ral con formation is

,

more lik e that o f t h e H olst e ins T h e most distinctive charact e r

.

i s t ic o f t h e D utch B e lt e d br e e d is t h e pre s e nc e o f t h e whit e b e lt

around t h e body T his b e lt e xt e nds around t h e body f rom j ust
.

b e hind t h e should e r to j ust in f ront o f t h e hips T h e cows .

a r e f airly good milk e rs Th e mil k contains about 3 5 p e r c e nt

. .

butt e r fat .

4 63 M i l k i n g S h or t h or n s
. I n t h e d e v e lopm e nt o f t h e S hort
.

horn bre e d s e v e ral not e d bre e d e rs hav e paid much att e ntion to
t h e milking qualiti e s .I n this way s e v e ral famili es o f t h e bre e d
hav e b e com e c e l e brat e d as milk produc e rs A n e ffort has b e e n .

mad e by many bre e d e rs to d e v e lop a dual purpos e S horthorn -

,

but so far v e ry littl e has b e e n accomplish e d A ll S horthorn cows .

producing large quantiti e s o f milk approximat e t h e dairy typ e .

T h e ir calv e s s e ll at a b e tt e r pric e f o r b e e f than do calv e s o f a

dairy bre e d chi e fly b e caus e o f th e ir color T h e r e hav e b e e n
, .

a numb e r o f S horthorn cows that hav e mad e re cords o f ov e r

600 pounds o f butt e r fat i n a y e ar but such cows are e x ce p ,

t io n al . I t is di ffi cult to find many good S horthorn milk cows

that will transmit th e ir milking qualiti e s with any d e gre e o f c e r
tainty T h e milk o f t h e S horthorn contains from 3 5 to 4 p e r
. .

c e nt o f butt e r fat and re s e mbl e s t h e milk o f t h e H olst e in in

color .

4 64 S el ect i n g a da ir y h er d
. A dairy h e rd may be chos e n
.

in accordanc e with t h e typ e or con formation o f t h e cows or in

, , ,

accordanc e with th e ir r e cords o f milk and butte r production .

T h e s e cond m e thod cannot b e f ollow e d v e ry e xt e nsive ly b e caus e ,

36 2 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT UR E

4 67 . r
Gen er al A high producing cow app e ars th i n
a p p ea an ce .
-

angular and loos e j oint e d T h e dairy cow has thre e w e dge s

,
-
. .

O n e w e dg e is s e e n wh e n t h e co w is V i e we d f rom t h e f ront ,

o n e wh e n S h e is vi e w e d f rom t h e sid e and o n e wh e n s h e is ,

vi e w e d f rom abov e T h e first w e dge m e ntion e d is f orm e d by

.

t h e with e rs b e ing sharp and t h e ch e st b e ing wid e Th e tap e ring .

1
d e pth from t h e re ar part o f t h e barr e l and udd e r to t h e h e ad
and n e ck forms t h e w e dge as s e e n f rom t h e sid e T h e w e dge .

s e e n f rom abov e is form e d by t h e e xtr e m e width through t h e

hips gradually tap e ring to t h e sharp with e rs Th e w e dge shap e .

is not e xtre m e ly pronounc e d in all dairy cows but i n all t h e b e st ,

animals such a form is lik e ly to be f ound .

4 68 Qu al i t y Quality in a dairy cow is indicat e d by fi n e hair

. .
,

by soft loos e m e llow skin o f m e dium thickn e ss and by a fi n e

, , , ,

cl e an bon e D airy t e mp e ram e nt is anoth e r e ss e ntial to good

.

quality B y dairy t e mp e ram e nt is m e ant t h e ability to conv e rt

.

t h e f e e d into milk ; this is indicat e d by a good n e rvous syst e m

w e ll und e r control A good t e mp e ram e nt is indicat e d by a n e at
.
,

re fin e d app e aranc e by spare n e ss in fl e sh wh e n in milk and by

, ,

a large full mild eye T hough spare in fl e sh whil e in milk a

, , .
,

good dairy cow may b e allow e d to carry consid e rabl e fat w h e n

not giving milk .

4 69 Th e h ea d
. T h e h e ad shoul d b e cl e an cut o f m e dium
.
,

l e ngth qui e t in e xpre ssion and hav e a fe minin e app e aranc e

, , .

Th e eye should be large bright and f ull indicating strong , , ,

n e rvous pow e r and h e alth A mild e xpre ssion i n t h e e ye indi .

cat e s a good disposition T h e for e h e ad should be slightly dish e d .

and broad Th e j aw should be strong and wid e tap e ring som e

.
,

what to a strong broad muzzl e A large muzzl e and a strong

, .

j aw are indications o f a good fe e d e r Th e e ars should be o f .

m e diu m l e ngth good t e xture and fi n e quality with an abun

, , ,

danc e o f orang e or y e llow color insid e Th e n e ck should be .

mod e rat e ly long thin and muscular with cl e an t hroat and light
, , ,

d e wlap T h e n e ck o f t h e typical dairy cow j oins th e body ab

.

ru p t l
, y and not as n e atly as do e s t h e n e ck o f t h e b e e f animal .

1 A bd o m
n e .
 D A I R Y C A TTL E 36 3

47 0 . should e r should be w e ll muscl e d

F or e qu ar t er s . The ,

sloping narrow and op e n at t h e with e rs A wid e d e e p ch e st

, ,
.
,

is associat e d with larg e lung and h e art capaci ty so e ss e ntial to ,

a strong constitution to good re spiration dige stion and produc

, , ,

tion in any kind o f an animal Th e fore l e gs S hould be short .

,

fi n e and straight
,
.

4 7 1 B ody. Th e h e art girth S hould be large indicating larg e

.
,

lung and h e art capacity T h e back should be long strong and .

, ,

loos e j oint e d but not n e c e ssarily straight Th e spac e s b e tw e e n

-
,
.

t h e v e rt e br ae should b e wid e and op e n indicating width o f rib , .

Th e ribs S hould also be long and far apart Th e abdom e n or .

,

barre l S hould be long wid e and d e e p e sp e cially j ust in f ront

, , , ,

o f t h e udd e r A cow must hav e large capacity to be an e co

.

n o m i cal produc e r f o r s h e must e at and dig e st larg e quantiti e s

,

o f f ood O ft e n a cow will not S how gre at d e pth o f barre l but

.

may hav e a large capacity fo r food by having a gr e at e r width o f

barre l and gre at e r spring o f ribs A strong j aw k e e n e ye large .
, ,

muzzl e and capac i ous barre l ar e t h e indications o f ability to

,

consum e and dige st l arge quantiti e s o f food Th e loin S hould .

b e broad and strong with roomy coupling ,

.

4 7 2 Hi n d qu ar t e rs
. T h e hind quart e rs shoul d S h ow t h e
.

l e ann e ss charact e ristic o f t h e oth e r parts o f t h e body Th e hips .

should be far apart promin e nt and l e v e l with t h e back Th e

, ,
.

rump should be long and wid e with a roomy p e lvis ; t h e pin ,

bon e s high and wid e apart Th e thighs should be long thin

, .
, ,

and wid e apart with pl e nty o f room fo r t h e udd e r Th e l e gs

,
.

should be fi n e straight and far apart , , .

4 7 3 Udd er
. Th e udd e r is t h e gland or milk factory wh e r e
.

t h e nutri e nts ar e tak e n f rom t h e blood and mad e ov e r into milk .

Th e udd e r is larg e ly us e d as an ind e x o f t h e ability o f t h e cow

as a produc e r I t should b e capacious f re e f rom fl e sh and
.
, ,

wh e n e mpty should b e so ft and fl e xibl e C apacity in t h e udd e r .

should b e gain e d by l e ngth and width rath e r than by d e pth .

T h e udd e r should b e attach e d to t h e body high b e hind and far

forward and should show good width throughout T his f orm .

a ffords ampl e sur fac e for t h e blood v e ss e ls to spre ad as th e y

 6
3 4 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

pass through t h e udd e r T h e milk v e ins s e rv e as an ind e x to

.

t h e amount o f blood that flows through t h e udd e r T h e s e v e ins .

carry blood from t h e udd e r back to t h e h e art T h e y pass inward .

about mid way b e twe e n t h e hind and for e l e gs T h e milk w e lls .

,

or op e nings through which t h e milk v e ins e nt e r t h e body should

, ,

b e large T h e r e may be mor e than o n e milk w e ll on e ach sid e

.

o f t h e body as t h e milk v e ins branch in som e cas e s a ft e r l e av

,

ing t h e udd e r C ows hav e b e e n known to hav e as many as fi v e

.

milk w e lls on e ach sid e T h e quart e rs o f t h e udd e r should be

.

e ve n i n S iz e and not divid e d far up but t h e bas e or sol e o f , , ,

t h e udd e r should be flat T h e t e ats S hould be e v e n o f good

.
,

siz e fo r milking conv e ni e ntly and s e t square ly on e ach quart e r ,

o f t h e udd e r T h e hair on t h e udd e r should be fi n e and so ft

.
,

indicating quality .

47 4 Th e s el ecti on of t h e h e r d b u l l
. Th e futur e d e v e lop .

m e nt o f t h e h e rd d e p e nds to a gre at e xt e nt upon t h e kind o f

sir e us e d Th e sire is hal f t h e h e rd H e S hould be pure br e d
. .

and b e back e d up by good anc e stry I f possibl e o n e should .

,

s ee k a sir e whos e moth e r or oth e r clos e f e mal e anc e stry hav e

, ,

good r e cords o f production I f it is not possibl e to know t h e .

re cord o f production o n e should by all m e ans s e e t h e moth e r

,

o f t h e sir e and not e how clos e ly s h e con f orms to t h e dairy typ e .

’
I f t h e S ir e s f ath e r has daught e rs that hav e prov e d to be good
produc e rs h e is more c e rtain to transmit t h e dairy qualiti e s
,

d e sire d V e ry o ft e n it is possibl e to buy an old sire who has

.

prov e d to be a good bre e d e r .

4 7 5 F eedi n g t h e da i r y h er d T o obtain satis factory r e turns

. .

f rom e v e n a w e ll s e l e ct e d or w e ll bre d h e rd t h e animals must

- -
,

be f e d prop e rly A cow is m e re ly a machin e fo r conv e rting fe e d

.

into milk and butt e r Nature t e ach e s us how t h e cow should be

.

fe d Th e cow do e s h e r b e st work in M ay and J un e wh e n s h e is

.
,
’
re c e iving nature s ration grass in its choic e st form F ood is at .

hand i n abundanc e it is palatabl e balanc e d and e asily dige st e d , ,

.

T h e cow h e rs e l f is com fortabl e Th e int e llig e nt fe e d e r will .

striv e to approximate th e s e conditions as n e arly as possibl e

throughout t h e y e ar .
366 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

4 80 How m uch gr a i n t o f eed Th e grain ration

. . should be
re gulat e d by t h e amount o f milk produc e d T h e ru l e o f fe e ding .

1 pound o f grain fo r e ach 3 or 4 pounds o f milk produc e d is

fairly sa fe A cow giving rich mil k should be f e d 1 pound o f

.

grain to 3 pounds o f milk produc e d whil e a cow giving low ,

t e sting milk should hav e only 1 pound o f grain to 4 pounds

o f milk .

Th e dairy ration should be hom e grown in so far as possibl e .

T h e r e st o f t h e prot e in n e e d e d fo r balancing t h e ration is usu

ally suppli e d i n t h e mill fe e ds such as bran cottons e e d m e al
, , ,

and lins e e d m e al which must be purchas e d

,
.

4 81 Ra t i on s f or cow s T h e following rations conta in e nough

. .

nutri e nts f o r a cow w e ighing 1 000 pounds and producing

2 5 pounds o f 4 p e r c e nt milk daily
- -
C owp e a hay can be r e plac e d
.

by al fal fa clov e r or soy b e an hay C orn can be re plac e d by

, ,
-
.

barl e y L ins e e d m e al can be r e plac e d by cottons ee d m e al

.

or glut e n m e al S ilage is consid e r e d a roughage and wh e n

.
,

add e d to any o f t h e rations 3 pounds o f silag e is e quival e nt to

,

1 pound o f hay in supplying bulk to t h e ration .

T Y P E S CHI B A L A N C E D R A T HHHS
fi

PO UN DS P O UN DS

[ 2 A l f al f a
35 S il ag e

4 C or n an d c o b m e a l
- -

2 C otto n s e e d m e a l

C lo e r h ay
v

or n s o e r
g h
v
i othy h y
T m a 1 8
orn C OP
B arl e y ( g o
r undl 5
Li n s e e d m e al
L i n se ed me al
3

Sorgh u m f o dd e r
A l fal fa h ay W h t b ra ea n

C or n an d co b m e a l
- -
5 K afi r
C otto n s e e d m e al 3 L i n se e d mea l
 D A I R Y C A TT L E 6
3 7

T Y PE S O F B A L A NC E D R A T I O N S ( C O NT I N U E D )
P O UN DS P O UN DS

1 8 Clo v e r h ay
5 O t s tr aw
a

5 O a t ( g ro
s d) un

B rl e y ( g ro
a d) un

C lo ve r h ay
o
C w p e a h ay 1 8 T i m oth y h a
y
or ho
C n c p 5 S g r beet
u a s

Cotton se e d m e a l 2 C or n c ho p
O a t s ( g ro un d
)

A l f al fa h ay
1 8 D ri e d b e e t p u l p
5 C or n c ho p
2 G l u t e n fe e d

482 . Rai s i n g t h e W h e n t h e cal f is rais e d

cal f on sk i m mi l k .

by hand t h e fe e ding should b e gin wh e n it is only two or thr e e

days old T h e longe r t h e cal f is allow e d to run with its moth e r
.
,

t h e mor e di fficult it will be to t e ach it to drink .

F o r t h e first two or thre e w e e ks t h e cal f shoul d be fe d ,

s e v e ral tim e s daily on whol e milk f r e sh f rom its moth e r T h e .

amount to fe e d will vary f rom 8 to 1 2 pounds or f rom 1 to 1 3

gallons a day T h e change f rom whol e milk to skim milk
.

’
should be gradual and will re quire about a w e e k s tim e B y .

t h e tim e t h e cal f is four months old it should b e r e c e iving ,

about 2 gallons o f skim milk a day T h e milk should be f re sh .

and should be f e d at a t e mp e rature o f from 9 0 to 9 5 d e gre e s .

T h e pails us e d in f e e ding t h e cal f must be k e pt cl e an .

T h e grain ration fo r t h e cal f on skim milk must be o f such

composition as to r e plac e at l e ast part o f t h e butt e r fat tak e n
f rom t h e milk C orn will r e plac e t h e fat in t h e milk fairly w e ll
. .

A t first t h e corn should b e ground but late r sh e ll e d corn may

,

be us e d Th e grain should always be f e d dry and n e v e r mix e d

.
,
368 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

with t h e milk b e caus e corn and oth e r starchy foods should be

,

thoroughly masticat e d and mix e d with t h e saliva of t h e mouth

to be w e ll dige st e d No more grai n should be fe d at e ach m e al
.

than t h e cal f will e at promptly and with a re lish F e e d all t h e .

hay that t h e cal f will e at at all tim e s W h e n t h e cal f is v e ry .

young timothy or prairi e hay is b e tt e r than al fal fa clov e r or

, , ,

cowp e a hay but late r t h e l e gum e s may be profitably f e d

,
.

D uring t h e pasturing s e ason good grass is highly important , .

FIG . 1 83
. H o m e m ad e t
s an c hio ns f or f e e d i l
n g- c a v e s

A cl e an sunny stall or p e n must be provid e d fo r t h e young

,

cal f ( F ig . C alv e s that ar e not s e parat e d by tying or i n ,

stalls at fe e ding tim e annoy o n e anoth e r by sucking th e ir e ars

, ,

and during t h e cold w e ath e r t h e e ars ar e o ft e n f roz e n a ft e r th e y

ar e w e t i n this mann e r .

4 83 Th e da i r y b ar n
. A cow will not do h e r b e st unl e ss s h e
.

is com fortabl e Th e barn do e s not n e e d to be e xp e nsive to be

.

com fortabl e I t must provid e a com fortabl e t ie a substantial floor

.
,

that can be k e pt cl e an pl e nty o f f re sh air and sunlight and it

, ,

should b e warm e nough fo r com fort in s e v e re w e ath e r I n .

agre e abl e w e ath e r t h e cows should not be k e pt in th e barn .

37 0 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C ULT U R E

Q UE S TIONS A ND P ROB LE M S

1 . Ho w m ay a fa mr iry p r p o s e s gai n c o n s t an tly i n fe rtility ?

use d fo r d a u

2 W h y i s a g d da
. oo ir y co w s a i d t o b e a d p t e d t o hi h
g p r i ce
a d l an d s ? -

h
. t h
3 W a a e t h e c a ac e i s csr r t r ti o f t h e l e a d i g d a ir y b r e d s o fnca ttl e ? e

4 N m e t h e b r e e ds i or d e r o f t h e ri c h n e s s o f th e i r m ilk I n t h e or d e r
. a n .

o f t h e q a tity u f m il k g i v e
n o n .

5 W h a t a e t h e t w o m e tho d s th a t m ay b e u s e d i t h e s e l e ctio o f a
. r n n

c w f o r p ro fi t ab l e m ilk p ro d c tio
o ? W hi c h i t h e b e tt e r m e tho d ?
u n s

6 H o w w o u l d y ou p ro ce e d t o k e e p a r e c or d o f t h e i d i i d al c o w i
.
n v u s n

a h e rd ?

7 S t a t e h o w o n e c a m a k e i m p ro v e m e t i n t h e p ro d c ti e capac ity
. n n u v

o f th e h e rd .

8 D e sc ri b e t h e app e a r a ce o f a hi g h p ro d i g co w
. n -
uc n .

9 W h a t are t h e i n d i ca tio s o f g oo d q lity i a co w ?

. n ua n

1 0 W h at a e t h e i d i catio s o f a g oo d f e e d e r ?
. r n n

11 W h
. a t a e t h e i d i c a
r tio s o f n g oo d nh e rt a d a g oo
_
d l ag c p
an c it y ? un a a

1 2 D e s c ri b e t h e dd e r a d m ilk v e i s o f a hi g h p ro d ci g c w
. u n n -
u n o .

1 3 W h a t ar e t h e i m p or t an t m att e r s t o c o s i d e r i t h e e l e c tio n f t h e
. n n s o

h e r d s ir e .

1 4 W h t g r e e n c ro p s m ay b e s e d t o s pp l e m e t s hort p as t u r e s ? H o w
. a u u n

m y s ucc l e n ce b e d de d t o t h e w i t e r r tio n ?
a u a n a

1 5 H o w can o n e t e ll w h e n a co w i s o t g e tti n g e n o u gh fe e d ? w h e n
. n

s h e i s ge tti n g t o o m uc h f e e d ?

1 6 W h y s ho u l d t h e c o w h av e al l t h e r o g h ag e s h e w i ll e at ?
. u

1 7 H o w m ay w e k o w h ow m uc h g r i n t o fe e d a co w ?
. n a

1 8 D e s c ri b e t h e b es t m e tho d s o f h an d li n g a d fe e di n g cal v e s w hi c h ar e
. n

to be r i se d o a s k i m m ilk n .

1 9 W h a t ar e t h e p r i n ci p a l c o s i de r a t i o n s i n b i l d i n g a b a r n f o r d airy
. n u

co w ? s

E XERCI S E S
1 . a drawing t o s cal e s h owing t h e fl oor pl an o f w h at
M ak e ,

o u r e ga rd as a good d airy b a rn in w h ic h a t l e as t t e n cow s ar e t o

y
b e k e pt .

2 F e e d a co w a b al ance d rati o n fo r t w o w e ek s t h e n c h ang e t o

.
,

s o m e s uc h ration as corn an d ti m ot h y h a o r c o rn s tov e r

y W e ig h a n d .

te s t th e m ilk prod u ce d during e ach p e riod C o m pute th e co s t o f f e e d .

a n d t h e v alu e o f t h e m ilk a n d butt e r produc e d in e ac h p e riod .

 D A I R Y C A TT L E 37 1

3 . numb e r o f dairy cow s t h e n w e igh an d t e s t t he m ilk

S core a ,

produ ced by e ac h an d compare y o ur j udgme nt an d t h at o f t h e o wn e r

,

o f t h e co w s wit h t h e re cord o f p e rf o rm a nce .

4 V i s it d airy f arm s in your co m m u n ity

. M ak e a re cord o f t he .

m ilk an d butt e r f a t produc e d by e ac h co w h o w m uc h t h e h e rd i s fe d , ,

an d pre p a re a re port s h owi n g w h e t h e r a n c o w s s h o uld b e di s o s e d

y p
o f a n d w h y w h e t h e r t h e s y s t e m o f f e e di n g s h ould b e c h an g e d a n d
, ,

w he t h e r th e b a rn o r y ard s can be i m prov e d .

RE FE RE NCE S

C RA I G , J O HN A J udgi g Li e S to ck K e y o P ri ti g C o m p a y
. n v . n n n n n .

E C K L E S C H D ir y a d M il k P ro d c tio n
,
. . a T h e M ac m ill n Com pa y u . an n .

LA N E C B ,
B i e s s o f D ai ry i g O r g e J u dd C o m p a y
. . us n n . an n .

M I C H E L S J O H N D airy F ar m i g P b li s h e d b y t h e a thor M il w a k e e W i s
,
. n . u u ,
u ,
.

K I N G F H P h y s i c o f Ag ri cult u r e M r s F H Ki n g M ad i s o W i
, . . s . . . .
,
n , s .

P L UM B C S ,
Ty p a d B r e e ds o f F r m A i m al s
. . es G i n an d C o m p an y
n a n . n .

B ar s a d B il d i g B r eed er Ga zet t e S au d e r s P u b li s hi n g C o m p a y
n n u n s, s . n n .

Lit e r at r e c o ce r i g t h e v a rio us b r e e d s m y b e o b ta i e d by ad d r e s i g
u n n n a n s n

t h e f ollo w i g n :

A m e ri ca J e r s ey C ttl e C l ub 32 4 W 2 3d S t N e w Y or k
n a ,
. .
,
.

Ayr sh ir e B r e e d e r As s o ci atio B r a d o V t s
’
n, n n, .

B ro w n S w i s s B r d e r A s o c i atio M i d d l e b u rg h N Y ’
ee s s n, , . .

D t c h B e lt e d B r ee d e r s A s s o c i atio E a s to
’
u Pa n, n, .

G ue r sey B r e e de r s A s s o c i atio P e t r b oro N H ’

n n, e , . .

H ol s t e i F ri e s i an A s s o c i a tio n B r attl e b oro V t

n- , , .
 C H A P TE R XXX I

DAI R Y P R ODUCTS

Su r ly th
e e c h r i
u n ng o f m ilk b ri n
ge th f orth b tt r u e . T H E B I B LE

4 84 . Recen t p r ogr es s I n dairy r e gi ons e ach p e rson con

.

sum e s on an av e rage a pint o f milk a day O utsid e o f t h e dairy

, , .

r e gions only about hal f this amount on t h e av e rage is con

, , ,

sum e d by e ach p e rson Long ago it was discove re d how to

.

mak e ch e e s e and butt e r f rom milk and t h e sam e principl e s ,

w e re us e d th e n as now P e rhaps more progr e ss has b e e n mad e

.

within t h e last fi fty y e ars how e v e r i n improving t h e dai ry cow

, ,

and in t h e sanitary and e conomical handling o f dairy products

than in all tim e b e for e I ncre as e d production has b e e n acco m
.

p l i s h e d by mod e rn m e thods o f br e e ding f e e ding and t e sting , ,

t h e cows Th e proc e ss e s o f dairy manu facturing hav e b ee n pro

.

fou n dl y influ e nc e d by t h e inv e ntion o f t h e c e ntri fugal s e parator ,

t h e discov e ry o f t h e B abcock t e st ( F i g and t h e d e v e lop .

m e nt o f m e thods o f cold storage o f making cond e ns e d milk , ,

and o f ch e e s e making .

4 85 W h a t m i l k con t ai n s
. S e cr e tion o f milk tak e s plac e i n
.

t h e milk glands or u dd e rs o f animals which suckl e th e ir young .

I n t h e proc e ss o f s e cr e tion t h e composition o f t h e mat e rials

tak e n f rom t h e blood is change d by som e unknown proc e ss to
t h e substanc e s f ound in milk M ilk is an opaqu e y e llowish whit e
.
,
-

fluid and poss e ss e s a sw e e tish tast e O n e hundre d pounds o f .

av e rage milk contains pounds o f wat e r 3 pounds o f cas e in , ,

pounds o f butt e r fat pounds o f sugar 4 pounds o f

, , .

37 2
37 4 THE E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

milk sugar is a sourc e o f e n e rgy to t h e young

Th e
and wh e n e xtracte d f rom milk is o f valu e in fe e ding in fants and
in diluting strong drugs Now h e re e ls e i n nature is this kind .

o f sugar f orm e d and it is t h e most r e adily dige ste d form o f

,

sugar for in fants T h e ash of milk furnish e s t h e ash o f t h e

.

body and is us e d prin

c i p al l i n t h e growth
y
o f t h e S k e l e ton .

4 88 Bact eri a in mi lk
. .

A ll milk drawn in t h e
ordinary mann e r con
tains bact e ria most o f ,

which ge t into t h e mil k

a ft e r it is drawn Th e .

most importa nt ar e t h e
lactic acid bact e ria or -
,

thos e which caus e milk

to 1 sour by changing -

t h e milk
'

sugar into
’

l act ic aci d O th er bac .

t e ria som e o f which

'

caus e bad flavors and

odors also ge t i nto t h e ,

milk To ch e ck th e .
.
'

souring proc e ss o n e
must ch e ck t h e gro t h
FIG 8 6 B tt r f t g lo b l e
1 u e -
a u s
o f t h e bact e ria that ge t
. .

R d g f ro m b o
ea in d o w w rd a mpl ve how n a sa es ar e s n
into h milk T do
,

o f r m m ilk
c ea ,
d ki m m d m ilk
,
d r th
an s m t e
e
o un e e sa e
.

m g i fi tio
a n P rop ortio t
ca n . m b r o f f t g lob l this t h e milk must be
na e nu e s a u es
'

how a re s n
,

drawn in a cov e re d pail

F
( g i . and as soon as it is drawn it should b e cool e d and
k e pt cl e an and cold Th e lactic acid bact e ria grow b e st wh e n
.
-

t h e milk is k e pt at a t e mp e ratur e abov e 7 0 d e gr e e s ; th e r e fore

t h e milk should be cool e d and k e pt at 50 d e gr e e s or e v e n

a low e r t e mp e rature and should be cool e d as soon as possibl e,

a ft e r mil king .
 DA I RY P R O D UC TS 37 5

4 89 S ep ar a t i n g cr eam f r om m il k ; t h e p r obl e m
.
B utt e r fat .
-

globul e s are light e r than t h e oth e r constitu e nts o f t h e milk and ,

ris e to t h e surfac e The .

1
sp e cific gravity o f t h e
fat globul e s is 9 whil e .
,

that o f skim milk is

C re am is m e r e ly
milk in which the fat gl ob
ul e s hav e b e e n gre atly
conc e ntrat e d O rdinary .

whol e milk contain s

about 5 p e r c e nt o f
butt e r fat whil e cr e am,
F I G 1 8 7 T yp e s o f m ilk p il s . . a

may contain as much as T h p il t t h l f t i t h b tt r b t h hoo d e a a e e s e e e ,

e cau s e e

h l p to k p t h d rt t f t h m ilk e s ee e i ou o e

4 0 01 0
5 p
'

e r c e nt
490 Gr av i t y s y s t em s F o r a long tim e cr e am was s e parat e d
. .

by gravity a syst e m which consist e d o f s e tting th e milk i n

,

FIG . r tor 1 88 b tt r f t
. H ow th e s epa a s av e s u e a

T hi ill tr tio
s us h ow t h r l ti
a n S lo f b tt r b y d i ff r t m thod f ki mm i g t h
s e e a ve ss o u e e en e s o s n e

m lk f ro m
i w i r
on e c o
y A tri fn ag l p r torea p o .
d l , ; B
ce n d p utti g a se a a ,
un s oss ,
ee se n ,

p o d loun
; C hsllo w pss p
,
o s d lo
a ; D w t r d l tio
an s , 4 9 5 p o d lo un s ss ,
a e i u n ,
un s ss .

( P hoto g r p h f ro m P r d U i r ty) a u ue n ve si

shallow pans allowing t h e ,

fatglobul e s to float to th e sur fac e and ,

th e n skimming th e m o ff . T his was known as the shallow pan -

1 Th e g r it
spec
y r f rifi
to co m p ri o avo f t h w i g ht o f g i
e q e s a c a s n e e a ve n u an

tity o f f t g lo b l or ki m m ilk to t h w i g ht o f lik q tity o f w t r b oth

a u es s e e a e uan a e ,

b i g t 0 d gr
e n a C e e es .
37 6 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

syst e m and gav e an i m

p e rfe ct s e paration l e aving ,

f rom o n e fi fth to ov e r o n e
third of t h e fat i n t h e skim
milk Lat e r it was d is cov
.

e re d that a mor e compl e t e

s e paration could be insure d

in l e ss tim e by s e tting t h e
milk in d e e p narrow cans
,
.

T his was known as t h e

d e e p s e tting syst e m U nd e r
-
.

this syst e m only about o n e

fi ft e e nth of t h e butt e r fat
was lost b e caus e t h e mil k
,

cools mor e quickly i n t h e

dee p can s
and th e
F IG 1 89 T h e ba rr l h r
e c u n
i k it
. .

qu c e r

cools ,
more compl e t e is t h e s e paration
th e .

49 1 Th e Cen t r if u gal S y s t em
. B y this .

syst e m l e ss than a hundre dth o f th e fat is

l e ft in t h e skim milk T h e milk is pour e d .

through a bowl that is r e volv e d at a high

sp e e d T h e h e avi e r pa rticl e s o f t h e milk ar e
.

thrown to t h e outsid e o f t h e bowl whil e th e ,

light e r particl e s t h e fat globul e s ar e crowd e d

, ,

toward t h e c e nte r Ne ar t h e outsid e o f t h e

.

bowl is an outl e t for t h e re moval o f th e skim

milk and n e ar t h e c e nt e r is a cre am tub e
,

through which t h e fat globul e s with mor e or ,

l e ss milk ar e re mov e d C e ntri fugal s e pa

, .

rat o r s di ffe r in construction but e ach kind ,

has its advantage s and e ach will do good

work und e r prop e r conditions A dvantage s .

F ’G 1 90 Th e Ol d
o f t h e c e ntri fugal s e parator i
'

F
( g 88 )
' ’

1 ar e .

f a s h i o n e d d as h
t h e cre am can be s e parat e d I mm e d i at e ly and C h um
37 8 .
T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

and th e n pour e d into t h e churn T h e cr e am is th e n agitate d .

until t h e granul e s re ach t h e siz e o f wh e at or corn k e rn e ls .

T his usually r e quire s f rom thirty to f orty fi ve minut e s Th e -

.

butt e rmilk is th e n drawn o ff and wat e r is add e d e qual to t h e ,

amount o f butt e rmilk T h e wat e r should b e f rom 2 to 5 d e .

gre e s cold e r than t h e butt e rm ilk Th e butt e r is wash e d by .

r e volving t h e churn s e v e ral tim e s t h e wat e r is th e n drawn o ff ,

and t h e butt e r is salt e d in t h e proportion o f about o n e ounc e o f

salt to e ach pound o f butt e r A ft e r salting t h e butt e r S hould .
,

b e work e d until t h e salt is thoroughly dissolv e d and surplus

wat e r is re mov e d B utte r that is not wash e d soon d e v e lops bad
.

flavor and odor B utt e r coloring is O ft e n add e d to cre am to color

.

t h e butt e r T h e coloring us e d is a harml e ss v e ge tabl e product

.

and do e s not color t h e butt e rmilk .

49 3 B ab cock t e st T h e B abcock t e st is a simpl e m e thod o f

. .

d e t e rmining t h e p e r c e nt o f fat in mil k and milk products B y .

t h e u s e o f t h e B abcock t e st e r ( F i g 1 9 1 ) o n e can d e t e rmin e t h e .

richn e ss o f m il k giv e n by e ach cow in a h e rd T h e t e st a ffords .

a m e thod by which milk and cre am ar e bought and sold on t h e

basis o f t h e butt e r fat th ey contain F e w inv e ntions hav e don e .

m ore to improv e an industry than t h e B abcock t e st has don e to

improv e t h e dai ry industry .

Q UE S TI ONS AND P ROB LE M S

1 H o w m c h b tt e r f t i p ro d
. u d by u w w hi h gi a s uce a co c ves

po un ds f r g m il k i
o av e a ye r ? H w m c h g r ? H w m h
e n a i ? a o u su a o uc case n

H w m h l b m e ? H w m h sh ?
o uc a u n o uc a

2 I .
q rt f f r h m ilk h
s a ua i r li g hte r th
o es q rt o f p r w t e r e av e or an a ua u e a ,

th e tw b i g t th s m t m p r t r
o e n a ? W h t b ri g h thi f t p o
e a e e e a u es a ea n as s ac u n

t h e p ro b l m f w h y r m ri e
e o p o m ilk ? c ea s s u n

3 W h t i t h d i ff r
. a e b tw
s e b tt r a d b tt r f t ?
e enc e ee n u e n u e a

4 W h y i t h b rr l h r
. s
p rieor to t
a h d h e reh cr ? u n su e e as c u n

5 D e ri b t h w hol p ro
. sc e f ch r i g
e e ce s s o u n n .

6 S c r f ro m a f r m r
. e u e f ro m r m p r h s i g fi m s t te m t
a e or a c ea -
u c a n r a a en

o f th mo e at f cr e m ol d by e f r m r i y o r lo lity i
un o a s e y r on a e n u ca n on ea .

F i d h w m y cow s h e s d
n o an d d te r m i h i i c o m e f ro m thi
u e o r ,
an e ne s n s s u ce .

I f p o i b l e ge t r e cor d f ro m
ss , e r l ki d s o f c o w a d c o m p ar
s th e i om e
sev a n s n e nc .
 D A I RY P R O D UC TS 37 9

E XE RCI S E S
1 . Th e B abcock t es t Th e apparatu s con si st s o f a
.
1
cubic -

ce ntim e te r acid m e as ure pipe t te te s t bottle s divide rs w ate r b at h ce n

-
, , , ,

t rifu ge an d s ulp h uric acid wit h a s p e ci fi c g ravity o f

, to
F ull dire ction s f o r t h e u s e o f t h e B abcock t e s ting out fi t ar e f u r
n is h e d by t h e m anu fa cture rs o r m ay b e s e cure d f ro m t h e s ta t e
a g ricultur al coll e e S a m pl e s o f m ilk s h ould b e s e cur e d an d t h e
g .
,

w h ol e a m o u n t pro duce d by e ac h co w b e in g t e s t e d s h ould b e care fu lly

w e ig h e d o n t h re e s ucce s s iv e d ay s T h e butte r fa t in t h e m ilk s h ould .

b e d e t e rm i n e d by u s e o f t h e B abcock t e s t e r according t o t h e d ir e c
t io n s fu rn i s h e d C o m put e t h e a m ount o f b u tt e r f a t produc e d durin g
.

t h e m o nt h by e a c h co w t e s t e d By addi n g o n e fi ft h t o t h e am ount o f
.

butt e r fa t t h e am oun t o f butte r produ ce d i s d e te rmi n ed

,
.

2 Met h od s of m i l k i n g O bt ain t w o p ail s

. . o n e wit h op e n t o
p t h e ,

ot h e r wi th a p arti ally clo se d t o p M ilk on e h al f t h e m ilk from t h e co w

.

i n t o e ac h p ail Pour a s am pl e o f t h e m ilk from e ach i n to t w o bot tl e s

.

a n d not e w h ich o n e k e e p s s w e e t lon e r

g .

3 Met h od s Of k ee p i n g m i l k T ak e t w o s am pl e s o f m ilk f re s h f ro m
. .

t h e c o w co o l o n e i m m e d i ate ly t o 5 0 d e g re e s o r l o w e r ( d o n o t co o l t h e
,

s e co nd s am pl e pl a c e b o t h s am pl e s in a f airly c o o l pl ac e 6 d e gr e e s
) , ( 5
a n d n o t e h o w l o ng it t ak e s e ac h s am pl e t o s our .

4 Met h od s Of cr eam i n g
. T h oro u g h ly m ix a can o f w arm m ilk
.

0 d e g re e s P o ur o n e fourt h o f it i n to a s h allow p an ano t h e r

(9 ,

f o urth i n to a d e e p can an d anot h e r f o urth int o a s e co n d d e e p can

,
.

T o t h e s e co nd d e e p can ad d as m uc h w at e r at a t e m p e rature o f
0 d e gr e e s as t h e r e i s m ilk S e t t h e p an a n d t h e t w o c an s i n co ld
5 .

w ate r an d n o te t h e ti m e re quire d fo r t h e butt e r fat gl o bu l e s t o ri s e

,
-

a n d fo r m cr e am T e s t t h e s ki m m ilk an d t h e cre a m i n e a c h c a s e an d
.

co m pare re sult s .

5 R i ch n e s s of m i l k on cr ea m i n g
. G e t a s a m p le o f m ilk f ro m a
.

ri c h te s ti n g co w an d al so a s am pl e f ro m a l o w t e s ti n g co w B ri n g
- -
.

b ot h s am pl e s t o 9 0 d e gre e s F a n d r u n t h e m t h ro ug h t h e ce n tri fugal

.

s e p a r at o r T e s t t h e cre am an d ski m m ilk f ro m b o t h s am pl e s a n d

.

co m pare th e re sults .

6 How r ap i dl y t o t u r n t h e s ep ar a t or
. D ivid e a t h o r o u g h ly m ix e d .

c an o f m ilk i n to t h re e e qu al p art s R u n o n e p art th ro u g h t h e.

1 St d r d B b o k m ilk t t r
an a a c c e w ol d b y m
es e y d l
s ar r d
nom yb s an e a e s an a e

s c re d b
e u lo l ma r
ca h t
y c e an .
380 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT UR E

se parator turning t h e s e parator th e s pe e d re quired by th e dire ctions

, .

S e p arate anot h e r p a rt running th e s e parator at h alf S p e e d an d t h e

,

re mainde r at t h re e fourt h s sp e e d Te s t th e s ampl e s of t he cre am an d

-
.

s kim milk o f e ach run and not e r e sult s .

RE F E RE NCE S

R O S E , LA U R A . F arm D a i ryi ng . A . C M c Cl ur g
. an d o
C m p an y.

M C K A Y , G L , an d LA R S O N , C HR I S T I A N
. . l r acti ses . Pri n cip e s an d P of

B u tt e r M aki n g
-
J o h n W il ey S on s
. .

W I N G H H M i l k an d i ts P ro ducts T h e M acm i ll an C o m p an y
, . . . .

Bu tte rm aki n g F a r m er s B u l l et i n 5 4 1 U n ite d S t ate s D e p art m e n t o f

,
’
,

Agr icu ltu r e .

U se o f M il k as F oo d F a r m e B l l et i 3 63 U it e d S ta t e s D e p art m e t
,
rs
’
u n ,
n n

o f A g ri cu lt u r e .

B ac t e ri a i n M il k F me B l l t i n 4 9 0 U i t d S t t s D e p rt m
,
ar rs
’
u e t f ,
n e a e a en o

Agr i cu lt r e
u .

P ro d ctio n o f C l e an M ilk F a r m er B u l l et i 602 U n it e d S tat e s D e p rt

u ,
s
’
n ,
a

m e n t o f Agricu lt u r e .
38 2 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

49 5 . Th e S h ort h or n . The S horthorn

bre e d originat e d in
north e ast E ngland along t h e rive r T e e s whos e vall e y has long ,

b e e n not e d for its e xc e ll e nt grazing T h e d e v e lopm e nt o f t h e .

mod e rn S horthorn bre e d ( Fi g 1 9 3) b e gan about 1 7 80 wh e n

.
,

two broth e rs C harl e s and Rob e rt C ollings o f E ngland com

, , ,

m e n ce d t h e car e ful s e l e ction and mating o f br e e ding cattl e

‘

on th e ir farms S horthorns w e re first brought to t h e U nit e d

.

S tat e s in 1 7 8 3 by G ough o f M aryland and M ill e r o f Virginia .

FIG . 1 92 . A ty p i l ca H e r e f or d cow

T h e S horthorns h e avi e st o f t h e b e e f br e e ds M atur e

ar e th e .

bulls w e igh about tw e nty thr ee hundr e d pounds and mature

-
,

cows w e igh about fi ve hundre d pounds l e ss T h e s e cattl e hav e .

a fi n e coat o f m e dium l e ngth hair which may be r e d white roan

-
, , , ,

or spott e d T h e y have a small attractiv e horn f rom which th e y

.
,

re c e iv e th e ir nam e and ar e not e d fo r t h e strong d e v e lopm e nt of

,

th e ir h ind quart e rs T h e y ar e a trifl e promin e nt in t h e should e r

.

and too long i n t h e l e g S horthorn cows are b e tt e r milk e rs than

.

a r e t h e cows o f oth e r b e e f bre e ds .

 B E E F C A TTLE 8
3 3

49 6 . Th e Her ef or d . bre e d tak e s its nam ef rom

T h e H e r e f ord
t h e county o f its origin H e r e f ordshir e in southw e st E ngland
, , .

Long b e for e mod e rn m e thods o f br e e ding had b e e n e mploy e d ,

t h e cattl e o f H e r e fordshire had attain e d a high individuality

and e xc e ll e nc e F o r g e n e rations t h e cattl e of this district had
.

b e e n rais e d with sp e cial att e ntion to siz e stre ngth and docility , ,

and to fitn e ss fo r t h e yok e Th e first gre at improv e rs o f this

.

bre e d w e re t h e m e mb e rs o f t h e T ompkins family four ge n ,

e rat io n s o f which w e r e br e e d e rs o f t h e e arly H e r e ford cattl e .

FIG . 1 93 . S horthor n c ow an d c a lf

H e r e ford cattl e ( F ig 1 9 2 ) w e r e first import e d into t h e U nit e d

.

S tat e s in 1 8 1 7 by H e nry C lay o f K e nt ucky T h e first importa .

tion o f much cons e qu e nc e how e ve r was mad e in 1 8 4 0 by , ,

W H S ot h am o f A lbany Ne w York F o r t h e n e xt thirty y e ars

. .
,
.

t h e H e r e ford br e e d gain e d adh e r e nts in t h e U nit e d S tat e s v e ry

slowly A bout t h e ye ar 1 8 7 5 t h e ability o f t h e bre e d to thriv e
.

und e r t h e conditions o f th e W e st e rn range s b e gan to b e ap p r e

c iat e d F rom that tim e t h e popularity o f t h e H e re fords incre as e d
.

rapidly e sp e cially w e st o f t h e M ississippi R iv e r

,
.

I n w e ight t h e He re fords stand n e xt to t h e S horthorns and

ar e not e d f o r th e ir wid e sprung ribs and f ull h e art girth
-
T h ey .

ar e som e what lacking in t h e d e v e lopm e nt o f t h e hind quart e rs ,

but th e y ar e a thick fl e s h e d e arly mat uring and quick f e e ding

-
,
-
,
-

ty p e I n milk production th e y ar e b e low th e av e rage

. .
 8
3 4 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

497 . Aber deen An gu s Th e nativ e hom e o f t h e A b e rd ee n

.

A ngus bre e d is in t h e mountain re gion o f north e ast S cotland .

S om e progr e ssiv e S cotchm e n l e arning o f t h e succ e ss o f t h e

,

C ollings broth e rs and oth e rs with t h e S horthorn catt l e in t h e

country south o f th e m d e t e rmin e d to improve th e ir own native
,

cattl e which th e n vari e d gr e atly in color and typ e H ugh W atson

, .

FIG . 1
94 . r
A b e d e e n A n gus cow

of F orfarshire , in about t h e y e ar 1 808 was t h e first to und e rtak e

,

t h e improv e m e nt o f th e s e cattl e A be rd e e n A ngus ( Fi g 1 9 4 )

. .

was t h e last o f t h e improv e d b e e f bre e ds to be introduc e d into

t h e U nit e d S tat e s G e orge G rant of Victoria Kansas mad e t h e
.
, ,

first importation into A m e rica in 1 8 7 3 S inc e that tim e th e ir .

adapta bility to corn b e lt conditions and popularity with t h e

-

butch e r hav e mad e th e m favorit e s with many cattl e f e e d e rs .

Th e A be rd e e n A n gus is black in color with a short smooth , ,

coat and is hornl e ss I n con formation th e y are more cylindrical

, .
386 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

A lthough not so compact or cylindrical i n f orm as t h e A n gus ,

t h e G alloways corre spond mor e clos e ly to that typ e than to t h e

S horthorn typ e T h e y ar e h ornl e ss and hav e a rounding S haggy
.
,

poll T h e y hav e thick h e avy hid e s an d are som e what inclin e d

.
,

to be fl at ribb e d Th e br e e d is charact e riz e d by a long wavy

.
, ,

brownish black coat with a thick furry und e rcoat which mak e s
-

this br e e d p e culiarly adapt e d to withs tand t h e rigors o f wint e r .

499 S ta n dp oi n t s f r om w h i ch b eef ca tt l e a r e j u d ged T h e r e

. .

ar e thr e e standpoints f rom which b e e f cattl e may b e j udg e d

that o f t h e br e e d e r t h e f e e d e r and t h e butch e r E ach o f th e s e

, , .

m e n r e pr es e nts a s e parat e and distinct part i n our syst e m o f

m e at production and e ach plac e s upon t h e animal c e rtain r e quire
m e nts which ar e l e ss k e e nly appr e ciat e d by t h e oth e rs A ny .

syst e m o f j udging which do e s not consid e r all o f th e s e stand

points is incompl e t e S inc e t h e ultimat e purpos e o f b e e f typ e
.
-

animals is to s e rv e as f ood and sinc e t h e re quire m e nts o f t h e

butch e r most n e arly re fl e ct thos e o f t h e consum e r i t is we ll to ,

study t h e animal f rom this standpoint first .

5 00 Th e t y p e t h e b u t ch e r d em an d s T h e butch e r d e mands
. .

an animal that will dre ss a large p e r c e nt o f salabl e m e at all o f ,

which is o f good quality but which has a large proportion o f t h e

,

high pric e d cuts I n ord e r to dre ss out a large p e r c e nt o f salabl e

-
.

m e at t h e animal must be compact and stockily built low s e t

, , ,

broad and d e e p bodi e d with small e xtre miti e s I n t h e most

,
-
, .

approv e d typ e t h e back is broad and practically l e ve l from t h e

top o f t h e should e r to t h e tail h e ad whil e t h e u nd e rlin e is low
,

and parall e ls t h e top lin e A ny t e nd e ncy toward paunchin e ss

.
,

rangin e ss or coars e n e ss o f bon e subtracts f rom t h e proportion

,

o f salabl e m e at and is s e v e r e ly cond e mn e d by t h e butch e r .

5 01 M u st b e w el l fi n is h ed T h e p e rc e ntage o f salabl e m e at
. .

and also t h e quality o f t h e m e at a re mark e dly influ e nc e d by t h e

condition or fatn e ss o f t h e animal T hin animal s carry a much
.

large r proportion o f wast e than do fat animals V e ry littl e o f .

t h e incr e as e d w e ight acquir e d by fatt e ning is in t h e o ffal and a

large p e r c e nt o f it is found in t h e high pric e d cuts T his may -

.

be asc e rtain e d by comparing t h e thickn e ss o f fat on t h e various

 B EE F C A TTLE 8
3 7

parts o f a w e ll fi n is h e d carcass I t will b e found that t h e large st

-
.

d e posits o f fat ar e in t h e high e r pric e d cuts showing that during

-
,

t h e fatt e ning proc e ss th e s e cuts gain i n w e ight mor e rapidly than

t h e r e st o f th e animal .

5 02 M u st b e of good qu al i ty
. Quality is a t e rm u s e d to .

d e signat e t h e charact e r o f t h e bon e skin hair and o f t h e , , ,

m e at its e l f and is clos e ly associat e d with t h e impr e ssion o n e

,
’
ge ts f rom handling t h e animal T h e t e rm g ooa qu a l i ty d e not e s
.

a so ft coat o f fi n e hair a pliabl e e la s tic skin o f m e dium thick

, ,

n e ss cl e an d e ns e bon e and a firm e v e n cov e ring o f fl e sh

, , , , .

C oars e rough coats and thick hid e s ar e usually associat e d with

,

coars e bon e and rough j oints and ar e an indication o f lack o f

quality Th e pliabl e n e ss and m e llown e ss o f t h e hid e can be
.

d e t e rmin e d by taking b e tw e e n t h e thumb and f or e fing e r a fold

o f t h e skin lying ov e r t h e ribs .

5 03 Th e t y p e t h e b r e ede r a n d f eeder d es i r e
. T h e br e e d e r .

and fe e d e r should consid e r form an d quality e v e n more car e

fully than do e s t h e butch e r fo r th e y m e an mor e to him C attl e
, .

o f good b e e f typ e a r e mor e e asily f att e n e d than poorly f orm e d

animals Th e blocky form with small e xtr e miti e s and good

.

’
quality so important f rom t h e butch e r s standpoint i s also an
, ,

indication o f e arly maturity a charact e ristic o f much importanc e

,

to t h e bre e d e r and f e e d e r A n e xtr e m e re fin e m e nt o f skin

.
,

bon e and hair which to t h e butch e r indicat e s minimum wast e

, ,

i n th e s e parts indicat e s to t h e br e e d e r or f e e d e r a lack o f hardi

,

n e ss or rugge dn e ss L ik e wis e t h e d e sire o f t h e butch e r to r e

.

duc e t h e wast e o f t h e b e e f animal if carri e d too far would be , ,

obj e ctionabl e to t h e f e e d e r b e caus e o f re ducing t h e dige stiv e

capacity to a point wh e re t h e animal could not consum e e nough
f e e d to be profitabl e I t is e vid e nt th e n that a good j udg e must
.
, , .

combin e t h e points o f e xc e ll e nc e f rom t h e standpoint o f t h e

butch e r t h e f e e d e r and t h e br e e d e r and must e stablish a
, , ,

sta ndard which will be e qually fair to all thre e .

5 04 How t o j u dge b eef ca tt l e — gen er al v i ew

. T h e j udg e .

should first tak e a ge n e ral V i e w o f t h e animal from s u fl l c ie n t ‘

distanc e to e nabl e him to study its proportions and g e n e ral

 8
3 8 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

symm e try T his ge n e ral V i e w should e nabl e him to form at

.

onc e an opinion r e garding siz e w e ight and g e n e ral con for , ,

mation condition and quali ty A d e tail e d e xamination S hould

, ,
.

th e n be mad e .

505 Th e h ead T h e h e ad should be f r e e f rom e ith e r coars e

. .

n e ss or d e licacy It should be broad and S hort with a broad

.
, ,

FIG . 1 96 . T h e p r i n c i p al
'

cuts of b f ee

Th e ol d li
s how wh r th t w o l d b m d f t h whol l tr d
i nes S e e e d th cu s u e a e or e e sa e a e , an e

d ott d li
e wh r dd itio l
n es t wo l d b m d f t h r t il tr d Th p ri p
e e a na cu s u e a e or e e a a e . e ce s er

poun d gi ry fro m ti m to ti m b t th ir r l tio to

v e n va oth r i f irl y o t t
e e, u e e a n o n e an e s a c n s an .

Th p r t g fig r g t h p roportio l m o t of m t of h k d
e e ce n a e u es i ve e na a un ea e ac in

full f ore h e adand cl e an cut fac e T h e eye should be large -

.
,

cl e ar and placid T h e fac e f rom t h e eye to th e muzzl e should

,
.

be short and r e fin e d A slightly dish e d fac e is pr e fe rabl e but

.
,

a straight profil e is not obj e ctionabl e T h e muzzl e should be .

broad with large mouth and mod e rat e ly thin lips Th e nostrils
,
.

should b e large T h e lowe r j aw should be strong and h eavily

.

muscl e d making a full ch e e k A n ear o f m e dium siz e and fi n e

, .

te xtur e is consid e re d an indication o f quality T h e s e points o f .

 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

5 1 0 Th e . s T h e s e cond high e st pric e d cut is t h e prim e

ri b .
- -

o f rib which is locat e d j ust in f ront o f t h e loin and i nclud e s t h e

,

upp e r part o f s e v e n ribs I n ord e r to giv e bre adth to t h e back

.
,

t h e animal must hav e a w e ll sprung rib Consid e rabl e l e ngth

-
.

o f rib is d e sir e d in ord e r to giv e d e pth o f body which is e ss e n ,

tial to a good f e e d e r A good d e v e lopm e nt o f muscl e in this

.

’
re gion is e sp e cially important f rom t h e butch e r s s tandpoint .

5 1 1 Th e h i p s T h e distanc e b e tw e e n t h e hips should b e in

. .

proportion to t h e oth e r parts o f t h e animal T h e y are o ft e n too .

promin e nt and poorly cov e r e d .

5 1 2 Th e r u m p
. Th e width at t h e hips shoul d be carri e d
.

w e ll back to t h e e n d o f t h e rump which should be long and l e v e l

,
.

A pinch e d drooping rump is a bad d e fe ct O n t h e oth e r hand

, .
,

an e xtr e m e ly high tail h e ad is u nd e sirabl e not only b e caus e it ,

is unsightly its e l f but b e caus e it also giv e s t h e loin t h e app e a r

anc e o f b e ing poorly d e v e lop e d A thick firm cov e ring about.
,

t h e tail h e ad is consid e r e d by most cattl e buy e rs to b e an indica

tion o f good fi nish throughout Th e pin bon e s should be far .

apart an d smoothly cov e re d .

5 1 3 Th e t w i st
. T h e thighs shoul d carry out t h e ge n e ral
.

width o f t h e body and be d e e p and long Common and in fe rior .

animals ar e usually e asily re cogniz e d by t h e poor d e v e lopm e nt ,

o f hind quart e rs high split twist and lack o f d e pth in flank

, , ,
.

A nimals o f good b e e f con formation hav e a d e e p plump twist ,

and low full flank T h e fulln e ss o f t h e fl ank wh e n t h e animal

,
.

is standing naturally is a good ind e x to t h e fatn e ss o f t h e st e e r .

5 1 4 Th e l egs T h e hind l e gs should b e short and straight

. .

and plac e d w e ll apart C rook e d hind l e gs and cycl e hocks ar e

.

v e ry o ft e n f ound in cattl e and ar e v e ry und e sirabl e but not ,

e sp e cially d e trim e nta l to t h e animal f rom t h e butch er standpoint ,

unl e s s th e ir con formation i s so faulty as to w e ak e n th e m .

5 1 5 Th e s cor e ca r d : T o facilitat e t h e study o f t h e di ffe r e nt

.

points alre ady m e ntion e d and to aid in e stabl ishing a corre ct

id e al instructors in stock j udging hav e pre pare d a score card
,

giving num e rica l valu e s to t h e variou s points to be consid e re d .

A scor e card fo r b e e f cattl e is giv e n in A pp e ndix G .

 97 oi t o f
F I GSa b f .i m l 1 an d 1 98 . Th e p n s ee an a

0, p oll ; m zzl ; 1
y ; 3 f
, 4 for h d ; 5
u r ; 6 k ; 7 ho l d r i ;
e 2 ,
e es ,
ac e : ,
e ea ,
ea s ,
n ec ,
s u e ve n

8 ho l d r ; 9 b ri k t ;
,
s u e sj w ; b r t ; d,
w l p or h
s y ki f e k; I O, a 1 1 ,
e as 12 ,
e a ,
e av s n o n ec

13 m ; 4 hi ; 5 l g ; 6 h t ; 7 f
,
ar 1 ,
s fl k ; 8 ro p ; 9 ri b ;
n I ,
b k;e s 1 ,
c es 1 ,
o re an 1 ,
c s 1 ,
s 2 0, ac

2 1 loi ,
hp n hook ; 3 h i dfl k ; 4 p r or d ; 5 r mp ; 6 t il
22 ,
i s, or s 2 ,
n an s 2 ,
u se, co 2 ,
u 2 ,
a

h d ; 7 p i b o ; 8 thigh ; 9 tw i t ; 3 ho k ; 3 h k ; 3 t il
ea 2 ,
n nes 2 ,
2 ,
s 0, c s 1 ,
s an s 2 ,
a
39 2 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C ULT U R E

51 6 . F att eni n g tt l e a s p eci al i z ed i n du str y F att e n in g cattl e

ca .

has b e com e a highly sp e cializ e d indust ry Th e man who rais e s .

cattl e s e ldom fatt e ns and mark e ts th e m L ik e any oth e r highly .

sp e cializ e d industry t h e m e thod us e d in fatt e ning cattl e has be

,

com e w e ll e stablish e d and e xact Y e t t h e finishing and mark e ting

.

o f cattl e is o n e o f t h e most complicat e d op e rations in agricultur e ,

principally b e caus e of t h e large e l e m e nt o f sp e culation du e to

t h e fluctuation in t h e valu e o f fe e ds and o f t h e finish e d product .

5 1 7 Corn i s t h e b a s i c r a ti on i n ca tt l e f e edi n g I n t h e e arly

. .

part of t h e fe e ding p e riod with age d cattl e e sp e cially if th ey ar e ,

thin no sp e cial pre paration o f t h e grain will be r e quire d A s

,
.

t h e f e e ding p e riod advanc e s and as t h e cattl e progr e ss toward

,

a finish e d condition th e ir app e tit e s b e com e mor e discriminating

,

and th e y r e qu ir e m or e palatabl e and conv e ni e nt food H e nc e

'
.
,

sh e ll e d or crush e d or ground corn is fr e qu e ntly fe d in t h e fi n i s h

ing p e riod wh e re whol e ear corn or e v e n shock corn was us e d
-

at t h e b e ginning W ith young cattl e it is important to cat e r

.

e sp e cially to th e ir app e tit e s so that th e y may ov e rcom e t h e

handicap that th e ir t e nd e ncy to grow impos e s T h e corn should .

b e sh e ll e d f o r t h e m e I n summ e r f e e ding it is more important

.
‘

to pre pare t h e grain w e ll

’

.
4

5 1 8 Th e am ou n t of r ou gh aget o f e ed I n t h e e arly part o f t h e

“

. .

f e e ding p e riod roughage o f go od quality such as l e gum e hay ,

and silag e should be fe d lib e ral ly It is advisabl e gradually to

, .

limit t h e allowanc e o f roughage i n t h e last thirty or forty days o f

t h e fe e ding p e riod or to o ffe r roughag e O f a l e ss palatabl e nature
so that t h e cattl e may not b e e ncourage d to n e gl e ct th e ir grain .

5 1 9 B al an ci n g t h e r a t i on
. A ration consisting of corn and
.

corn stove r timothy hay or corn silage will not be satis factory
, ,

b e caus e it do e s not contain t h e prop e r proportion o f prot e in .

A fairly good balanc e can b e maintain e d b e tw e e n prot e in and

carbohydrat e s by u s e o f a l e guminous hay as t h e only roughage ;
but usually an additional sourc e o f prot e in as cottons e e d m e al ,

or lins e e d oil m e al e sp e cially during t h e latt e r stage s o f t h e

-
,

fe e ding p e riod should be add e d U sually two and o n e hal f to

, .
-

thre e pounds of e ith e r o f th e s e prot e in foods p e r thousand

39 4 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C UL T UR E

Q UE S TI ONS AND P ROB LE M S

1 . W h at i s r e l tio n f t h e p ro d uct io n o f b e e f a i m l s t o s oil f rtility ?

th e a o n a e

2 . W h t ar e t h e ge e r l c h ar ac te ri s ti c o f t h e b e e f i m al ?
a n a s an

3 . W h at are t h e a r e s o f t h e gre a te s t b e e f p ro d c tio at t h e p r e s e n t

a u n

time ?
4 . W h at l e adi g cattl e m a rke ts o f t h e U n ite d S tat e ?
a re the n s

5 I n w h a t i m p ort a t w ays w ill t h e b e e f p ro d c i g i d s try o f t h e

. n -
u n n u

f u t u re n e e d t o d i ff e r f ro m th a t o f t h e p r e s t d p as t ? en an

6 W h t a e t h e p ri c i p al b r d o f b e e f c ttl e ?
. a r n ee s a

7 D e s c ri b e t h e hi to ry
. d h a r c t e ri s ti cs f t h e S horthor ; o f t h e
s an c a o n

H e r e f or d ; o f t h e A b e r d e e n A gus ; o f t h e G allo w y n a .

8 F ro m w h t s t dp oi t s s ho u l d b e e f c a ttl e b e j u dge d ?
. a an n

9 W h t t y p s o f b e e f a i m l d o e s t h e b u t ch e r d e m a d ? H o w m y
. a e n a n a

thi s d i ffe r f ro m t h e fe e de r s n e e ds ? ’

1 0 W h a t i i c l d e d u d r q a lity
. s n
”
u f t h e b e e f an i m l ?
n e u o a

1 1 T o w h a t e xt e t s ho l d t h e b r e e d e r an d f e e d e r c o i de r f or m i t h e
. n u ns n

b e e f an i m al ?
1 2 S t dy
. ur e f ll y t h e i m p ort a t p oi t i j dgi g be e f c ttl e S cor e
ca u n n s n u n a .

a b e f a i m l f ollo w i g t h
e n a , or e c r d gi e n i n A pp e d ix G
n e sc a v n .

1 3 W h y i s f tt i g c ttl e o i m p or t an t a n i d try ?
. a en n a s n us

1 4 W h t r l s ho l d b f ollo w e d i n t h e p r e p a r tio n o f f e d f o r f tt e
. a u e s u e a e a n

i g ca ttl e ?
n

RE F E RE NCE S

G AY , C .P r i n ci p l e s
W . an d P r acti ce s of J u dg n
gi L i ve S to ck J . . B L pp
. i in
c ott C o m p an y .

H A R PE R , M W M an u al o f F ar m A n i m al s T h e M acm i ll an C o m p an y
. . . .

H E N R Y , W A F e e d s a n d F e e d i n g, c h a p xxi P ub li s h e d by t h e au thor
. . . . .

M ad i s o n , W i s .

M UM F O R D , H W B e e f P ro d u ctio n P u b li s h e d b y t h e au tho r U r ban a, I l l

. . . . .

P L UM B , C S B e g i n n i n gs i n A n i m al H u s b an d ry G i n n an d C o m p an y
. . . .

P L U M B C S Typ es a n d B r e e ds o f F ar m An i m al s G i n n an d C o m p an y
, . . . .

B r e e d s o f B e e f C a ttl e F r m e s B u l l et i n 61 2 U n it e d S ta t e s D e p art m e n t
,
a r
’
,

o f A g r i c u lt u r e .

Li v e S to ck J d g i n g f o r B e g i n n e r s
-
u Ci r cu l a r 2 9 P u r d ue A gr i cu lt u r al , ,

E x p e ri m e n t S ta ti o n .
 C H A PT E R XXX I I I

S W I NE

52 1 . I n t r odu ct or y . The
mod e rn hog was probably d e riv e d
f rom t h e wild typ e s o f E urop e and south e rn A sia I n th e .

U nit e d S tat e s t h e hog ranks s e cond i n importanc e among t h e

farm animals T h e U nit e d S ta t e s is t h e l e ading swin e producing
.
-

country having about two fi fths o f all t h e swin e o f t h e world

,
.

Y e ars o f s e l e cting and bre e ding fo r two distinct purpos e s have

give n ris e to two distinct typ e s o hogs f — t h e lard typ e and t h e
bacon typ e E ach typ e compris e s s e v e ral distinct br ee ds
. .

522 Th e l ar d h og Th e lard hog is an A m e rican product

. .
,

and is e ss e ntially a corn b e lt hog Th e e arly s e ttl e rs n e e d e d a

-
.

hog which would produc e m e at and lard both of which m ight ,

b e k e pt through t h e summ e r months T h e s e products f ound a

.

mark e t wh e re v e r th e re was a d e mand fo r palatabl e food which

would furnish an abundanc e o f h e at and e n e rgy L at e r it was .

f ound that this sam e typ e o f hog was t h e most suitabl e f o r

mark e ting t h e large crops o f corn that w e re produc e d T hus .

t h e hog that would put on t h e most fat was t h e o n e most

sought ( Fi g . Th e n e e d o f t h e corn b e lt farm e r in lat e r
-

ye ars has not b e e n so much fo r a mark e t fo r his corn as it

has b e e n fo r a m e ans o f conve rting his fe e d into pork and lard
to fe e d t h e p e opl e o f t h e citi e s .

B r e e d e rs and farm e rs had di ffe r e nt id e als and s e v e ral distinct

,

bre e ds o f t h e sam e ge n e ral typ e w e re originat e d E ach has its .

particular m e rits as j udg e d by t h e fancy o f t h e bre e d e r T h e

, .

39 5
39 6 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT UR E

lard hog is short l e gge d thicks e t and compact ; large thick

-
, , ,

hams and a thick fat back are e ss e ntial points in its mak e u p
,
-
.

H ogs o f this typ e hav e a t e nd e ncy to mature at an e arly age

and to fatte n e asily T h e most common bre e ds are t h e Poland
.

C hina t h e D uroc J e rs e y t h e B e rkshire and t h e C h e st e r W hit e

,
-
, , .

523 Th e P ol an d Ch i n a T his br e e d was d e v e lop e d in t h e

. .

M iami vall e y in O hio b e tw ee n 1 8 1 6 and 1 84 5 It originate d

, ,
.

through t h e mingling of s e v e ral bre e ds and was lat e r improve d ,

F IG . 1 99 . F i n e spe c i me ns of ag e d P ol an d C hi na s ow s

by s e l e ction Th e Poland C hina ( F i g 1 99) approach e s v e ry

. .

clos e ly to th e id e al fat hog typ e T h e h e ad is o f m e dium l e ngt h

-
.
,

t h e fac e straight t h e j owl f ull and rounding and t h e e ars

, ,

fi n e with t h e out e r o n e third bre aking ov e r T h e should e rs .

should be wid e and smooth and t h e back wid e and slightly ,

arching T h e b e st sp e cim e ns o f t h e bre e d hav e wid e d e e p

.
,

ch e sts d e e p sid e s o f m e dium l e ngth and fairly S hort l e gs

, ,

with bon e s o f good siz e stre ngth and quality T h e loin should
, , .

b e wid e and smooth an d t h e rump o f m e dium l e ngth and

slightly rounding D e e p thick full hams are charact e ristic of
.
, ,
39 8 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

525 . Th e B er k s h i r e T h e B e rkshire
originat e d in t h e county
.

o f B e rkshir e in south c e ntral E ngland

,
-
I t is t h e old e st o f t h e .

improv e d bre e ds o f hogs having b e e n known as a bre e d sinc e

,

1 7 89 .T h e first B e rkshir e s introduc e d into A m e rica probably

w e r e impo rt e d about 1 8 2 3 W hil e th e bre e d originat e d i n E n g
.

land t h e gre at e r part o f its improv e m e nt has b e e n accomplish e d

,

in A m e rica Th e B e rkshir e ( F ig 2 0 1 ) is som e what longe r o f

. .

body and not so wid e as t h e P oland C hina I t is g e n e rally r e .

gard e d as a bacon hog in E ngland and C anada although as us e d ,

in th e corn b e lt it is
distinctly a lard hog .

Q uality and smoothn e ss

ar e B e rkshir e charact e r

i s t ic s T h e h e ad and .

fac e o f t h e B e rkshire
is of m e dium l e ngth ,

t h e fac e b e ing d e e ply

dish e d Th e l e gs ar e .

fairly short T h e back .

o f t h e B e rkshir e should

b e fairly wid e and l e ve l

or S lightly arching T h e .

sid es should b long

Th e B rk hir e t y p e
e
FIG 01 . 2 . e s

and d e e p and t h e hams ,

and should e rs d e e p and f ull T h e B e rkshire lik e t h e Poland .

,

C hina is black with whit e on t h e fe e t t h e tip o f t h e tail and

, , , ,

t h e fac e .

52 6 Th e Ch e s t er W h i t e Th e C h e st e r W hit e hog was first

. .

d e v e lop e d in C h e st e r C ounty P e nnsylvania Lat e r t h e O hio , .

I mprov e d C h e st e r W hit e s commonly known as O I C w e re ,

. . .
,

d e ve lop e d I n form th e C h e st e r W hite ( F i g 2 02 ) is not gr e atly

. .

unlik e t h e Poland C hina but it is large r in e v e ry way Th e h e ad

,
.

is o f m e dium l e ngth and t h e fac e is straight T h e e ars point .

f orward and br e ak f rom o n e third to o n e hal f f rom t h e out e r tip .

T h e back is wid e and slightly arching Th e body shows good .

d e pth t h e should e rs ar e full and smooth and t h e l e gs are o f

, ,
 S W I NE 399

m e dium l e ngth and strong This bre ed h a s b e e n criticiz e d fo r .

having w e ak past e rns but bre e d e rs ar e now paying mor e at ,

te ntion to this point B lack or bluish spots on t h e skin ar e

.

obj e ctionabl e .

5 2 7 Th e b acon h og T h e bacon hog as compar e d with t h e

. .
,

lard hog has a longe r h e ad longe r l e gs smooth e r should e rs

, , , ,

light e r hams and produc e s much l e ss fat A smo oth back

,
.
,

long d e e p smooth sid e s and smooth should e rs a nd hams ar e

, , ,

FIG . 2 02 . Th e C h t r W hit
es e e

T hi s h o g we g i h ed 78 5 p o un d s w h en th e p i t
c u er w t
as k a t l
en , a e ss th an r of
tw o ye a s ag e

e ss e ntial charact e ristics of a good bacon hog T his hog do e s .

not re quire so much fat producing fe e d as do e s t h e lard hog -

,

cons e qu e ntly hogs o f this typ e ar e grown in gre at e st numb e rs

outsid e o f t h e corn b e lt Th e bre e ds rais e d in this country ar e .

t h e L arg e Yorkshir e t h e T amworth and t h e H ampshir e

, , .

5 2 8 Th e Lar ge Y or k s h i r e T h e Larg e Yorkshir e ( F i g 2 0 3)

. . .

originat e d in t h e county o f York in e ast e rn E ngland I t is not , .

known j ust wh e n sp e cim e ns o f this bre e d w e re first brought into

A m e rica but it probably was pr e v ious to 1 8 4 0 T his is t h e
, .
4 00 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

large st of t h e bacon br e e ds T h e h e ad is o f m e dium l e ngth and .

,

t h e fac e is dish e d Th e e ars ar e o f m e dium siz e and droop slightly

.

f orward T h e back is o f m e dium width and t h e body is long

.
,

and d e e p T h e should e rs and hams should be smooth and t h e

. ,

thighs S hould be fairly thick T his bre e d is always whit e though .

,

bluish spots on t h e skin ar e som e tim e s note d .

5 2 9 Th e Tam w ort h
. T h e Tamworth originat e d in c e ntral
.

E ngland and probably was introduc e d into this country about

,

1 882 . T h e T amworth is larg e and l e an and has a long h e ad ,

F IG . 2 03 . Th e York hir h s e og

N ot e th e r r
an gy ap p e a an ce an d lo g i d
n sof th es e b ac o ty p
n e of h og

a long body and long l e gs T h e fac e is long and narrow and

, .

only slightly dish e d T h e snout is long and straight T h e sid e s

. .

should be long and d e e p and t h e hams and should e rs should ,

b e thick and smooth Th e color is r e d and black spots ar e

.
,

obj e ctionabl e .

530 Th e Ham p s h i r e T h e H ampshire hog ( F i g

. som e
. .

”
tim e s call e d t h e T hin R ind hog probably originat e d in K e n ,

tucky T his bre e d i s o f m e dium siz e an d wh e n grown in t h e

.
,

corn be lt it ta k e s on mor e fat than t h e oth e r bacon br ee ds .

O n account o f this t e nd e ncy it is class e d as a lard hog in t h e

4 02 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

I n addition to pasture s som e fe e d that is more conc e ntrat e d

should be us e d C orn is t h e principal grain us e d in many s e c
.

tions but barl ey kafi r milo and wh e at i f not too high pric e d
, , , , ,
-
,

can be us e d wh e r e corn is not availabl e B u t corn and pasture .

do not supply all t h e f ood mat e rials n e e d e d by t h e growing pig .

T h e re should also be a prop e r allowanc e o f som e f e e d rich in

prote in such as ski m milk tankage m e at m e al wh e at shorts
, , , , ,

or middlings T h e amount o f gram give n S hould be j ust e nough

.

to k e e p t h e youn g hogs thri fty and growing but not e nough to ,

mak e th e m fat T o o much fat will caus e th e m to be lazy and

.
,

th e y will not graz e e nough to mak e t h e ch e ap e st gain nor to

d e v e lop strong constitutions .

B re e ding stock should not be f e d too much corn as it t e nds ,

to produc e too much fat and t h e amount o f prot e in b e aring ,

-

f e e ds should be incr e as e d ov e r that r e quir e d f or f att e ning hogs .

Th e prot e in foodstu ffs should consist mainly o f bran or ground

oats and shorts with a small amount o f oil m e al or tankage
, .

Th e sow should b e f e d al fal fa hay if it is availabl e as it will ,

both improv e and ch e ap e n t h e ration A ration consisting o f .

50 p e r c e nt corn 2 5 p e r c e nt shorts 1 8 p e r c e nt W h e at bran

, , ,

4 p e r c e nt lins e e d m e al and 3 p e r c e nt tankage with good

, ,

pasture or al fal fa hay will giv e spl e ndid r e sults

, .

5 32 F eedi n g t h e y ou n g p i g T h e pigs soon l e arn to e at and

. .
,

as soon as th e y do a s e parat e p e n or e ating plac e should b e

,

provid e d I t is a good plan to giv e t h e pigs what fe e d th e y will

.

e at r e adily twic e a day I t is b e tt e r to fe e d a littl e und e r th e ir

.

capacity than to fe e d more than th e y can consum e T h e mothe r .

should be fe d so that S h e will produc e a good flow o f milk as ,

this is th e b e st f e e d t h e young pigs can hav e A mixture con .

sisting o f 6 2 p e r c e nt corn 30 p e r c e nt shorts and 8 p e r c e nt

, ,

tankage with al fal fa hay or a good pasture mak e s an e xc e ll e nt

, ,

ration fo r t h e growing pigs .

533 F i n is h i n g t h e h ogs f or m ar k e t
. E xp e rim e nt station r e .
-

s u l t s and f arm practic e hav e shown that b e tw e e n t h e age s o f six

and twe lv e months an d b e tw e e n th e w e ights o f f rom o n e hun

dre d and nin e ty to two hundre d and fi fty pounds is t h e most
 S W I NE 4 03

profitabl e age and w e ight at which to mark e t hogs S inc e t h e .

hog do e s not mature until it is sixt e e n or more months old it ,

must put on fat whil e still making growth if mark e t e d at this

e arly a ge .Th e finishing p e riod is th e r e fore but a modification
and continuation o f t h e growing p e riod .

T wo ge n e ral syst e ms o f fatt e ning hogs ar e practic e d U nd e r .

o n e syst e m t h e hogs ar e confin e d to dry yards and f e d u ntil th e y

ar e r e ady f o r mark e t U nd e r t h e oth e r syste m th e y ar e allow e d

.

t h e ru n o f t h e pastur e s or fi e lds with f orage and pastur e crops , .

T h e first is e ss e ntially t h e m e thod f ollow e d i n wint e r and t h e ,

s e cond is t h e m e thod usually follow e d in summ e r C orn alon e .

will not produc e satis factory gains on hogs that ar e still making
growth and t h e b e st fe e d e rs no longe r i nclos e and fe e d th e ir
,

hogs in dry lots on corn alon e .

5 34 F eed f or f a tt en i n g h ogs K a fi r milo and similar grains

. .
, ,

may be us e d inst e ad o f corn in w e st e rn Kansas N e braska , ,

O klahoma and r e gions with similar climatic conditions T h e s e

, .

small hard grains should b e e ith e r ground or soak e d f o r b e st

re sults W h e re barl e y is a stapl e crop it may be us e d succ e ss
.
,

f ully T h e r e sults o i e xp e rim e nts S how that f rom t h e standpoint

.

o f e ffici e ncy and rat e o f gain obtain e d barl e y has a f e e ding ,

valu e v e ry littl e low e r than corn Rye has about t h e sam e fe e d .

ing valu e as barl e y and e mm e r ranks about 5 p e r c e nt low e r

,

than barl e y .

5 35 How t o b al an ce t h e r a t i on Th e l e ading r e gular or sup

. .

p l e m e n t ar
y f e e ds to produc e growth a r e tankag e m e at m e al , ,

skim milk butt e rmilk shorts or wh e at middlings lins e e d m e al

, , , ,

soy b e ans S panish p e anuts cowp e as or cull b e ans and fi e ld

, , ,

p e as T h e l e guminous hays among which al fal f a tak e s t h e

.
,

l e ading plac e ar e also us e d to a consid e rabl e e xt e nt I t is

, .

b e tt e r as a rul e to u s e a combination o f th e s e fe e ds inst e ad

o f any o n e alon e though t h e pric e as w e ll as t h e e ffici e ncy is
, , ,

always to be consid e r e d T h e re sults of a s e ri e s o f e xp e rim e nts

.

conduct e d at t h e Kansas E xp e rim e nt S tation to d e t e rmin e t h e ,

r e lativ e fe e ding valu e o f a numb e r o f such suppl e m e nts show e d ,

that a combination o f corn shorts and tankage or m e at m e al

, ,
4 04 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

was t h e b e st o f t h e rations t e st e d and corn alon e gav e poore r ,

re sults than any o f t h e oth e rs W h e at middlings as a rul e is

.

slightly high e r in fe e ding valu e than is shorts W h e n ta nkage .

or m eat m e al is fe d only t h e 60 p e r c e nt grad e should be bought

,
- -
.

L ins e e d m e al on account o f its low e r prot e in cont e nt is not

, ,

so valuabl e a fe e d for
young hogs that ar e
b e ing f att e n e d as tank
age but b e caus e o f its ,

laxativ e e ffe ct it is of
e qual valu e wh e n f e d in

mod e rat e amounts to

brood sows .

S kim milk and butt e r

milk ar e among t h e
most valuabl e suppl e
m e nts to corn and ,

should be fe d in t h e
proportion o f about
thre e pounds of milk to
o n e pound o f corn S oy .

b e ans p e as S panish , ,

p e anuts and cull b e ans ,

ar e rich in prot e in and

in many instanc e s can

be harv e st e d by t h e
F I G 2 05 F ll b roth e r f e d i d i ff e r t w ys T h e valu e of
u s n en a
. .

hogs .

Th m ll p i g w f d or lo ; t h l rg p ig
e s a as e c n a
al fal fa h ay fo r growing
ne e a e

w f d or
as d p rot i
e c n an e n 0

and fatt e n i ng hogs Is

w e ll e sta blish e d by e xp e rim e nts ( F ig 2 0 5) and farm practic e .
,

and wh e n suitabl e conc e ntrat e d prot e in suppl e m e nts ar e not

availabl e it will pay to fe e d corn and hay inst e ad o f corn alon e
,
.

536 Th e b es t h og p a stu r age A l fal fa mak e s t h e b e st hog

. .

pastur e ( F ig . A n acre of al fal fa will carry f rom t e n to

t w e nty hogs during t h e pastur e s e ason W h e n pasturing this .

crop it should be allow e d to mat ure at l e ast two hay crops during
4 06 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

an opportunity to e x e rcis e its natural instincts T h e re ar e fe w .

ailm e nts and dis e as e s o f swin e that cannot b e pre v e nt e d i f cl e an

yards and hous e s and warm dry b e ds ar e p r o v i de d B y th e s e , .

m e ans chol e ra pn e umonia and thumps may i n a larg e m e asur e

, ,

b e pr e v e nt e d A n outbre ak o f chol e ra in t h e h e rd or in t h e
.

vicinity j ustifi e s promp t tre atm e nt with anti hog chol e ra s e rum - -
.

T h e hous e s or sl e e ping quart e rs should b e w e ll v e ntilat e d and ,

arrange d so that t h e dra fts will not blo wdire ctly on t h e hogs .

T h e b e ds should r e c e iv e t h e sunshin e and should not b e we t ,

damp or dusty I t is advisabl e to cl e an and r e b e d t h e hous e s

,
.
-

and r e mov e all accumulations of manure and corncobs from t h e

p e ns or yards onc e a w e e k T h e hous e s and yards around t h e .

e ating plac e s and sl e e ping quart e rs should be thoroughly d i s i n

f e c t e d with a strong solution o f a standard dip or oth e r disin f e ct

ant and as soon as th e y ar e d ry th e y should be sprinkl e d with
,

air slak e d lim e T h e old fashion e d mud wallow should b e e lim

-
.
-

i n at e d and a c e m e nt pit that can b e k e pt cl e an and sanitary

should be provid e d for t h e hogs during hot w e ath e r T h e s ani .

tary wallows should b e locat e d conv e ni e ntly n e ar to t h e summ e r

pasture s C rud e oil or som e standard dip may b e us e d in th e s e
.

wallows to pre ve nt dis e as e in fe ction and to k e e p t h e h e rd fre e

f rom parasit e s .

T h e h e rd should be k e pt f re e f rom lic e an d mang e at all tim e s .

E v e ry hog should b e spray e d with som e standard dip at f re qu e nt

int e rvals and it is a good practic e to dip th e m e ve ry six or e ight
,

w e e ks during t h e summ e r I f sanitary wallows ar e provid e d .

,

hogs n e e d not be dipp e d so o ft e n .

A mixture o f wood ash e s and salt with a littl e sulphur add e d

should be k e pt b e fore t h e hogs at all tim e s or i f wood ash e s ar e ,

not availabl e t h e gove rnm e nt hog tonic should be us e d inst e ad

,
1
.

B oth o f th e s e mixture s should b e fe d f rom a cl e an box plac e d

wh e re it is prot e ct e d f rom rain and snow .

1 W oo d c h ar c o a l o d ; l ph r po , 1 p un su u , 1 un d ; s odi um c hlori d ( o mm o lt )
e c n sa ,

2 o d
p un s ; o d i m b i rb o t ( b ki g o d
s u ca na e a n s a ) , 2 p ou nds i o d i m h y p o l p hit
s u su e,

2 po d un s ; o d i m l p h t ( G l b r lt )
s u su a e au e sa , 1 p o un d ; and ti m o y l p hi d
an n su e

( bl k
ac an ti m o y ) p o d
n , 1 un .
 S W I NE 4 07

QUE S TIONS AND P ROB LE M S

1 . D e sc b e t h e ri c h r t ri ti
a ac e s cs an d r e l ti
a v e v a ue s l of t h e tw o d i ti c t
s n

ty p e s of hog s .

2 . H o w di d th e i re t
d ffe n b ree d s of th e l r d ty p
a -
e h og c om e to be
de v e lo p e d ?
3 G i e t h e h a r ac t e ri s ti s o f e ac h f t h e l a r d typ e s f ho g ; o f t h
. v c c o o s e

b ac o n typ e s .

4 V i s it t h e b r s o f a
. c s f l h g g ro w e r a d d e t e r m i e w h a t
a n s uc e s u e o n n ar

t h e e s s e ti l p oi t s t o b e o b s e r e d i
n a n t h e m a ag m e t o f a h e r d ; i v th e n n e n n

c o s tr c tio
n u o f b il d i g s f o r ho g s
n u n .

5 I w h a t w ays d o s t h e c r e o f b r e e d i g s to k d i ff e r f ro m th a t o f
. n e a n c

ho gs w hi h a e b e i g fatt e d ?
c r n ne

6 S ec r e t h e e x ac t r e c or d s f t h e
. u m b e r o f b roo d s o w s s e d l s t o nu u a

ye ar o n thr e e d i ffe r e t f r m s o f yo r lo ality a d t h e m b e r f p i gs r i s e d

n a u c n nu o a ,

a d th s d e t e r m i n e t h e
n u r ge m b e r o f p i gs t o e a h b roo d s ow fo r t h e
av e a nu c

tw e l v e m o n th s .

7 I f p o s s i b l e s e c r e t h e r c or d o f t h e n m b e r o f p i g s r a i e d by a
.
,
u e u s

b roo d s o w o f p roli fi c t d e y a d c o m p a r e h e r p ro d tio en nc w ith t h e

,
n uc n

a e r age p ro d c ti o
v o f t h e thr e
u f rm s j t m
n tio e d e a us en n .

8 I f it i s p o s s i b l e f o r s o m e m e m b e r o f t h e c l s s t o d o s o s e c r e a
. a ,
u

yo un g b roo d s ow w ho s d am a d ir a e o f k o w n p roli fic p ar e t age

“

e n s e r n n .

K e e p a s chool r e cor d fro m ye ar t o y ar o f t h e p ro d c tio o f thi s s o w e u n .

9 W h t a e t h e e se ti a l p oi t s t o b e o b s e rv e d i n f e e d i n g y o u g p i gs ?
. a r s n n n

1 0 W h e n a d h o w s ho u l d p i gs b e w e e d ?
. n an

1 1 D i s cuss e ac h o f t h e t wo sys t e m s o f fa tt e n i g ho g s fo r m a rk e t W h a t
. n .

advan t ag e s a e p o s s e s s e d br e ac h sys t e m ?
y
1 2 A cc or d i g t o t h e e x p e ri m e t s w hi c h a e r e p ort e d w h t c o s tit t
. n n r ,
a n u es

t h e b e s t b l n ce d r atio
-
a a f o r ho g s ? n

1 3 W h at i s t h e v al ue o f a l f al fa h y i f att e i g hog s ?
’

. a n n n

1 4 W h a t ki d s o f h o g p as t u r e h av e p ro e d t o b e t h e b e s t i n fe e d i g
. n v n

a d f att e n i g ho g s ?
n n

1 5 C o m p a r e t h e ad a t age o f s lo w a d o f r a p i d gai s i n t h e f a tt e n i g
. v n n n n

o f ho gs I s s lo w p ro d uc tio or r ap i d p ro d u c tio o f hog s m o s t s e d i y o u r

. n n u n

lo cality ? W hi ch is r e gar d e d as t h e m or e p ro fi t abl e ?

1 6 W h a t s p e c i al c ar e s ho u l d b e t a k e n o f t h e h og p e s a d y r ds ?
. n n a

1 7 H o w m ay t h e c o m m o n d i se as e s o f s w i e b e p r e v e n t e d ?
. n

1 8 S e c r e f ro m y o r s ta t e ag ri cu lt r al c oll e g e f u ll d ir e c tio s f or th e
. u u u n

tr e at m e t i n t h e c o trol o f h o g chol e r a a d m a k e thi s i for m ti o t h e b as i s

n n n n a n

o f a c l as s d i s s s io n S e cu r e r e c or d o f e x p e ri m e t s i u s i n g th e s e d ir e c tio n s
cu . s n n .
4 08 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

RE F E RE NCE S

C O B U RN , F D . . Sw i
Am e r ica O r an ge J u d d C o mp an y
ne in . .

D A W S O N H C T h e Hog B ook S au n d e r s P u b li s hi n g C o m p an y
, . . . .

DA Y G E ORGE E
,
S wi n e K e n yo n P ri n ti n g C o m p an y
. . .

D I E TR I C H W I L L IA M S w i n e S au n de r s P u b li s hi n g C o m p a y
,
. . n .

Ho g C hol e r a F a r m e r s B u l l et i n 3 7 9 U n it e d S ta te s D e p a rt m e n t of
,
’
,

Agr i cu ltu r e .

F e e d i n g H o gs i n t h e S o u th e r n S t at e s F a r m er s B u l l e t i n 4 1 1 U n it e d
’
, ,

S t at es D e p ar t m e n t o f A g ri cu lt u r e .

H og H o u s e s F a r m e n B u l l e t i n 43 8 U n it e d S t a te s D e p art m e n t o f
,
’
,

Ag ri cu lt u r e .

B oys P i g C l u b s F a r m e r s B u l l et i n 5 66 U n it e d S t at e s D e p a rt m e n t o f
’ ’
, ,

Agr i cu ltu r e .

P as tu re an d G r e e n C r o p s f or H o gs o n t h e P ac i fi c C o as t F r m er ,
a s
’

B u l l et i n 5 99 U n it e d S t at e s D e p a rt m e n t o f A gr i cu lt u r e
, .

T h e C or n B e lt S ys t e m o f F a rm i n g w hi c h S av e s Ha r ve s t Lab or b y H o g gi n g
d o w n C ro p s F a r m er s B u l l et i n 61 4 U n it e d S t a t e s D e p a rt m e n t o f
’
, ,

Agri cu ltu r e .
410 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C ULT U R E

S hee p of th e
long wool bre e ds that ar e most important i n
-

this cou ntry are large r and more upstanding than thos e o f th e
m e diu m wool bre e ds but as a rul e t h e body o f this typ e o f
-
,

S h e e p is o f t h e sam e g e n e ral mutton f orm as that o f t h e m e dium

wool typ e T h e fl e e c e is h e avy and much mor e op e n than that of

.

t h e m e dium wools and t h e stapl e is long and comparativ e ly coars e

,
.

F IG . 2 07 . Ame ri can M ri o e n

N ot e th e c h r t ri ti
a ac e s c w ri kl
n ed s ki n ,
fin e , oily fl h
e e ce , e avy hor n s , an d h iry l
a e gs ,

f ace , an d o n se

5 0 Th e fi n e w ool b r e ed s
4 .
-
bre e ds o f fi n e wool S h e e p . Th e -

a re as follows : A m e rican M e rino which originat e d and d e v e l ,

op e d in S pain and lat e r was improv e d in t h e U nit e d S tat e s ;

D e lain e M e rino which d e v e lop e d in t h e Unit e d S tat e s ; and
,

t h e R ambouill e t which d e v e lop e d in F ranc e

, .

5 4 1 Th e Am er i can M er i n o T h e A m e rican M e rino ( F ig 2 07)

. . .

d e v e lop e d und e r migratory conditions ; th e re fore t h e habit of

sh e e p o f this bre e d to flock or stay toge th e r wh e n on t h e range
was e arly fix e d T his t e nd e ncy to flock has giv e n t h e M e rino
.

first plac e as a sh e e p suitabl e fo r our W e st e rn range conditions -

.
 S H EE P 41 I

T h e D e lain e and t h e Rambouill e t which in re ality ar e o ff ,

shoots of t h e e arly S panish typ e o f M e rino hav e inh e rit e d t h e ,

sam e charact e ristic .

T h e M e rino was first brought into t h e U nit e d S tat e s probably

about 1 7 9 2 A t pre s e nt it is rais e d more e xt e nsive ly on t h e
.

sh e e p farms and range s o f t h e W e st than i n t h e E ast I t is .

t h e small e st o f t h e fi n e wool br e e ds and f urnish e s t h e fin e st

-

and h e avi e st fl e e c e o f any o f t h e bre e ds T h e fl e e c e o f t h e .

M e rino compl e t e ly cov e rs t h e body and l e gs and t h e wool is o f ,

good l e ngth and fi n e with an e xc e ll e nt crimp and an abundanc e

,

o f yolk T h e h e ad is small t h e nostrils and lips whit e T h e

.
, .

wool grows b e low t h e e ye s w e ll down on t h e nos e and t h e ,

muzzl e and nos e are cov e r e d with fi n e whit e wool Th e S kin .

should be a bright pink and cov e r t h e body in f olds or wrinkl e s , ,

thus giving more sur fac e for t h e produ ction of wool Th e rams .

hav e horns and t h e e w e s ar e hornl e ss

, .

5 42 Th e Del ai n e M er i n o
. Th e D e lain e M e rino has b e e n
.

d e v e lop e d in t h e U nit e d S tat e s f rom t h e A m e rican or S panish

M e ri no in ord e r to s e cur e a b e tt e r mutton sh e e p T his sh e e p
‘

.
,

is large r than t h e A m e rican M e rino has a smooth e r full e r , ,

body and has fe w e r f olds or wrinkl e s o f th e skin Th e wool

, , ,
.

is longe r t h e stapl e b e ing about thr e e inch e s in l e ngth and —

t h e w e ight o f t h e fl e e c e is l e ss T h e color is t h e sam e as t h e

.

A m e rican M e rino and t h e wool cov e rs t h e f ac e and l e gs in

,

t h e sam e way .

5 4 3 Th e R am b ou i l l et T h e Rambouill e t originat e d in F ranc e

. .

f rom S panish M e rino stock to m e e t t h e d e mand fo r a fi n e wool -

sh e e p that would produc e more mutton I t was introduc e d into .

t h e U nit e d S tat e s in 1 8 4 0 and has sinc e b e com e popular e sp e

, ,

c i al l on t h e W e st e rn range s T his S h e e p do e s not di ffe r e ss e n

y .

t ial l y f rom t h e D e lain e e xc e pt that it is larg e r has fe w e r f olds

, , ,

and produc e s a b e tt e r mutton carcass .

5 44 Mi ddl e W 001 b r eed s

.
-
T h e most important br e e ds o f
.

sh e e p usually class e d as middl e wool ar e t he S outhdown t h e

,
-
, ,

S hropshir e t h e H ampshir e D own t h e O x ford D own and t h e

, , ,

D ors e t A ll th e s e bre e ds w e re d e v e lop e d in E ngland

. .
414 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

Th e Ox f or d Dow n sh e e p originat e d . T h e O x ford D own

in t h e coun ty o f O x ford E ngland T his br e e d compar e d with , .
,

t h e oth e r D own br e e ds has b e e n d e v e lop e d r e c e ntly I t was , .

first brought to this country about 1 8 4 6 A t first glanc e t h e .

O x ford re s e mbl e s t h e S hropshire but it is a large r sh e e p than ,

ro b tw FIG .S hro p hir

2 10 . d H m p hir
C ss e een s e an a s e

Thi ro p ro d
s c x ll t ty p of h p I t h p i m h r
ss u ce s an e ce en e s ee . n e s ec en e e s how n th e
H m p hir
a h r t ri ti
s m o t p ro m i
e c a ac e t l rg b ody d rk f
s cs ar e s n en — a e ,
a ace an d l g
e s, an d
light t d y tow rd r g i s en en c a an n ess

e ith e r t h e S hropshire or H ampshire and t h e fac e e ars and , , ,

l e gs ar e light e r brown Th e wool cov e rs th e fore h e ad but not .

,

quit e so h e avily as i n t h e S hropshire though with a longe r , ,

loos e r for e lock T h e e ars point outward and usually ar e long

.
,

thin and f re e from wool L ik e t h e S hropshire and H ampshire

, .

this bre e d is hornl e ss .

5 49 Th e Dors e t Hor n
. T h e D ors e t H orn bre e d originat e d .

in south e rn E ngland S h e e p o f this bree d w e re not brought to

.

A m e rica until 1 8 8 5 I t is note d fo r t h e production o f e arly

.

lambs I n form t h e D ors e t is e ss e ntially o f t h e mutton typ e

. .
 S H EE P 4 5 1

In comparison with t h e oth e r mutton bre e ds it ranks as m e dium ,

In S i z e T h e f ac e nostrils e ars l e gs and hoo f s ar e whit e

.
, , , , .

T h e body is cov e r e d with a m e dium fi n e fl e e c e e xt e nding ov e r t h e -

n e ck and h e ad to t h e e y e s and ov e r t h e l e gs to t h e kn e e s and

,

h ooks B oth e w e s and rams hav e horns charact e ristic o f t h e br e e d

. .

FIG . 2 1 1 . Th e C h iot
ev

L o n g, loo se w ool r hi
e ac ng to t h k
e n e e s an d h o ok s an d g rowi ng b ac k of t h r
e ea s ;
l p oll f
c e an ,
ace , an d n o se

55 0 Th e l on g- w ool b r eed s
. bre e ds o f long wool sh e e p . Th e -

most important in this country ar e t h e Le ic e st e r t h e C otswold , ,

and t h e L incoln all d e v e lop e d in E ngland

,
.

5 5 1 Th e Lei cest er
. T h e L e ic e st e r originat e d in c e ntral
.

E ngland and is t h e old e st o f t h e improve d E nglish br e e ds .

Th e first importation to t h e U nit e d S tat e s was about 1 8 00 I t .

is t h e small e st o f t h e long wool bre e ds is al e rt and rangy whil e

-
, ,

th e body i s wid e and o f m e dium d e pth T h e fl e e c e is fi n e .

,

cov e ring t h e body to t h e back o f t h e e ars and t h e l e gs to t h e ,

kn e e s and hocks T his bre e d is hornl e ss. .

4 1 6 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

5 52 . Th e Cot s w ol d . T h e C otswold
originate d in southw e st
e rn E ngland I t was d e v e lop e d to m ee t t h e d e mand fo r a S h e e p
.

that would mak e t h e most e conomical gains f rom coars e forage .

S h e e p o f this br e e d w e re brought to t h e U nit e d S tat e s about

1 8 32 T h e charact e ristic f e atur e o f t h e C otswold sh e e p is t h e
.

h e ad Th e f ore h e ad is broad ; t h e fac e is whit e or spott e d with

.

gray and has a t e nd e ncy toward a Roman profil e ; and t h e nos

t r il s ar e black E xt e nding down ov e r t h e for e h e ad o ft e n to t h e
.
,

nostrils ar e h e avy locks or curls Th e back is broad and strong

,
. .

Th e fl e e c e cov e rs t h e body in large locks or curls Th e stapl e .

is long and o f good quality T h e e ars and l e gs ar e mark e d .

much lik e t h e fac e B oth s e x e s ar e hornl e ss T h e C h e viot

. .

bre e d o f sh e e p ( Fi g 2 1 I ) clos e ly r e s e mbl e s t h e C otswold

. .

5 53 Th e Li n col n
. Th e L incol n sh e e p was d e v e lop e d in t h e
.

e ast e rn part o f E ngland in t h e county o f L incoln ,

T h is bre e d .

was brought to A m e rica in t h e latt e r part of t h e e ighte e nth

c e ntury I t is t h e large st of t h e long wool br e e ds I t is whit e
.
-
.
,

though th e re is som e tim e s a mixture o f gray in t h e fac e T h e .

h e ad is large and strong T h e body has good l e ngth and d e pth

.
,

and is cov e re d with firm fl e sh T h e fl e e c e is long coars e and .

, ,

curly T h e wool e xt e nds to t h e kn e e s and hocks and som etim e s

.
,

b e low th e hocks T h e fore h e ad is cov e re d with a short lock

.

o f wool .

S inc e anci e nt tim e s t h e sh e e p has b e e n call e d T h e G old e n

H oo f b e caus e it cl e ar e d and e nrich e d t h e land upon which it
,

f e d ; also b e caus e it was b e li e v e d that t h e sh e e p r e turn e d a

,

gre at e r profit upon t h e mon ey inv e st e d and t h e fe e d and care ,

r e quire d than did any oth e r kind of farm ani mal I t is prob
,
.

abl e that sh e e p mak e a pound o f l iv e w e ight gain on l e ss fe e d -

than any oth e r m e at animal I t is ge n e rally e stimat e d that .

t h e fl e e c e will pay for k e e ping t h e e w e thus l e aving t h e ,

lambs as profit A noth e r profit in k e e ping sh e e p re lat e s to t h e

.

control o f w e e ds W h e n giv e n t h e opportunity sh e e p will e at

.
,

almost all kinds o f farm w e e ds F arms upon which mix e d .

husbandry is practic e d can w e ll a fford to k e e p at l e ast a small

flock o f good sh e e p .
 C H A P T E R XX XV

P OULTR Y
554 . I m p or t a n ce of t h e p oul tr y i n du str y
valu e o f t h e
. The
poult ry and e ggs produc e d i n t h e U nite d S tat e s annually is
about or about t h e sam e as t h e combin e d valu e
o f t h e gold silv e r iron and coal min e d annually in t h e U nit e d
, , ,

S tat e s. Th e valu e o f t h e poultry and e ggs sold f rom farms ,

not includin g that rais e d i n t h e towns and village s and sold is ,

$2 Th e av e rag e f arm i ncom e f rom poult ry products

in t h e U nit e d S tat e s in 1 9 1 3 was fo r e ach farm In .

t h e sam e y e ar t h e valu e o f poultry rais e d on farms was p e r

c e nt o f t h e valu e o f all farm animal products -

.

55 5 P ou l tr y i s ch i efl y ch i ck en s
. Nin e ty fi v e p e r c e nt o f all
.
-

t h e poultry in t h e U nit e d S tat e s is chick e ns ; p e r c e nt is

ge e s e ; 1 p e r c e nt is turk eys ; l e ss than 1 p e r c e nt is ducks ;

guin e as pige ons ph e asants and oth e r dom e stic birds mak e up
, , ,

t h e r e maining p e r c e nt .

T h e popularity o f t h e chick e n is d u e to t h e fact that it f u r

nish e s a conv e ni e nt sourc e o f fr e sh m e at on t h e farm and is
usually a much b e tt e r e gg produc e r than oth e r sp e ci e s o f poult ry .

5 56 Th e p r i m ar y p ou l tr y p r odu ct
. E ggs furnish two thirds .

o f t h e farm incom e f rom poult ry and m e at and f e ath e rs t h e

,

oth e r third Th e r e ason fo r this probably li e s i n t h e fact that

.

e ggs ar e highly dig e stibl e and g e n e rally d e sir e d as a f ood Th e .

e ggs o f ducks g e e s e and guin e as ar e som e tim e s sold fo r f ood

, , ,
’
but t h e numb e r is so small wh e n compare d with h e ns e ggs as
41 8
 P O U LT R Y 419
’
to mak e th e m a n e gligibl e quantity T urk eys e ggs ar e us e d fo r .

hatching purpos e s only and usually command good pric e s .

55 7 Cl a ss es of ch i ck en s T h e re ar e thre e t e rms us e d to
. .

distinguish t h e di ffe r e nt kinds o f chick e ns class br e e d and —

, ,

vari e ty C lass r e fe rs to a group o f bre e ds having a common

.

plac e of origin or t h e sam e ge n e ral charact e ristics or both T h e

, ,
.

class e s most f r e qu e ntly

m e t with ar e t h e A siatic ,

M e dit e rran e an A m e ri ,

can and E nglish

,
.

Th e A siatics ( F ig 2 1 2 ) .

originat e d in A sia and

ar e distinguish e d by
th e ir larg e siz e fe ath ,

e re d l e gs low e gg ,

prod uction dark brown ,

-

e ggs and sloth ful t e m

,

p e r a m e n t s . Th e M e d
ite rr an e an s originat e d
in t h e vicini ty o f t h e
M e dit e rran e an S ea .

T h e y may be r e cog
n ize d by th e ir com
p ar a t i v e l y small siz e
W hit C o hi
,
FIG 1 2 2 e c n
fe ath e rl e ss l e gs pure
. .

T h W h t C o hi how t h h r t r t b lk f
,
e i e c n s s e c a ac e is ic u o
W h l t e e ggs an d n e r v
.

, th A i ti l of hi k e s a c c as s c c ens

ous activ e dispositions

, .

T h e y ar e t h e b e st among all t h e class e s fo r e gg production

F
( g i . T h e A m e rican and E nglish class e s originat e d in
A m e rica and E ngland as th e ir nam e s indicat e B oth ar e , .

about hal fway b e twe e n t h e A siatics and t h e M e dit e rran e ans in

siz e disposition and e gg production and in t h e color o f t h e
, , ,

e ggs T h e y hav e no f e ath e rs on th e ir l e gs

. Th e A m e rican .

bre e ds hav e y e llow l e gs whil e t h e E nglish hav e white ; th e re

,

is also a similar di ffe r e n ce in t h e color of t h e fl e sh throughout

th e body t h e A m e rican b e ing dark e r in color
, .
42 0 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

558 . B r eed s ti es of ch i ck en s T h e r e are six A m e ri

an d v ar i e .

can bre e ds thre e o f which ar e common and thr e e l e ss common

, .

Th e thr e e common bre e ds ar e t h e P lymouth R ock ( F igs 2 1 5 .

and W yando t te ( F igs 2 1 9 and and Rhod e I sland .

Re d ( F i g T hos e which ar e l e ss common are t h e D omi

.

niqu e Java and B uck ey e T h e re ar e thre e A siatic bre e ds

, ,
.

t h e B rahma C ochi n ( F i g ,
and Langshan all of which
.
—

w e re f orm e rly quit e

common but are grad
ual l b e coming l ss
y e

common b e caus e th e y
mature slowly and do not
lay as w e ll as t h e oth e r
bre e ds Th e M e dit e r .

r an e an br e e ds are t h e

L e ghorn F
( g i .

M inorca S panish A n , ,

cona and B lu e A nda ,

lusian O f th e s e t h e .
,

L e ghorns ar e more
F I G 2 1 3 T h e w orl d r or d L e g hor h common than all t h e
’
. . s- e c n en

Th is h th
en , ro
p p rt y oef t h O r g o
e A g ri lt r l O th e rs
e tog e th
e e r Th en cu u a .

C oll g l i d 3 3 gg i tw l m o th
e e, a 0 e s n Th
M i n o rcas an d t h e A n
e ve n s e _

p t r w
ic u e tk as th a d y f l l wm g t h
en on om p l
e a o o e c e

tio of h y r w ork n er COHaS

ea
’
sar e s e e n HOW
and th e n but t h e B lu e ,

A ndalusians and t h e S panish ar e v e ry rare T h e E nglish .

bre e ds r e cogniz e d ar e t h e D orkings Re d C aps and O rpingtons , ,

Fi
( g . O f th e s e only t h e O rpingtons a,
r e common .

A vari e ty is a group within t h e bre e d distinguish e d by t h e

color and t h e kind o f comb B arre d P lymouth Rocks and W hit e .

P lymouth Rocks ar e vari e ti e s of t h e sam e bre e d t h e point o f ,

distinct ion b e ing color S ingl e comb Rhod e I sland Re ds and .

-

Ros e C omb Rhod e I sland Re ds ar e vari e ti e s which hav e t h e

sam e color but di ffe re nt kinds of comb Th e singl e and ros e .

comb e d vari e ti e s o f chick e ns hav e di ffe re nc e s oth e r than t h e

structure o f t h e comb but this is t h e most conspicuous di ffe re nc e
,
.
4 2 2 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

harm ful gas e s H e ns r e quire more air p e r unit o f w e ight than

.

oth e r farm animals I t has b e e n e stimate d that a 1 000 pound

.
-

cow bre ath e s 2 804 cubic fe e t o f air in tw e nty four hours that -
,

a 1 000 pound hors e bre ath e s 34 0 1 cubic fe e t in t h e sam e tim e

-
,

1
wh il e 1 000 pounds o f h e ns r e quire 8 2 7 8 cubic fe e t I n th e .

h e nhous e wh e re th e re ar e a good many birds if t h e poisonous ,

gas e s produc e d by t h e f owls ar e not carri e d o ff th e y will be ,

FIG . 2 1 5
. W hit e l
P ym o th R o c k s
u

bre ath e d re p e ate dly to t h e gre at inj ury o f t h e fowls S unshin e

,
.

is e ss e ntial b e caus e it h e lps k e e p t h e hous e dry mak e s it more ,

ch e e rful and is a gre at ge rm d e stroy e r

, .

A lthough chick e ns ar e many mor e ge n e rations r e mov e d

f rom th e ir wild anc e stors than ar e turk e ys n e v e rth e l e ss both ,

a r e still v e ry s e nsitiv e to crowding U nd e r conditions o f dom e s

.

t icat i on t h e flocks ar e larg e and ar e lik e ly to be crowd e d into

a rath e r small hous e T o promot e e gg production and insure

.

h e alth it is wis e to provid e 4 5 or 5 square fe e t o f floor spac e

f o r e ach chick e n .

561 S an it a t i on i n ch i ck en h ou s e s
. S ur fac e parasit e s and .

dis e as e ar e dang e rs that constantly b e s e t chick e ns Th e succ e ss .

fu l poultry k e e p e r must continually guard against th e s e things .

1 Ki n g, P ys h i cs o f A g ri lt r
cu u e, p 3 55
. .
 P O U LT R Y 4 2 3

The common e xt e rnal parasite s o f th e chick e n ar e t h e lous e

and t h e mit e L ic e lay th e ir e ggs at t h e bas e o f t h e f e ath e rs
.

and pass th e ir whol e li fe among t h e fe ath e rs fe e ding on t h e ,

scurf produc e d by t h e skin T h e y do not usually inj ure mature

.

birds though i f th ey b e com e too num e rous th e y irritat e th e m

, ,

making th e m n e rvous and uncom fortabl e and thus ch e ck e gg ,

production C hick e ns should hav e pl e nty o f road dust or S i ft e d

.

FIG . 2 1 6 . A g oo d ty l o f hi k
s e c c en ho us e

coal ash e s in which to wallow wh e n e ve r inclin e d T h e fi n e .

particl e s o f dust lodge i n t h e bre athing pore s o f t h e lic e and

kill th e m .

M it e s do not liv e continually on t h e body o f t h e h e n as do ,

lic e T h e y are tiny spid e rlik e organisms without e ye s and

.
, ,

poss e ss pi e rcing mouth parts by m e ans o f which th e y suck

blood f rom t h e body o f t h e chick e ns T h e y liv e i n t h e cre vic e s
.

o f t h e boards surrounding t h e p e rch e s or n e sts and go u po n ,

‘

t h e chick e ns only fo r t h e purpos e o f f e e ding W h e n fi l l e d with .

-

blood t h e mit e s again hid e i n t h e cr e vic e s M it e s ar e much

, .
4 2 4 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

more s e rious p e sts than ar e lic e and e v e ry re asonabl e p re ,

caution should be tak e n to insure th e ir abs e nc e T h e e ggs o f .

t h e mit e s ar e laid in t h e filth that accumulate s about t h e roosts .

W h e n mit e s hav e b e e n discov e r e d in a poultry hous e th e e ntire ,

int e rior o f t h e hous e should be spraye d at onc e with k e ros e n e ,

or with a 3 p e r c e nt solution o f a good coal tar stock dip care -

,

b e ing tak e n to soak t h e cre vic e s O n e spraying is not e nough .

,

FIG . 2 1 7t rior o f g oo d hi k ho
. In e a c c en use

S howi ng pe rh
c e s, d ro pp i g b o rd b roo dy oop f d hop p r
n a ,
c d w t ri
, ee e ,
an a e n g app li an ce .

( P hotog r p h fro m P rd
a E xp ri m
u t S t tio )
ue e en a n

b e caus e it kills only t h e living mit e s and do e s not inj ur e t h e

e ggs particularly if th e y ar e w e ll cov e r e d
,
Th e e ggs will hatch .

in f rom four to six days i n war m w eath e r and in f rom s e v e n ,

to t e n days i n cool w e ath e r and t h e tim e o f t h e s e cond spray

,

ing should be gov e rn e d by t h e t e mp e rature S praying fo r m ite s .

also h e lps to guard against oth e r poult ry dis e as e s T h e chick e n .

hous e should be thoroughly sp ray e d at l e ast twic e a y e ar e v e n

i f no mit e s app e ar and it should always be spraye d a ft e r any
.

outbre ak o f dis e as e .
42 6 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

563 . t
Th e f eed an d t h e m as h
s cr a ch i n g T h e whol e or .

c rack e d grain portion o f t h e ration is usually spok e n o f as t h e

scratching fe e d b e caus e it is scatt e re d in a d ee p litt e r o f straw so
, ,

that t h e birds will hav e to tak e pl e nty o f e x e rcis e in scratching it

out T h e ground part of t h e ration is usually r e fe rre d to as mash
. .

I t may be moist e n e d with sour milk or with wat e r or it may be ,

FIG . 2 1
9 . W hit e W y an d ott e s

fe d dry D ry mash is usually fe d from a hopp e r so that t h e

.
,

chick e ns may h e lp th e ms e lv e s at will .

I n t h e S pring i f t h e chick e ns ar e allow e d to hav e t h e run

,

o f t h e f arm b e sid e s b e ing abl e to t bugs and worms in abun

, g e

danc e th e y can also pick up t e nd e r gre e n v e ge tation i n many

, ,

f orms T h e fact that th e s e two kinds o f f ee d ar e pl e nti ful at

.

that tim e of y e ar is o n e o f t h e r e asons why h e ns lay mor e e ggs

in t h e spring o f t h e y e ar than during t h e fall and wint e r He ns .

d e p e nd on good pastur e a gre at d e al more than is g e n e rally

 P O U LT R Y 42 7

suppos e d and gr e e n food should be a part o f t h e ration t h e

,

y e ar round D uring t h e wint e r months it may be furnish e d in

.

t h e form o f sprout e d oats mang e l b e e ts or cabbage

, S t e am e d , .

al fal fa clov e r or cowp e a l e av e s or e v e n t h e l e av e s as th e y

, ,

S hatt e r f rom t h e hay f orm a good substitut e f o r f r e sh v e g e tation

, ,

but ar e not so good as succul e nt f ood .

5 64 Ty p i cal r a t i on s f or l ay i n g h en s
. T h e f ollowing grain .

ration is good f o r a mix e d flock o f laying h e ns

r
3 p a ts w h eat
2 p art s c r ac k e d c or n or kafi r
1 p a rt o a t s

T his should be f e d with a dry mash f rom t h e following stock

mixture
60 p o u n d s c or n m e a l 30 p o u d s w h e a t b r an
n

60 p o u n d s w h e a t m i dd li n gs , 1 0 p o n d s a l fa l fa m e al
u

o r s hort s 1 0 p oun d li n se e d oil m e al

s -

0
5 p o u n d s m ea t Scr ap s I po d s alt
un

A good dry mash ration for lay i ng h e ns

-
of th e M e dite rran e an
or light e r vari e ti e s is as follows
P A RT S BY W E I G HT
Cor n m e al 32
W h e a t b r an 52
“

W h e at m i dd li n gs ,
or s hort s
Li se e d m e al
n .

M e at scr ap s

The scratching part o f this ration should be whol e corn and

wh e at in e qual parts D uring t h e wint e r silage may be us e d
.
,

f r e e ly i n plac e of gre e n f e e d O yst e r S h e ll grit and charcoal

.
, ,

should be consta ntly b e fore t h e f owls .

5 65 How an d w h en t o f eed
. I n t h e morning a light fe e d o f
.

whol e and crack e d grain should b e scatt e re d ov e r t h e fe e ding

floor in a d e e p litt e r o f straw A t noon t h e mash hopp e rs should
.

b e ope n e d and th e y should be l e ft op e n throughout t h e a ft e r

noon G re e n fe e d should also be fe d if t h e birds ar e confin e d
.

or i f t h e ground is f roz e n T h e amount giv e n should be about

.

what th e y will eat i n f rom tw e nty minut e s to hal f an hour .

4 2 8 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

F re sh wat e r S hould be giv e n in t h e morning and at noon I n .

warm w e ath e r it should be giv e n again in t h e e v e ning W hil e .

t h e mash hopp e rs ar e l e ft op e n during t h e e ntir e a ft e rnoon ,

th e re is littl e dang e r o f t h e h e ns ov e re ating b e caus e th ey pre fe r ,

t h e whol e or crack e d grains and usually will be f ound e ag e r fo r

,

th e ir e v e ning m e al o f scratching f e e d .

T h e amount f e d in t h e e v e ning should b e what t h e fowls will

’
cl e an u p b e for e going to roost I f upon fe e ling o f th e f owls
.

crops aft e r th e y are on

t h e p e rch th e y ar e not
w e ll fill e d not e nough ,

grain has b e e n fe d I f .

som e o f t h e grain in
t h e litt e r r e mains u n
e at e n a ft e r t h e birds
hav e finish e d t h e fowls ,

have b e e n fe d too much .

I t is more d e sirabl e
f rom t h e standpoint of
e gg production to u n

d e rf e e d slightly than to
ov e rfee d b e caus e wh e n ,

ov e rfe d and inactive ,

h e ns lay l e ss in propor
F I G 2 0 S il e r L c e d W y
. 2 . v -
d ott e h e
a an
tion to
n
t h e f e e d giv e n
than wh e n th e y are
som e what hungry T h e re ally skill ful fe e d e r k e e ps t h e app etit e
.

stimulat e d and t h e birds thri fty and hustling by n e v e r fe e ding ,

quit e as much as th e y would lik e to eat ye t always s e nding th e m ,

to roost with full crops .

5 66 Ra ti on s f or y ou n g ch i ck s
. F or t h e first two days young
.

chicks should not be f e d or wat e re d as t h e nourishm e nt r e quire d

,

during this p e riod is provid e d in t h e e gg F rom that tim e on .

th e y should be fe d f re qu e ntly ( at l e ast fi ve tim e s daily i f th e y

ar e k e pt in brood e rs on in f e rtil e e ggs t e st e d out o f t h e in e u
)
bator hard boil e d and ground fi n e ( sh e ll and all ) in a m e at
,
-
4 30 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

5 68 . I n cu b a t i n g . The
ge rm spot on t h e yolk o f an e gg is
always at t h e upp e rmost point If an e gg is turn e d t h e yol k .
,

will slowly rotat e insid e t h e sh e ll until t h e ge rm com e s to t h e

high e st point T his s e rv e s to bring t h e ge rm which d e v e lops
.
,

into a living chick n e ar to t h e warm body o f t h e sitting h e n

, .

A fe rtil e e gg will d e ve lop into a chick in twe nty to twe nty

o n e days i f t h e t e mp e ratur e at t h e l e v e l o f t h e top o f t h e e gg is

k e pt at 1 0 3 d e gre e s F .

T h e t e mp e rature o f t h e
’
h e n s body is usually
1 06 d e gr e e s F and t h e .
,

top o f t h e e gg will ge n
e ral l y b e f ound to b e

about 1 0 3 d e gre e s F .

I t has b e e n found that

by furnishing t h e sam e
t e mp e ratur e by artificial
m e ans e ggs may be ,

succ e ss fully hatch e d .

B ox e s ( call e d incuba
tors ) h e at e d by an oil ,

lamp with an automatic

damp e r that op e ns to
F IG 2 2 1
. B l c k O r p i g to h e n
. a n allow t h e e scap e o f h e at
n

A p op l r r p r t ti of t h E gli h l I f it is t OO high O I d os e s
‘

u a e e s en a ve e n s c as s ,

to hold mor e h e at i n t h e
box wh e n it is too low ar e us e d v e ry succ e ss fully fo r hatching e ggs
,
.

569 M an a gi n g an i n cu b a t or
. T h e incubator should be k e pt
.

in a room wh e re t h e t e mp e rature is fairly uni form F o r this .

r e ason a c e llar is o fte n us e d b e ing found more satis facto ry than

,

a living room which is lik e ly to be too cool at night Care

,
.

must be tak e n to s e e that t h e top o f t h e incubator is l e v e l so ,

that t h e h e at wi ll be e v e nly distribut e d .

A ft e r t h e lamp has b e e n light e d t h e re gulator should be ,

adj ust e d until an e v e n t e mp e rature o f 1 02 d e gre e s F or 1 03 .

d e gr e e s F is mainta in e d at t h e l e v e l of t h e top o f t h e e ggs

. .
 P O U LT R Y 4 31

E xc e pt in v e ry we t climat e s a pan of wat e r with a sponge to , ,

furnish an e vaporating surfac e should be plac e d b e low t h e e gg ,

trays to k e e p t h e air moist Th e incubator is th e n r e ady to .

r e c e iv e t h e e ggs B e ginning t h e third day t h e e ggs should be

.
,

ta k e n out and turn e d ge ntly thr ee tim e s a day O nc e a day .

,

a ft e r turning th e y should be l e ft out long e nough to fe e l cool

,

to som e s e nsitiv e part o f t h e body such as t h e lips or eye ,

lids T his corr e sponds to t h e change in t e mp e rature wh e n t h e

.

h e n l e av e s t h e n e st to e at and r e sults in an improv e d hatch

, .

T his routin e should

be follow e d until t h e
e ight e e nth day wh e n ,

t h e t e mp e ratur e may b e
allow e d to re ach 1 04
d e gre e s F but must not
.

go abov e 1 0 5 d e gre e s F .

Th e door o f t h e in e u
bator should be k e pt
clos e d from this tim e
until a fte r t h e b at ch is
ov e r Th e moisture pan F I G 2 2 A i m p l d i f or i p c ti g gg
. . 2 . s e e v ce ns e n e s

S h OU l d be r e mov e d and Th t b dl h r how w m d fro m

e u e, or c an e,
”
e e s n as a e

t h e e gg t I ay arrang e d
‘ o r p p r T h gg i d
c l d ith r b y
a se o f a e . e e s can e e e use

tro g li ght by f l gh t d l m p
s n sun or use o a i e a

so that t h e chicks may

drop down into t h e nurs e ry bottom o f t h e incubator T h e chicks .

should be l e ft in t h e nurs e ry without fe e ding fo r thirty six hours

, ,
-

or more until th e y call vigorously fo r som e thing to eat

, .

O n t h e s e v e nth and fourt e e nth days it is customary to t e st

out in fe rtil e e ggs or thos e whos e ge rms S how unmistakabl e
,

e vid e nc e o f having di e d F i T his giv s mor room

( g e e .

for t h e chicks to hatch and pre v e nts t h e d e ad e ggs f rom

,

b e coming putrid .

5 7 0 B r oodi n g W h e n incubators ar e us e d fo r hatching in

. .
,

t h e plac e o f h e ns som e thing must b e provid e d to tak e t h e

,

plac e o f t h e moth e r fo r brooding ( Fig F o r this purpos e .

box e s som e what di ffe r e ntly shap e d f rom incubators but h e ate d
,
4 32 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

i n much t h e sam e way are us e d and ar e call e d brood e rs

, .

B e sid e s k ee ping t h e chicks warm t h e brood e r must be w e ll

,

ve ntilat e d as was sugge st e d in t h e construction of hous e s for

,

mature stock .

W h e n t h e chicks are first re mov e d f rom t h e incubator t h e ,

t e mp e ratur e und e r t h e hov e r ( th e warm e st comp artm e nt of t h e

brood e r) S hould be about 1 00 d e gre e s F T h e usual custom is .

to r e duc e t h e t e mp e ratur e at t h e rat e o f about fi ve d e gre e s a

w e e k T his should be .

gov e rn e d by j udgm e nt
rath e r than by rule The .

t e mp e rature should be
as low as is consist e nt
with k e e ping t h e chicks
warm e nough to preve nt
th e m f rom crowding .

57 1 . S av i n g eggs f or
W h e n not
m ar k et .

care d for prop e rly e ggs ,

will spoil almost as

quickly as milk or but
ter A n e gg is n e v e r
.

again so good for tabl e

F I G 2 2 3 A b roo d e r ; h e a ti g l am p o u t s i d e
. . n -

purpos e s as wh e n it is
p e r fe ctly f re sh T h e re fore in saving e ggs to s e ll t h e e ffort
.
, ,

should be to k e e p th e m as n e arly as possibl e in t h e condition

i n which th e y w e r e wh e n n e wly laid E ggs los e th e ir f r e shn e ss
.

by shrinking incubating b e coming wat e ry molding or absorb

, , , ,

ing odors T h e s e d e fe cts incre as e with age and th e e gg should

.
,

th e re for e be mark e te d as soon as possibl e aft e r b e ing laid .

I f a n e wly laid e gg is h e ld b e fore a candl e or t e st e r t h e con ,

t e nts will be found to fill th e sh e ll compl et e ly W h e n t h e e gg has .

b e com e cool its cont e nts contract and a small air spac e known
, ,

as t h e air c e ll may be s e e n at t h e large e n d A s t h e e gg grows .

old e r this spac e incre as e s in siz e I f t h e e ggs are k e pt in warm

, .

air or if anything is don e that op e ns t h e pore s e vaporation is ,

4 34 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

QUE S TIONS AND P ROB LE M S

1 . o
C mpa e t h e r
tot l al ue o f t h e e ggs an d p o ltry p ro duce d an n ually
a v u

i n the it
t t
U n e d S a es w ith t h e al e o f m i e r al p ro d uct s v u n .

2 W h y i s t h e c hi c k e n t h e m o s t p o p l a r s p e c i e s o f p o lt ry ?
. u u

3 N am e f o r c o m m o n c l a s e o f hi k e s g i v i g t h e d i s ti n gu i s hi g
. u s s c c n ,
n n

c h ar ac t e ri s ti cs o f e ach .

4 W h a t i s t h e d i ffe r e ce b t w e e a b r e e d
. d a va ri ty ?
n e n an e

5 G i e r e as o s w h y p r e b r e e d s f p o ltry ar e b e tt e r f o r t h e far m
. v n u o u

th an m o g re l s n .

6 W h at ar e t h e e s s e ti l o f a g oo d h e ho s e ?
. n a s n u

7 D e sc ri b e t h e p a r s it e k o w as li ce a d m it e s a d e x p l ai n h ow t o
. a s n n n ,
n

c o n trol e ac h I f s p e c i m e s can b e f o
. d t dy th e m by s e o f h a d
n un ,
s u u n

m ag i fy i n g g l ss e s
n -
a .

8 H o w a e v e n til a tio
. r a d s u s hi e i t h e c hi c k e n ho use r e l a t e d t o
n n n n n

t h e h e lth o f c hi k
a s ? c en

9 W ith t h e fe e d s a a il ab l e a t ho m e r i n y o u r lo cal m ark et as t h e

. v o

b s i s p r e p a r a c h art g i v i g a p ro p r s p ri g r atio fo a fl o ck o f m ix e d
a ,
e ,
n e n n r

p o ltr
u y ; a p pro e r w i t e r r tio n f o r t h e s m e fl ock
n a a .

1 0 W h y are g ri t an d oys t r s h e ll s i m p ort a t i f e e d i n g c hi cke n s ?

. e n n

1 1 W h t i m p ort n t d i ffe r e ce s
. a e th r e i
a co n te t d i n u s e be t w e e
n ar e n n an n

s c r a t c hi g f e e d a d d y m
n h W h at fe e d i g r e g l tio s s ho l d b e o bs e rv e d ?
n r as . n u a n u

1 2 D e sc ri b e w h e
. h o w a d w h a t t f d e w ly h tc h e d c hi c k s H w
n, ,
n o ee n a . o

d o e t h e p ro p e r fe e d i g o f uc h c hi c k s c o m p a r e w ith t h p ro p e r f e e d i n g o f
s n s e

g ro w i n g c hi c k af t e r l e av i g t h e b roo d e r ?
s n

1 3 A t w h at t e m p e r a t r e w ill e ggs s t a rt t o i n c b a t e ? A t w h a t t e m p e r a
. u u

t r e s ho l d e ggs be i n g s a d f h atc hi g p r p o e s b e k e p t ?
u u ve or n u s

1 4 P r e p r e a c h a rt i d i ca ti g t h e p ro p e r m ag e m e t o f a i c b a tor
. a ,
n n an n n n u ,

s o th at t h e c orr e ct t e m p e r at r e t h e p ro p e r am o t o f m oi s t r e a d t h e
u s, un u ,
n

n e ce ar y
ss e til a tio
v m ay b e s e c r e d f ro m t h e ti m e t h e e ggs a e p l ace d
n n u r

u n til t h e y o g c hi c k s a e r m o e d
un r e v .

1 5 A t w h a t t e m p e r a t r e s s ho l d t h e b roo de r b e w h e n n e w l y h at c h e d
. u u

c hi c k s a e p l ac e d i n it ?
r H o w r ap i d ly S ho l d t h e t e m p e r t r e b e lo w e r e d ? u a u

1 6 I w h a t wa y s d o e ggs s p oil a d h o w m y s p oili n g b e p r e e t d ?

. n ,
n a v n e

1 7 W hy . e i f e rtil e e ggs b e s t f or t h e m a rk e t i
ar n w a r m w e ath r ? n e

W h a t are t h e ch a r act e r i s ti cs o f a fi s t c l as s e gg ? H o w m ay t h e qu ality r -

b e d e te r m i n e d 3
 P O U LT R Y 4 35

RE F E RE NCE S

B RO W N , E . Race s of o
t P o lt ry Lo g m a s G r e e an d C o m p y
D m e s ic u . n n ,
n, an .

LE W I S H R P ro d uc ti e P o u ltry H s b a d ry J B Li pp i n c ott C o m p a y
,
. . v u n . . . n .

L I PP I N CO T T W A P o ltry P ro d cti o Le a a d F e b ige

, . . u u n . n r .

P UR V I S M I LL E R P o ltry B r e e d i g B r eed er s G zett e

,
. u n ,
’
a .

R O B I N S O N J H O ur D o m e s ti c B ir d s
, . . G i n n a d Compa y . n n .

R O B I N S O N J H P ri c i p l es a d P r acti ce o f P o ltry C u lt u r e G i n a n d
, . . n n u . n

C o m p an y .

Am e ri ca S ta d r d o f P e r fe ctio n T h e Am e ri ca P o u lt ry As s o ci ati o
n n a . n n .

A rti fi ci al I c b tio an d B roo d i g T h e R e li ab l e P o ltry J o r al P ub li s h

n u a n n . u u n

i n g C o m pa y n .

T h e C hi c k B ook Th e R e li ab l e P o ltry J o r n al P b li s hi g C o m p a y
. u u u n n .

D uc k s a d G e e s e T h e R e li ab l e P o ltry J o r al P b li hi g C o m p a y
n . u u n u s n n .

T h e Le g hor s T h e R e li ab l e P o ltry J o u r al P u b li hi g C o m p a y
n . u n s n n .

N at r al a d A rti fi c i al B roo d i g f C hi c k e s F r m er
u n B u l l et i n 62 4
n o n ,
a s
’
,

U it e d S t at e s D e p a rt m e n t o f A g ri c u lt r e 1 9 1 4
n u ,
.

T h e O r p i g to n s T h e R e li ab l e P o ultry J o r
n . l P bli s hi n g C o mp a y u na u n .

T h e P l ym o th R o c k s T h e R e li ab l e P o u l try J o u r a l P b li s hi g C o m p an y
u . n u n .

P o u ltry H o us e s an d F ixt u r e s C o m p il e d d p u bli s h e d by t h e R e li ab l e

. an

P o ltry J o r n a l P ub li s hi g C o m p a y
u u n n .

T h R ho de I s l a d R e d s T h e R e li ab l e P o ltry J o u r al P ub li s hi g C o m p a y
e n . u n n n .

T u rk e ys T h e R e li ab l e P o u lt ry J o r n l P u b li s hi g C o m p a y
. u a n n .

T h e W ya d ott e s T h e R e li ab l e P o ltry J o r
n . l P u b li s hi g C o m p an y u u na n .
 CHA PTE R X X XV I

B US I NE S S AS PE CTS OF FAR MI NG

K o w th t w ith f r m
n a a a as w ith m ho w r p ro d ti
a an , eve uc ve it m ay b e , i f it
h as th p d i g h b it
e s en t n a , no muc h w ill b l f t o r C A TO
e e ve .

I . FA R M M A NA G E M E N T

5 74 I n t h e pre c e ding chapt e rs more or

Car di n al p ri n ci p l es
. .

l e ss has b e e n said about t h ebusin e ss asp e cts of farm practic e s ,

but c e rtain cardinal principl e s o f farm manage m e nt must be

r e cogniz e d T h e farm busin e ss must be large e nough to uti
.

liz e profitably t h e di ffe r e nt factors involv e d F arm op e rations .

must be dive rsifi e d F arm labor must be constantly and pro

.

d u ct iv e l y e mploy e d F arm products must be compl e t e ly and

.

int e llige ntly utiliz e d .

5 7 5 S i z e of t h e f ar m F arm manag e m e nt surv e ys S how that

. .
-

th e re is a d e finit e re lation b e tw ee n t h e S ize o f th e busin e ss and

t h e incom e also that th e r e is a maximum S iz e busin e ss b eyond -

wh i ch p r o fi t s d e clin e in proportion to t h e incr e as e C onsid e ring

’
.

only thos e farm e rs who carry on a ge n e ral typ e o f mix e d farm

ing probably th e minimum S iz e of a profitabl e farm is about
,

1 00 acr e s with a total inv e stm e nt Of f rom $ 5000 to $ 7 000 .

T h e optimum siz e or t h e siz e at which th e busin e ss would be

,

most profitabl e is probably f rom 2 4 0 to 32 0 acr e s with a total

, ,

inv e stm e nt o f from 1 to A much large r busin e ss

may be profitabl e i n sp e cial cas e s but more than av e rag e busin e ss ,

ability is re quire d to Op e rat e succ e ss fully t h e large r e nt e rpris e s .

4 36
4 38 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

A . T H E S I Z E O F T H E F A R M A S R E LA T E D TO T H E E F F I C I E N C Y
OF MA N L A B O R

S IZ E FA RM (A C )
A C RE S FA RM E D W ITH $ 1 00 W O RT H
OF RES
OF LA B OR

30 or less
— 60
3 1

61 — 1 00

1 01— 1 50 .

— 2 00
1 5 1 .

O ve r 2 00

B . T H E S I Z E O F T H E F A R M A S R E L A T E D TO T H E E F F I C I E N C Y
O F H O R S E LA B O R

OF F A RM ( AC RE S ) A C RE S

30 or l e ss

3 1 — 60 .

61— 1 00

1 01— 1 5 0 .

1 5 1 -
2 00 .

O ve r 2 00

Av e r ag e

C . S I Z E O F F A R M A S R E LAT E D T O E F F I C I E N T U S E O F
M A C H I NE RY A N D T O O L S

F A RM A C A C RE S FAR M E D W IT H $ 1 00 W O RTH
OF RE S
OF MA C H I NE R Y A N D T O O L S

30 or l ess

3 1 — 60
61 — 1 00

1 01— 1 5 0 .

— 2 00
1 5 1

O ve r 2 00

Av e rage

first tabl e S hows that on t h e small e st farm $ 1 00 worth

Th e
o f man labor farm e d about 5 acr e s W hil e on t h e larg e st farms 6 ,

tim e s as much land is farm e d with t h e sam e labor outlay T h e .

labor was utiliz e d 6 tim e s more e ffi ci e ntly on th e 2 00 acre farm -

than on t h e 5 acre farm Th e s e cond tabl e shows that t h e hors e

-
.

on t h e small farm will do t h e work fo r 1 5 acre s whil e on t h e ,

 B U S I NE S S A S P EC T S O F F A R M I NG .

4 39

Mr gé m it will do t h e work fo r more than 3 tim e s as many

l fal

deres i T h e last tabl e shows that $ 1 00 worth o f machin e ry

‘

S ef v e d o nly 1 7 acr e s o f land on t h e small e st farm whil e On

’
‘
,

t he larg e st f arms it s e rv e d n e arly doubl e this ar e a Th e farm .

busin e ss must be o f such a siz e as to utiliz e m an an d hors e labor ~

and machin e ry to t h e b e st advanta ge O n t h e small farm d e ad .

-
‘

inv e stm e nt in t h e cas e o f machin e ry and t h e non e mploym e nt or ,

at l e ast lack o f profitabl e e mploym e nt o f labor is cl e arly r e v e al e d

,

by t h e re sults o f this surv e y .

I t should not be in fe rre d that only t h e large farm will pay .

T h e man with small capital may own a small farm and re nt

additional land to good advantage W h e re r e ntals are not .

e xc e ssiv e it is good busin e ss to re nt land

,
.

5 7 8 F a r m Op er a t i on s s h ou l d b e d i v e rs i fi ed
. I f as much as .

60 p e r c e nt o f t h e incom e o f a farm is d e riv e d f rom t h e sal e

o f hay and grain it should b e class e d as a hay a n d grain farm
'

if f rom cotton, it should be class e d as a cotton farm Th e typ e .

o f farm ing is also classifi e d in oth e r ways such as e xt e nsiv e and ,

int e nsiv e according to wh e th e r farm op e rations ar e sp e cializ e d

—

or div e rsifi e d .

S p e cializ e d farming is particularly adapt e d to larg e ar e as o f =

ch e ap land or to Small are as o f high pric e d land n e ar a city It -

.

is not w e ll adapt e d to t h e av e rage f arm mor e or l e ss re mot e ,

f rom mark e t S p e cializ e d f arming whil e o ft e n highly profitabl e

.
, ,

always carri e s t h e maximum risk as r e gards w e ath e r conditions

and dange rs f rom ins e ct p e sts and plant dis e as e s .

D iv e rsifi e d f arming is b e tt e r adapt e d to ge n e ral co n d it io n s ai

.

I t is important how e v e r to avoid too gre at a dive rsity T hus

, ,
.
,

it would be unwis e to grow on a 1 60 acr e farm 4 0 acre s o f -

tobacco 4 0 acre s o f corn and 4 0 acre s o f cotton b e caus e th e s e

, , ,

Crops l e av e t h e ground unprot e ct e d during t h e wint e r ; th e y com

p e t e fo r labor by r e quiring cultivation a t t h e sam e tim e and '

th e y do n ot distribut e t h e labor throughout t h e y e ar Th e labor

'

re quire m e nt for such a s e ri e s o f crops would b e v e ry high f rom

M a rch until lat e fall and littl e o n nothing fo r t h e r e st o f t h e
,
x
‘

ye ar S uch comp e ting crops would not h e lp solv e t h e labor

.
'
44 0 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C ULT U R E

probl e m O n t h e oth e r hand l e t t h e thre e 4 0 acre fi e lds be

.
,
-

grown i n rotation i n corn in oats or wh e at and in clov e r , , .

W ith such a rotation o n e man with a littl e h e lp for a fe w days ,

at harv e st could farm t h e 1 2 0 acre s S uch a rotation would be

,
.

noncomp e ting as to labor and would assist in maintaining t h e

fe rtility o f t h e soil I n t h e sam e way farm stock may be co n fl ict
.

ing or may work we ll toge th e r B e e f cattl e and hogs dairy cattl e .

,

and hogs or sh e e p and hogs combin e w e ll W hil e b e e f cattl e and

, ,

dairy cattl e conflict S om e kinds o f liv e stock combin e w e ll with

.

c e rtai n crops whil e oth e rs ar e in comp e tition F o r insta nc e dairy

, .
,

stock do not combin e w e ll with large are as o f grain or hay whil e ,

b e e f cattl e and hogs fit admirably into such a syste m b e caus e ,

th ey re quire littl e att e ntion i n summ e r wh e n t h e crops r e quire

t h e maximum labo r and t h e stock giv e s profitabl e e mploym e nt
,

i n W int e r T h e re for e prop e r farm dive rsification avoids crops

.

and stock which s e riously comp e t e and s e cure s a combination

which is adapte d to t h e mark e ts soil and climate , , .

5 79 Th e di st r i b u t i on of f ar m l ab or T h e f arm syst e m should

. .

be plann e d so that t h e labor r e quir e d will b e e v e nly distribut e d

throughout t h e y e ar F arm labor may be divid e d into thre e
.

class e s : maint e nanc e labor crop labor and oth e r productiv e , ,

labor M aint e nanc e labor such as t h e re gular chor e s cutting

.
, ,

w e e ds and painting brings no dire ct r e turn and should be r e

, ,

d uce d to t h e small e st amount consist e nt with t h e prop e r upk e e p

O f stock machin e ry and busin e ss
, , .

C r Op labor has to do with growing crops from t h e tim e spri ng

work b e gins until t h e crop is sold A lthough crop labor ca nnot .

run throughout t h e y e ar t h e syst e m o f cropping should k e e p t h e

,

labor d e mand as uni form and as w e ll balanc e d as possibl e during

t h e crop s e ason I f th e re is conflict b e twe e n t h e b e st u s e o f
.

crop labor and a satis factory cropping syste m t h e crop—labor ,

re quire m e nts should be r e adj ust e d .

O th e r productiv e labor includ e s all work on stock k e pt fo r

profit ( such as be e f cattl e dairy cattl e sh e e p hogs and poultry)
, , , , ,

also sp e cial labor e xp e nd e d on crops a fte r all n e c e ssary labor for

th e ir production and mark e ting has be e n pe rf orm ed I t includ e s .
44 2 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U L T UR E

581 . Uti l i z a ti on of f ar m p r odu ct s

A t pre s e nt t h e A m e rican
.

f arm e r grows his crops and stock to b e tt e r advantage than h e

utiliz e s th e m T oo much mat e rial go e s to wast e and t h e road
.
,

f rom t h e f arm to t h e kitch e n o f t h e consum e r is too long and

involve s too many p e opl e O n e v e ry farm e nough live s tock
.

should be k e pt to utiliz e t h e coars e r mat e rials that hav e no

mark e t valu e T h e products o f t h e farm should be standardiz e d
.

by t h e farm e r hims e l f and should not r e quire t h e s e rvic e s o f a

numb e r o f p e opl e at c e ntral mark e ts to sort pack and oth e rwis e , ,

pre par e th e m fo r consumption T h e farm e rs o f D e nmark took

.

t h e e gg busin e ss o f L ondon f rom t h e I rish farm e r by f u r n i s h i n g

only cl e an f re sh e ggs o f standard siz e and quality T h e appl e .

grow e rs of t h e Northw e st hav e found a r e ady sal e fo r th e ir

products at t h e high e st mark e t pric e b e caus e t h e stamp on e ach
box is a guaranty o f t h e standard quality o f t h e cont e nts T h e .

whol e qu e stion o f t h e utilization o f farm products conc e rn s its e l f

most intimat e ly with t h e busin e ss sid e o f farming and is more a
work o f t h e h e ad than o f t h e hand .

II . F A R M A C C O U NT S
5 82 . Keepi n g t s T h e farm e r should be abl e to t e ll at
a ccou n .

t h e e n d o f t h e y e ar what his gain or loss has b e e n and which

d e partm e nts o f his busin e ss hav e mad e or lost mon e y W h e n .

t h e things ar e happ e ning which t h e farm e r should re cord in his

accounts h e is o fte n too busy to re cord th e m W h e n h e has
,
.

l e isur e h e has f orgott e n t h e d e tails A syst e m o f bookk e e ping

, .

which is adapt e d to t h e av e rage farm e r must be simpl e .

5 83 Th e i n v en t ory
. A n inve ntory should be tak e n at t h e
.

b e ginning o f t h e farm y e ar T h e farm e r should list e v e rything

.

h e poss e ss e s including r e al e sta t e liv e stock e quipm e nt sup

, , , ,

pli e s bills re c e ivabl e or mon e y ow e d him ( wh e th e r as not e s or

,

as op e n accounts ) and cash on hand A ft e r all o f th e s e ite ms are

, .

liste d and cons e rvativ e valu e s have b e e n plac e d on e ach it e m ,

add t h e valu e s o f e v e rything e xc e pt bills payabl e which will giv e ,

t h e tota l inv e stm e nt i n busin e ss B y subtracting bills payabl e

.

f rom this tota l inv e st m e nt t h e n e t worth o f t h e busin e ss is shown .

 B U S I NE S S A S P EC T S O F F A R M I NG 44 3

A noth e r inve ntory should be tak e n at t h e clos e o f t h e y e ar .

B y placing t h e two inv e ntori e s sid e by sid e as shown in T abl e I ,

a comparison o f t h e n e t worth at th e b e ginning and at t h e

’
clos e o f t h e y e ar s busin e ss can be mad e Th e amount o f gain .

or loss do e s not t e ll t h e W hol e story I t is more important to .

know wh e re t h e gain or loss has occurr e d T h e inv e ntory may .

show a gain o f $ 500 i n t h e valu e o f hogs but i f th is incr e as e ,

has cost $ 550 a f act which t h e inv e ntori e s cannot sho w it

do e s not re pre s e nt gain but loss T o d e t e rmin e which d e part .
“

m e nt mad e mon e y and which lost mon ey it is n e c e ssary to carry

l e dge r accounts fo r t h e various parts o f t h e busin e ss T abl e I I .

shows a l e dge r account prop e rly op e n e d with t h e it e ms e nt e re d ,

fo r t h e y e ar and clos e d at t h e e n d o f t h e y e ar
,
.

5 84 W h at accou n ts t o k eep
. A ccounts should be k e pt with
.

thos e parts of t h e busin e ss which a r e o f t h e gr e at e st importanc e .

B y k e e ping l e dg e r accounts with t h e principal class e s o f liv e

stock and with t h e more important crops t h e sourc e s o f t h e prin
, ,

c i p al gains or loss e s will be r e v e al e d Th e r e maind e r o f t h e .

r e c e ipts and e xp e ns e s may b e includ e d in a ge n e ral e xp e ns e -

account I f it is d e sire d to find out what has b e e n paid fo r labor

.
,

fo r family living or fo r any oth e r particular e xp e ns e t h e g e n e ral

, ,

e xp e ns e account may b e divid e d so as to show th e s e f acts .

T h e crop and stock accounts tak e care o f t h e productiv e e nt e r

p ris e s o n t h e farm and t h e ge n e ral e xp e ns e account will tak e
,
-

care Of t h e h e avy e xp e ns e s lik e labor e xp e ns e s family living

, , ,

and t h e purchas e of f e e ds and suppli e s I f t h e busin e ss is con .

duct e d e ntire ly on a cash basis th e s e accounts will mak e t h e work

,

compl e t e I f t h e farm e r is buying and s e lling on account h e

.
,

will n e e d to carry additional accounts o f bills payabl e and bills

re c e ivabl e .

5 85 How t o k ee p accou n t s
. T h e valu e s as shown by t h e i n
.

ve n tor
y should b e e nt e r e d in t h e various accounts and in all ,

th e s e with o n e e xc e ption this valu e should be plac e d on t h e

, ,

l e ft hand or e xp e ns e sid e o f t h e account T his e xc e ption is

-
, , .

in bills payabl e T h e e xp e ns e s o f liv e stock shou l d includ e all

.

cash outlay f o r additional animals and fo r v e t e rina ry fe e s also t h e ,

444 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C ULT U R E

valu e o f labo r us e d in caring fo r this stock and o f t h e fe e d us e d

’
from t h e crops grown on t h e farm E ach y e ar s account should .

b e ar its proportion o f tax e s insuranc e and inte re st on inv e st , ,

m e nt T h e re c e ipts sid e o f t h e live stock account will includ e

.
-

t h e amount r e c e iv e d fo r animals or animal products sold and t h e

valu e o f t h e labor e xp e nd e d on crops s e e d and f e rtiliz e rs use d , , ,

and at th e e n d o f t h e y e ar its proportionate part o f t h e tax e s

, , ,

int e re st paid on t h e amount and t h e d e pre ciation on tools O n , .

t h e r e c e ipt sid e should app e ar t h e valu e o f t h e crops harv e st e d .

T h e g e n e ral e xp e ns e account would carry all oth e r e xp e ns e s

o f t h e farm P e rhaps at t h e b e ginning a ge n e ral crop account
.
, , ,

a ge n e ral liv e stock account and a ge n e ral e xp e ns e account are

-
,

all that S hould be att e mpt e d .

IN V E NT O R Y S UM M A R Y
T A B LE I . Thi s tabl e s ho w s t h e p ro p e r me tho d o f s u mm a rizi ng a r
fa m
i n ve n tory t o s h ow th e n t i es tm e n t
e nv .

RE S O UR C ES LIA BL
I ITI ES

Il o rs e s

Ca ttl e

H og s

Sh p ee

P o ltry
u

E q ipm
u t en

Ho hol d q i p m t
use e u en an d S u p p li es

Fee d
Seed
M i s c e ll an e o u s supp li es

Re a l
t t es a e

W h t o w l t f ll ( l b or
ea s n as a a an d seed )
B ill r s i bl e c e va e

B ill p y b l
s a a e

C h as

P ro p ri tor hi p ( t w orth )
e s ne
44 6 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E
TA B LE I II H og acc o u t s ho wi n g t h e m o s t c o n v e n i e n t f o rm d l e dge r
. n ,
i

age ; t h e c orr e c t m e tho d o f o p e n i g t h e acc o u n t e n t e ri n g t h e

n
p ,

c lo s i n g t h e acc o u n t f o r t h e ye a r (
. N ot e t h e p o s itio n o f i n v e n to r i es at t h e

be gi n n i n g a n d c lo s e o f ye a r ; a l s o th a t t h e a cc o u n t i s O p e n e d agai n f o r
a n oth e r y e ar )
.

HO G S

"
M o n th M o n th

’
T his y e ar s hog busin e ss show e d a profit o f $ 33 A simi
lar account With cattl e co r n io r cotton and t h e oth e r principal
’
, ,

sourc e s o f incom e will S how f rom what sourc e s t h e profits o f

t h e y e ar cam e and o f gr e at e r importanc e th e y will S how what
, , ,

parts i f any o f t h e farm busi n es s lost mon e y Locating t h e

, , .

l e ak is t h e first st e p toward stopping it .

 B U S I NE S S A S P EC T S O F F A R M I NG 447

Q UE S TIONS A ND P ROB LE M S

1 . W h at is s ho w n t o be t h e r e l tio a n t
be w e e n th e s iz e of a fa m r an d
th e l b or i co m e ?
a n

2 W h a t i s t h e r e l tio
. f c h i e s t e d t o p ro fi t i
a n o f rm i g ?
as nv n a n

3 W h t i s t h e r e l a tio b e t w e e n t h e s iz e o f f ar m a d t h e e ffi c i e cy o f
. a n n n

m an l ab o r o t h e fa r m ? n

4 W h t i s t h e r e l atio b e tw e e t h e s iz e o f f a r m a d t h e e ffi c i e y o f
. a n n n nc

hor se l b or o n t h e f r m ?
a a

5 W h t i s t h e r l atio b e t w e e n s iz
. a e f f r m a d t h e e fli ci e n cy o f t h e
n e o a n

u s e o f tool s d m ac hi e ry ?
an n

6 W h at i s m a t b y d i r s i fi d f r m i g ? e xt e s i e f r m i g ? i t e i e
. e n ve e a n n v a n n ns v

fa rm i g ? n

7 W h a t ar e t h e r e l ati e a d an t ge s o f d i e rs i fi e d f r m i g
. v v d sp i l a v a n an ec a

i ze d fa r m i g ? n

8 H o w m y t h e fa r m s y s t e m b e s o p l
. a e d th t t h e l ab or r e
q ir e d an n a u

w ill b e e e l y d i s t ib Ut e li t h i o u gh Oi It t h e y r? ‘ ’
‘
v n r ea

9 W h t i s t h e a u al l Oss S s t ai e d thro g h t h e o
. a nn e f hor se
u n u n n us o s on

t h e av e r age q rt e r s e ctio of l a d ?
ua n n

1 0 W h t i s n e c e s s a ry i or d e r t o tiliz e p ro fi t ab l y l l t h e p r o d cts f
’

. a n u a u o

t h e fa r m ?

1 1 Gi e s o m e g oo d e x m p l e s o f s t a d a r d iz tio
. v a f f r m p r d c ts n a n o a o u
b , ”

1 2 W hat isfi
. i e tory ? H o w a d w h e s ho l d i t b e t k ?
n nv n n n u a en

1 3 W h at i a m e an t b y b ill s r e ce i b l ? W h at ho l d t h b ill s
”
.
fi i f va e s u e "

r e ce i ab l e acc o t s ho w at t h e e d o f t h e y a r ?
v un n e

1 4 W h a t i s m e a t by b ill s p y ab l e ? W h a t s ho l d t h b ill s p ay b l e
”
. n a u e -
a

acc o u t s ho w at t h e e d o f t h e ye a r ?
n n

1 5 W h t l dge r cc o
. a ts s ho l d a fa rm r k e p ? W h y ?
e a un u e e

1 6 H o w m y t h e f r m r a ce rt i w hi c h d p rt m e ts o f hi s b us i e s s
. a a e s a n e a n n

h ave m ade h im m o n e y a d w hi c h h a e n o t ? n v

E XE RCIS E S
1 . M ak e an inv e ntory o f s om e f a rm n e ar th e s c h ool u s ing ,
Tabl e I
as a m od e l .

2 . c h s tude nt Ope n a le dge r s h owi n g t h e diffe re nt farm

H av e ea

a ccount s s uc h a s B ill s
,
R e c e iv abl e Bill s P ay abl e H ogs H ors e s , , , ,

C attl e G e n e ral Ex p e n se s C as h e t c
, , ,
.

3 A farm e r buy s a h orse fo r $ 1 7 5 p aying fo r it in cas h

. To ,
.

w h ich accounts s h ould t h i s go ? I f t h e farm e r s h ould s e ll t h e h ors e

44 8 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

for $ 2 00, w h at ntrie s s h ould be m ade an d w h at accoun ts ar e affe cte d ?

e

If t h e fa rm e r re ce ive s a note in paym e n t fo r t h e hors e t o w h at ,

a ccount s h ould t h e not e go ?

4 M ak e o u t a cattle l e dge r account fo r t h e following : O n J une 3 0

.
-

M r J one s h as $ 2 5 00 worth o f cattle on h and ; o n J uly 1 5 h e buy s

.

1 0 h e ad o f s t e e rs f o r $ 4 0 0 ; o n A u u s t 1 0 h e buy s 1 8 c alv e s a t $ 1
g 5
e ac h ; o n S e pt e m b e r 1 0 h e p ay s out $ 6 fo r v e t e ri n ary se rvice ; o n

De c e m b e r 2 o n e o f hi s s t e e rs v alu e d a t $ 60 d i e s ; o n F e bru a ry 2 , ,

h e s e lls 1 5 s t e e rs fo r $ 8 0 0 ; o n M a rch 1 h e s e ll s 1 2 ca lve s fo r $ 1 7 5 .

D uring t h e ye a r h e p ay s o u t fo r l abor o n h i s ca ttl e $ 1 00 ; fo r fe ed , ,

$ 1 00 0 ; fo r tax e s $ 2 0 ; in surance $ 1 5 ; i n te re s t $ 60 O n e ye ar fro m

, , ,
.

J une 1 his s tock are worth $ 4 1 0 0 H a s h e gaine d o r lo s t an d h o w .

,

muc h
REFE RE NCE S

B A I LE Y ,
L H . . The S t at e an d t h e Fa r me r T h e M acm ill a C o m pan y
. n .

B OSS, A ND RE W . r
F a m M an ag e m e n t Ly o n s a d C arn a h an
. n .

C A T O , M A R C US P O R C I US . R o m a n F ar m M an ag e m e t T h e M c m ill an n . a

o
C m p an y .

D O A NE , D H . . S he ep Fe e d i n g an d r
Fa m M an age m e n t . G i C m pa n y
n n an d o .

P O WE L L ,
G E ORG E H . o
C op e r atio n in A gri cu ltu r e . The ill
M acm an C o m
p an y .

S U LL I VA N J ,
. W . M ar ke t s f or Pe o p l e T h e M ac m ill an C o m p an y
. .

W A R RE N , G F . . F a r m M an age m e n t Th e M ac m ill an C o m p an y
. .
4 50 T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

of wat e r availabl e as w e ll as upon t h e h e a d or distanc e through ,

which t h e wat e r is allow e d to fall T h e re liability of this f orm .

o f pow e r is a ffe ct e d by drought by floods and by i ce i n t h e , ,

wate r supply .

5 89 F uel a s a s ou r ce of p ow er
. T h e gr e at e st sourc e o f .

m e chanical pow e r is fu e l T h e fu e ls most commonly us e d fo r .

pow e r g e n e ration ar e coal wood p e , ,

t ro l e u m oil and n atural gas The se , .

f u e ls wh e n burn e d giv e up h e at , ,

which is utiliz e d in changing wat e r

into st e am or in h e ating t h e air .

Th e st e am or t h e air is th e n allow e d
to e xpand in a motor cylind e r push ,

ing against th e piston and thus doing

t h e work .

5 90 Th e s t ea m p ow e r p l an t To . .

produc e m e chanical pow e r by m e ans

o f a st e am e ngin e ( Fi g t h e fu e l .

F I G 2 2 4 A i m p l ty p f
must be burn e d i n a f urnac e outsid e
S e e O

w t r m otor a e
t h e e ng i n e cyl i nd e r T h e f urnac e I S a
T h w t r tr k g t h or
.

e a e s i in e v an e s ,
chamb r arrang d W i th a grat e I f coal
cu p pr d e
s, mm o of t h
uc s
e ,“
e e ,

wh l S h w t r m otor b or wood is burn e d and with burn e rs

ee . uc a a e can e

o tr t d b i t i g b tw , ,

z li k
c ns uc e n se r n e ee n

tw o w oo d mb
en of wh e ns
0 s
1 1 ora
gas nu
I S us e d T I
1
er
1 8 f u r n a c e
b k t
uc m d
e s l k V h p d must be conn e ct e d with a chimn e y to
a e i e -
s a e

tro gh d p tti g w ood or

u s , an u n a en
,

pro 1 ( l r af t an d carry 0ff t l l e gas e s

m t l h ft t t h t r of t h
’

s
( [I C C °
e a a a e ce n e e

d i k for t h p rp o
s s, f tr e m it Th e h e at d e v e lop e d by t h e burn
u se o an s

t g t h p ow r d lop d b y t h
in e e e ve e e
i n g of the f u e l I n t h e f urnac e
M n f th w h ee l
a on O e
is

utiliz e d by t h e changing o f wat e r

into st e am in a clos e d cylindrical v e ss e l call e d a boil e r .

I n conn e ction with mod e rn farming t h e st e am pow e r plant is

us e d mainly on traction e ngin e s .

5 9 1 Th e Oi l en gin e on t h e f ar m
. O f all farm motors t h e .
,

oil e ngin e using gasol in e or t h e h e avi e r oils has t h e gre at e st

fi e ld o f us e fuln e ss S uch an e ngin e is portabl e and can be .

us e d fo r various farm and hous e hold purpos e s such as pump ,

ing wat e r and driving cre am s e parators churns pumps ice cre am , , ,
-
 M EC H A N I C A L P OW E R F O R T H E F A RM 451

f re e z e rswashing machin e s f e e d grind e rs e nsilage cutt e rs corn

, , , ,

sh e ll e rs hay pre ss e s bind e rs spraying machin e s wood saws

, , , , ,

c e m e nt mix e rs rock crush e rs and grindston e s and for many

, , ,

oth e r us e s about t h e dairy barn and t h e farmhous e B y con .

n e ct i n g an O il e ngin e to an e l e ctric dynamo e l e ctricity can ,

be g e n e rat e d fo r farm l ighting Th e oil e ngin e has also b e e n .

5 t lFIG
p rt o.f t m
2 2 g i . F u n d am e n a a s a s ea en ne

St m p ip
ea o y t h t m from t h b oil r ( t h r how ) to t h g i Th
es c n ve e s ea e e no e e s n e en ne . e

t m fro m t h b o l r t r t h t m h t K d i d m itt d lt r t ly to ith r

s ea e i e en e s e s ea c es an s a e a e na e e e

en d f th o y l d r A by t h
e l V T h t m t ri g t h y li d r A p h
c in e e va v e . e s ea en e n e c n e us es on

th e p i to P Th
s m otio
n f th .
p i to ei tr m itt d thro gh t h p i to d R
n o e s n s an s e u e s n ro

to t h ro h d H d thro gh t h o ti g d M to t h r k d i k D whi h
e c ss ea ,
an u e c n n ec n ro e c an s ,
c

i k y d to t h
s e e r k h ft S T h r k h ft i o t d d ir tly by m
e c an s a . e c an S a s c n n ec e ec or e an s

of b lt t e ths m hi o t b d ri e; it iac p p ort d

nes tw b ri g B
o d 0 e ve n s su e on o ea n s, an ,

an d rri t h flywh l IV th f tio f w hi h i to m k t h p d f t h

ca es e ee ,
e un c n o c s a e e s ee o e

gi m or i form en ne e un

us e d with gre at succ e ss fo r prop e lling automobil e s trucks and , ,

traction e ngin e s and its u s e is incre asing ,

.

5 92 Act i on of gas en gi n es an d Oi l en gi n e s
. T h e gas e ngin e .

and t h e oil e ngin e di ffe r f rom t h e st e am e ngin e in that t h e

e ntir e trans f ormation o f t h e h e at e n e rgy o f t h e f u e l into work

ta k e s plac e within t h e e ngin e cylind e r T h e fu e l in t h e cas e o f .

t h e gas e ngin e may be natural gas or som e f orm o f artificial gas

manu facture d f rom coal or oil Th e fu e ls fo r oil e ngin e s ar e .

gasolin e k e ros e n e and crud e p e trol e um A lcohol has also b e e n

. , .
4 52 T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

us e d succ e ss fully as a f u e l fo r this typ e o f e ngin e but it is too ,

e xp e nsiv e in comparison with gasolin e and k e ros e n e .

I n ord e r that t h e gr e at e st e n e rgy o f t h e f u e l may b e s e cure d

in gas e ngin e s and O i l e ngin e s t h e f ue l must be mix e d with ,

ti l p rt o f g oli
FIG . 226 .
gi
E ssen a a s a as ne en ne

T h g oli
e from th t k V p
as ne thro gh th tr i r Z w h r t h i m p riti
e an as s e s u e s a ne ,
e e e u e s ar e

d p o it d th
e s thro gh t h g oli r g l ti g l N to t h m ix r or rb r tor
e ,
en u e as n e- e u a n va v e e e ,
ca u e x .

Th i thro gh t h
e a r i r g l ti g u l A t r t h m rb r tor d i thoro ghly
e a r- e u a n va v e en e s e sa e ca u e an s u

m ix d w ith t h g oli
e Th mi t r
e f i
as ne d g oli
. t r t h g i y li d r
e x u e o a r an as ne en e s e en ne c n e

C thro gh t h i l t u l 1 t h p i to P m o to t h ri ght t h o tw rd trok

e n e va v e as e s n ve s e on e u a s e .

U d r th i fl
n e o f t h flyw h l F t h p i to r t r
e n u e n ce e o m p r i g t h m ixt r
ee ,
e s n e u n s, c e ss n e u e

b twe theenp i to d th e lo d d f t h y li d r w ith l l t h l

s n an e c se lo d
en o e c n e ,
a e v a ve s c se .

J t b for thi r t r trok f t h p i to i om p l t d t h m ixt r i i g it d by

us e e s e u n s e o e s n s c e e e u e s n e an

l t ri p rk t t h p rk p l g U d r p i d b r i g or xp lo io f t h m xt r t k
e ec c s a a e s a u an a u n n ,
e s n, o e i u e a es

p l ac e T h hi.
g h p r re d lo p d b y thi x
e s su e
p lo io d r t h
eve p i to f orwe r d i t s e s n i ve s e s n a on s

p ow r trok e ll s l till r m i i g lo d N r t h d of t h p ow r trok t h

e, a va v e s s e a n n c se . ea e en e e s e, e

exh t l E op
au s v a ve d th b r d g e n s an b g i to r h et Th r t r
“
u ne f th a se s
”
e n us ou . e e u n o e

p i to
s l r t h y li d r of t h b r d g
n c ea s e c n Th e li d i g m otio f t h p i to i
e u ne as e s . e s n n o e s n s

ch g d i to rot ry m otio t t h h ft S by t h o ti g d D d th r k K
an e n a a n a e s a e c nn ec n ro an e c an .

Th h ft whil d ri i g t h m hi ry to whi h it i o t d l o g i m oti

e s a ,
e v n e ac ne c s c nn ec e ,
a s ve s on

thro gh t h tw g r G to t h xh t l li ft d L Th p rk for i g iti g t h

u e o ea s ,
e e au s v a ve
-
ro . e s a n n e

m ixt r i p ro d
u e d t th
s
p rk p l uc e
g b y t h a l tri l b tt
e s ri B
a t h ti m r T
u m e e ec ca a e es ,
e e co

p l ti g th l tri ir it t th p rop r ti m
e n e e ec c c cu a e e e

air i n c e rtain d e finit e proportions b e fore it e nt e rs t h e e ngin e

cylind e r T his can be accomplish e d only wh e n t h e f u e l is in
.

t h e gas e ous stat e T hus t h e oil e ngin e di ffe rs f rom t h e gas

.
,

e ngin e in that it r e quir e s a d e vic e call e d a carbur e tor) fo r con

(
v e rting t h e liquid O il fu e l into a gas b e for e it can be us e d S inc e .
 -
T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

I n using gasolin e e ngin e s and oil e ngin e s t h e fu e l tank should ,

be locat e d outsid e o f t h e building pr e fe rably u nd e rground In , .

m yfl case t h e ta nk must be low e r than t h e pip e to which it is

'

c onn e ct e d i n t h e e ngin e room so as to pr e v e nt flooding t h e ,

e ngin e .

T h e f oundation fo r a gas or an oil e n gi n e s h oul d b e as S olid .

as possibl e I f t h e e ngin e is to be s e t on a wood fl o or t h e tim

.
,

b e rs shoul d be laid on or und e r t h e floor an d a t r igh t angl e s

to t h e j oists I f t h e e ngi n e must be locat e d ov e r anoth e r room
'

.
,

it is b e st to plac e it in a corn e r and n e ar t h e wall .

5 94 Th e el ect r i c m ot or on t h e f a r m
. I f e l e ctricity can be .

bought at a low pric e t h e e l e ctric motor is v e ry w e ll suit e d ,

fo r som e o f t h e farm work I t i s not so portabl e as t h e gas oq .

lin e e ngin e in any but t h e v e ry small siz e s but a small motor ,

r e quire s no sp e cial f oundation i s cl e an and e asily start e d and , ,

r e quir e s l e ss car e than t h e gasolin e e ngin e .

F o r f arms o f t h e av e rage siz e which do not hav e t h e ,

advantage o f ch e ap pow e r f rom a n e ar by transmission syst e m -

,

privat e e l e ctric lighting plants driv e n by gasolin e e n g i ne s ar e

-

b e coming quit e common .

QUE S TI ONS AND P ROB LE M S

1 . W h t i t h e i m p ort ce f rti fi i l m e h i l p o w r
a s an th f rm ?o a c a c an c a e on e a

2 . H w m y m e c h i l p o w r b p ro d
o a d o th f rm ?
an c a e e uce n e a

3 . Di ss th es cu o f t h e w i d m ill a m
u se s f p ro i d i g m e h i l n as e an o v n c an ca

o
p we r .

4 . W h e re te r m otor s be s ucce s s fu ll y u se d ?
m ay w a
5 D e c ri b e t h e c o s tru c tio n o f a w a t e r m otor
. s n .

6 W h a t f e l s ar e m o t c o m m o l y u s e d fo r m e c h
. u s i ca l p o w e r ? n an

7 W h at i s t h e r e l atio o f t h e b oil r f ur ace t o t h e e n g i e cy li de r i n

. n e n n n

g e en r a t i g p ow e rnb y m e a s o f a t e am p o w e r p l a t ?
n s - n

8 E x p l ai b ri e fly t h e p ri ci p l e o f t h e s t e a m e g e M ak e
. n n s k e t ch n in . a

t o ill ustr te yo u r e x p l a atio

a n n .

9 E x p l ai b r i e fly t h e p r i n ci p l e s o f t h e gas a d t h e oil e gi e s I ll u
. n n n n . s

tr ate yo u r e x p l an atio n by a s k e tch .

1 0 W h a t ca tio n s Sho u l d be u s e d i n se l e c t i n g an d i n s t a lli g a o il e gi n e ?

. u n n n
 M EC HA N I C A L P OWE R FOR THE FARM 4 55

11 . C m pa o
r e t h e e l tri c m otor w i th t h e g as oli e e n gi e as a m s o f
ec n n e an

p ro d c
u i ng m ech a n i ca l p o w e r .

1 2 W ith a p arti c l r far m p l a t s a ill s tr tio n m a k e a p l a fo o e

. u a n a n u a , n r n

typ e f e gi e s ho w i g i ts lo catio n i ts c o n s tr ctio a d t h e o p r atio s

o n n ,
n ,
u n, n e n

w ith w hi c h it i s c o ecte d nn .

REF E RE NCE S

A LLE N J R an d B UR S LE Y J A
,
. .
, ,
. . H e at E n gi n e s . M c G raw H ill B oo k -

C o m p an y .

D A V I D S O N J B an d C H A S E L W
,
. .
, ,
. . r
F a m M ac hi e r y
n an d Fa m r M otor s .

O r an ge J u d d C o m p a y n .

H I RS HF E L D C F ,
. .
,
an d U L B R I C HT , T . C . r
F a m G as E n g i n es .
J . W il e y
an d S o ns .

LU C KE ,
C E . . P weo r
i e r ity P r e s s . The C ol um b a i Un v s .

PO T T E R A A F ar m M otor s M G aw H ill B ook C o m p a y

, . . . c r -
n .

C o m p a r a ti e F e l V al e o f G a oli e a d D e
v u t r e d Al c ohol i I t e r l
u s s n n na u n n na

C o m b s tio n E g i e
u B u l l et i n 43 B r e f M i e s U i t e d S ta t e s
n n s, ,
u au o n ,
n

D e p art m e n t o f I n t e rior .

T h e U s e o f A l c ohol d G s oli n e i F r m E g i n e s F
’
aner B l l et i 2 7 7
a n a n ,
a rin s u n ,

U it e d S t at e s D e p art m e n t o f A g ri c lt r e
n u u .
 APPEN D I X B

S C O RE C A R D F O R I N D I V I D UA L E A R S O F C O RN

Po s P O I NT S D E F I C I E NT
S C L A E OF P 0 1 NT 5 S l B LE
S t u den t ’
C or t
re c e d
S C O RE
Sc or e
s

S r
co e

1 V ri t y t y p T h
a e ho l d o form t h g r l
e e e ar s u c n to e en e a
ty p of h ri ty to wh h it b lo g i r p t to i
. .

e t e va e ic e n s, n es ec s ze

an d h p sf olor f k r l d b d w i d th
a e o e ar , c o e ne s an co an

thi k d p th h p p i g d i d t tio f k
, ,

c n ess, e s a e, s ac n an n en a n o er
l Wh i ty ty p i k ow g i p rf t or
, ,

ne s e n v ar e e s n ot n n, ve e ec sc e

h p oi t
.

on t is n

2 M t rit y a u d d Th an ho l d b w ll s ou n n es s e e ar s u e e
m t r d d y fi m wh tw i t d d of g ood w ight f
. .

a u e r r en s e an e or
iz d o d tio S p p i m ol d i row
, , ,

its s e an c n t th i n a n ess , n e ss a e c n s

f th k r l b loo of or
.

o e d t h e n e s an b a t e co sen e ss c n on co
dh r p to d f o id r
, ,

c h ffi a n e ss, a f ip b e e n ce o t ca s co an o c ns e
a bl h ff to h ti p
e c a ll di t o tof i m m t ritye s , ar e a in ca i ns a u

y d mo t d i ti j r d k r l
.

D e ca e u s e -e a e n , an n se c -
n u e e ne s ar e
o d d l o i d t p oor d o d tio
,

un s un an a s n i ca e a se e c n i n

3 P rit y
u ( ) Of k l K r l ho ld b fr from
1 er n e s e ne s s u e ee

m ixt r w ith or f oth r olor M xt r i y llow

. . .

u e c n o e c s i u e n e
or i how f th k r l d i whit
.

c n s th s p n on e ca s o e e n e s an n e

co nr lly h
u s ua id D d t h lf p oi t for
on t e s es e uc o n e- a n

h k r l d i ti tly h wm g d ir d olor I f i
.

e ac e ne s nc s o un es e c n

om p tit o t m or m ix d k r l ho l d b t h
.

c e i n, en or e e e ne s s u ar e
e ar. ( ) O f b C
2 o b i y llo w orco ll y ho l d b s n e c n u sua s u e
h d f d d r d ry i g w ith i ; d
.

d th
tyi g to
re e s a e o re esi e va n v ar e an
i whit or whit F p i k ob
,

n e c n, e or n c s, cu t ac c o r n

h d A b of d i t tl y d ir d olor l
.

s a e co s i nc un es e c un ess a

ri ty h r t ri ti ho l d b g i or of z ro
.
,

va e c a ac e s c, s u e ve n a sc e e
d if i o m p titio t h ho l d b b rr d
,

an n c e n, e e ar S u e a e

4 . Sh p a f e oI g r l w ll h p d
ear h o ld n ene a a e -
s a e e ar s u

rly y li d r l ; ( ) h tr ight row r i g

.

( ) b
1 e n ea c n i ca 2 av e s a s un n n
d r tly f ro m b tt to t i p ; ( 3) b f ll
i ec d tro g i u h e u an s n n t e
m i dd l p ortio e ( 4) t b fl tt d S h n : w ill no e a en e uc an e ar
h ll high p r t g f i form l y h p d k r l
.

s e a e ce n a e o un s a e e ne s

5 . S iz d h p
e an f k r l S iz o f k r l i l d
s a e O th e ne s e e ne s nc u es e
d p th w i d th d thi k r g or b lt
.

e F an c n e ss o r av e a e c n- e co n
m d i m d p th f k r l lly p rod
, , .

d i tion s a e u th e o e ne u s ua u ce s e

l rg t y i l d of m t r or Th w i d th thi k
a es e d a u e c n e c n e s s , an

h p of k r l ry w ith ri ti A g r l r l
.
,

s a e e n e s va va e es s a en e a u e,

how r th y ho l d b k y to h p d p rm itti g t h
.

e ve e s u e e s n e -s a e e n e
f t h k r l to to h f ro m row to i p A to
, ,

e dg es o e e ne s uc c n t s

th k h k r l ho l d m b r b o t to h
.

ic n ess t e e ne s s u nu e a u Six t e
i hi h w
,

nc n t e ro

6 . U i f r m it y f k r l
n o Th k r l ho l d b i form
O e ne s e e ne s s u e un
i d p th W d th th k d h p thro gho t t h
.

n e i ic n e s s , an s a e u u e e ar
I rr g l r k r l obj tio bl
, , .

e u a e n e s a re ec na e

7 . S z i d e an d iti f g rm con T h g rm h o l d b lo g on o e s e e s s u e n
wi d thi k m ooth d b ri ght ; t hri l d b li t r d
.
,

e, c s an no s ve e s e e
hr k m ol dy olor d T h m b y o p rop r
, , , ,
s un en d or isc e e e r e
ho ld how fr h ly d li p p r
, , .

s u s a d b es Oi an ve a e a an c e an e

y llo w i h whi t i olor

, ,
e s -
e n c
 AP P E ND I X

S C O RE C A RD F O R I N D I V I D UA L E A R S O F C O RN ( C O NT I N U E D )

P O I NT S D E F I C I E NT
S C L A E OF P O I NT S SI BL E
S t uden t ’
C orr t ec ed
S C O RE
Sc or e
s

S or
c e

8 Butt T h b tt h o l d rry t t h ir m f r
e u s f u ca ou e c cu e e n ce o

ifo m h d l rg d xp d d
. .

th e e ar u n d tb p an no e inc e en a e e an e
fl tt d I t ho ld b w l l ro d d t w ith tr i g h t
, , ,

or a en e s u e e un e ou s a

row f r g l r k r l h i g rly t h m d p th
.

s o e u a e ne s av n n ea e sa e e
w i d th thi k d h p b o dy k r l
,

c thn e s s , an Th s a e as e e ne s e

gr i t h b tt ho l d b i form ly rr g d ro d
.
,

a n s on e u s u e un a an e a un

a m d i m iz d
e u p h p d
-
s ity e ,
cu -
s a e cav

9 Ti p T h t i p ho l d be o r d to t h d f t h b
s u e c ve e e en o e co
W th k r l rr g d i tr ight row d h m g rly
. .

i e ne s a an e n s a s an av n ea

th m
e sa z d hpe Si th b od y k r l
e an S h llow s a e as e e ne s a

rrow irr g l r g l t i g d hot h p d k r l

.
,

na e u a i s en n an s -
s a e e ne s

obj tio b l
, , ,

a re ec na e

1 0. Sp b tw
a ce r w d k r l L rg p p
e een o s an e ne s a e, O en s ac e s
b tw row ith r t t h row tp f
.

e theen e th s e e a e c ns or e i s o

gr i or b tw t h k r l i t h m w
a ns e een bj e e ne s n e sa e ro a re O ec

ti ona bl Th r e ho l d b o ly o gh p to p rm t
e e s u e n en u s ac e e i

t f tory d ry i g f t h lo p g l o
.

s a i s ac T n o e e ar . 00 c se s ac i n is a s

o b e c t i o n ab l
j
1 1 ri
P ropo t on of gr a i n t o cobro ortio of r i to
Th e p p n g a n
r ith ri ti W th l tit r
. .

c o b d i ff e s w v a e e s an d i th e a u de u n de

wh ci h ro g wn r l oo
A e as o n ab y g ho l h ll
d s e e d e ar s u d s e

fro to t o rr of or
.

m 85 87 p e r c e n T h e c c u e n ce on e o r m e
follo i f tor i i t ro ort o
.

o f th e w n g ac s m ay n d ca e a l o w p p i n

r i to
of g a n lr o t h
c o b : ( 1 ) a g e co b ; ( 2 ) m i s an d e av y c o b ;
h llo k r l
3) s a i t ro ith r
w e n e s ; ( 4) w d e s p ac e b e w e e n ws e e
ro
at t h e c t kr l
wn s o r t h e i p s o f t h e e n e s in t h e s am e

tt
r o w ; ( 5) b u ti
s an d h x o tt
p s m u c e p s e d ; ( 6) b u a n d t ip
k r l xtr l h llo
e ne s e eme y s a w
 A PPEN D I X C

S C O RE C A R D D RA F T H O RS E S

Po s
P O I NT S D E F I C I E NT
S C L A E OF
3
1 0 1 11 1 5 S I B ”:
S t ud e n t ’
s C orr t e c ed
S C ORE
Sc or e S or
c e

Ag e , es ti m t a ed yr .
,
ac u a t l
GE NE RAL AP PE ARANCE 2 6 P oi n t s

i t ti m t
He g h , es a ed h an d s ac u a t l h an d s
W gh t o r
ei ve 1 600 l b in g d c n oo o d itio n
; es ti m t a ed

or or i
, .

lb .
,
sc e acc d n g t o ag e
r
Fo m, b ro d m a
y m m tri ,
l b lo k y as s v e , s i e ca ,
c

Q l it y r fi d ;
ua e l l rg tro g ; t d o l
ne bo n e c e an , a e, s n en n s c e an

d p ro m i t ; ki d h ir fi f th r
,

d fi
,
“ ”
e ne n en s n an a ne ea e
;
i f p r t ilky
, ,
esen ,
s

A ti
c on , rg ti tr i ght tr
en e l ti ; w lk tri d
e c, s a ue , e as c a s e
lo g q i k r g l r ; trot fr b l d r p i d
, ,
n ,
u c ,
e u a ee, a an c e a
,

T mp r m
e e a t rg ti ; d i p o itio g ood
en , ene e c s s n

S ty l e, sty li h d g r f l rri g s an ac e u ca a e

HE AD AND NE CK 8 P i t o n s

H d p ro p ortio t
ea iz l t w ll r i d ; p ro fi l
na e s e, c e an -c u e -
ca r e e
tr ight
, ,

s a

M zz l
u t ; o tril l rg fl xib l ; li p thi
e, n ea n fi m s s a e, e e s n , e ve n , r

Ey f ll b ri ght l r l rg m olor
es , u , ,
c ea ,
a e , sa e c

F r h
o e d b ro d f ll
ea , a ,
u

E r
a s, m d i m z t p r g w ll
e u rri d l rt Si e, a e in ,
e -
ca e ,
a e

L w r j w
o e a gl wid p, l an es e, S ace c e an

N k m d i m l g th w ll m
ec e u l d r h d ; t hro tl t h en e -
usc e a c e a a c
w i d p i p l rg
, , ,
fi ne, n e a e

F ORE Q UARTE RS — 2 3 P i t o n s

Sh ld r
ou lo g m od r t ly lop i g h ily d m ooth ly
e s, n e a e s n e av an s
l d xt d i g i to b k
, ,
m usc e ,
e en n n ac

Arm s, short h ily m l d throw b k w ll t

,
e av usc e
, n ac ,
e se
-

F r rm lo g w i d
o ea , l h ily m l d
n , e , c e an , e av usc e

K n ee s , s tr i ght w i d d p tro g l w ll p p ort d

a ,
e, ee ,
s n ,
c e an ,
e -
su e

Ca n n on s , s hort w i d l ; t d l g l d w ll e , c e an en on s ar e , c e an , an e
d fi k
,
e d ne t b ,
se ac

F tl
e k
oc wid s, tr i gh t tro g l e, s a ,
s n , c e an

P t r
as e n s , m od r t lop d l gth tro g l e a e s e an en s n c e an
, ,
 A PPENDI X D

S C O RE C A R D —
LI G HT H O RS E S 1

Po s P O I NT S D E F I C I E NT
S C L A E OF P O I NT S SI BL E
S t uden t ’
C orr t e c ed
S C O RE
Sc or e
s

S or
c e

Ag e es ti m t a ed yr .
,
ac u a t l
GE NE RAL APPEARANCE 2 8 P oi n t s

W ei g ht ti m t d ,
lh ;
es t l a e . ac u a

H i gh t
e ti m t d ,
h d ; t l
es a e an s ac u a

F rmo y m m tri
,
l
s m ooth ty li h e ca ,
s ,
s s

Q l t y r fi d ; b o l fi ; t d o l
ua i e ned fi d ; n e c e an ,
ne en n s c e an , e ne

h ir d ki fi
,

a an s n ne

A t c i on rg ti tr i ght tr en e l t ; w lk tri d e c, s a ue , e as i c a s e

l g q i k r g l r ; trot fr b l d r p i d
, , ,

on u c e u a ee, a an ce ,
a
, ,

T mpe m t ti ; d i p o itio good ; tyli h rri g

e ra en ,
ac ve s s n s s ca a e

HE AD AND NE C K 8 P oi n t s

H d p ro p ort o t
ea iz l t w ll rri d ; p ro fi l
i na e s e, c e an - c u ,
e -
ca e e

tr i ght
,

s a

M zz l
u t o tril l rg fl xib l ; li p thi
e, n ea ; n fi m s s a e, e e s n ,
e ve n , r

Ey f ll b ri ght l r l rg m olor
es , u , ,
c ea ,
a e , sa e c

F r h
o e d b ro d f ll
ea ,
a ,
u

E r a s,m d m z t p ri g w ll rri d l rt
e iu Si e, a e n ,
e —
ca e ,
a e

L w r j w
o e gl m d m w id
a p
,
l an es e iu e, s ac e c e an

N k lo g w ll m
ec l d r h d ; thro tl t h fi
n e l ; -
usc e a c e a a c n e , c e an

W d p i p l rg
, , ,

in e a e

F ORE Q UARTE RS 23 P t -
oi n s

S h l d r lo g
ou e lop i g m oothl y m l d xt d i g i t
n ,
s n ,
s usc e ,
e en n n o

b k
,

ac

A rm hort tro g ly m l d throw b k w ll t

s, s ,
s n us c e ,
n ac ,
e -
se

F r rm lo g w i d
o ea l
,
tro g ly m l d
n ,
e , c e an , s n usc e

K n ee s , tr i ght w i d d p tro g l
s a tro gly e, ee s n c e an s n

p p ort d
, , , ,

su e

C hort w i d l ; t d o l rg l
a n n on s , s d w ll e , c e an en ns a e , c e an , an e
k
,

d fi e d t b ne ,
se ac

F tle k w id
oc tr i ght tro g l
s, e, s a ,
s n ,
c e an

P t r lo g lop i g tro g l
as e n s , n ,
S n ,
s n ,
c e an

1 For s ad d e l hor ses th e li ght hor -

se r d ho l d b
sc or
d i l di
e ca s u e use , nc u n g
,

un de r Ac tio n, th e fi v e ga it s , v iz : . wa lk t r r k f ox trot d lo w p
, c an e , ac , , an S ac e

or r i g w lkun n n a . For o h hor c ac ses it ho l d b r m m b r d th t hi g h

s u e e e e e a an d

sty li h tio s ac n ar e p r f r b l to p
e e a e s eed .

V i
 S C O RE C A R D —
LIG HT HO R S E S ( C O NT I N U E D )

pos _ P O I NT S D E F I C I E NT
S C L A E OF P O I NT S S ’B L E
S t ud e n t ’
C orr t e c ed
S C ORE
Sc or e
s

S or
c e

F ee t m d m d , z o d ; hor d
e iu w xy ; an even Si e, s un n e n se , a
ol o
s es; b r tro g f ll ; frog l rg l t ;
c n cav e a s s n u a e, e as i c
h l W d tro g ly p p ort d
,

ee s i e, s n su e

L g
e i w d i fro t p rp d i l r li fro m t h p oi t
s, v e e n n a e en cu a ne e n
ho l d r ho ld f ll p o t h t r f th k
,
f th
o e s u e s u a u n e ce n e o e n ee ,

p t r
c an n o n , d foot ; f ro m t h i d p rp d l r
as e n an e s e, a e en i cu a

li d rop p i g fro m t h t r f t h l b ow j i t ho l d
,

ne n e ce n e o e e o n s u
f ll p t h
a t r f th k
u on d p t r joi t d
e cen e o e n e e an as e n n s an
th b k f t h h oof
e ac o e

B OD Y 10P i t o n s

W it h r m o d r t h i g ht m ooth xt d g w ll b k
e s, e a e e ,
s ,
e en in e ac

Ch t des p w id ; b r
, tb o l w ; g irth l rg
ee ,
e e as ne o a e

R b
i d p w ll p r
s,
g lo ly ribb d to h ip
ee ,
e -
s un ,
c se e

B ack b ro d h rt tro g m l r
, a ,
s o ,
s n ,
u s cu a

Loi n s ,b ro d hort tro g ly d m ooth ly m

a ,
ld s ,
s n an s u sc e

U d rl i
n e lo g l w ; fl k w ll l t d ow
ne , n ,
o an s e e n

Q UARTE RS 31 P i t HI ND o n s

Hi p b road m ooth l
s, l ,
s ,
e ve

Cr p lo g w i d
ou , m l r t m rk d ly d roop i g
n ,
e, u s cu a
,
no a e n

T il
a t t h d hi g h w ll
,
a ac rri d e ,
e —
ca e

Th gh i d p b ro d tro g ly m
s, ee ld ,
a ,
s n u sc e

Q rt r d p h ily m l d
ua e s, ee ,
e av usc e

Stifl tro g l m l r
es , s n ,
c e an ,
u s cu a

G ki
as ( low r thi g h ) lo g w i d
ns tro g ly m l d
e s ,
n ,
e, s n usc e

H k
oo l rg tr g w i d d p l
s, a e, s on ,
e, ee ,
c e an

Ca n n on s , s hort w i d l t d o l rg l d w ll e , c e an en ns a e , c e an , an e
k
,

d fi ed t bne ,
se ac

F tl
e k oc w id tr i ght tro g l
s, e, s a ,
s n
,
c e an

P t r
as e n s , lo g lop i g tro g l n ,
s n ,
s n ,
c e an

Fee t m di m d e iz o d ; h or d
u w xy ; an even s e, s un n ense, a
ol o ; b r tr g f ll ; frog l rg l t ;
,

s es c n cav e a s s on u a e, e as i c
h l w i d tro g ly p p ort d
,

ee s e, s n su e

L g
e i w d fr m b hi d p rp d i l r li from t h
s, v e e o e n a e en cu a ne e

p oi t f t h b tto k ho l d f ll p o t h t r f th
,

n o e u c s u a u n e ce n e o e

ho k c o d foot ; f ro m t h
can n i d p rp d i l r
n an e s e, a e en cu a
l fro m t h h ip joi t h o l d f ll p o t h tr f
, ,

ine e n s s u a u n e ce n e o
th fo t d d i d t h g k i i t h m i d d l ; d p
e o an iv e e as n n e e an a er

p di l
en li from t h p oi t f t h b tt o k ho l d
c u ar ne e n o e u c s u run

p r ll l w ith t h li
a a e f th o e ne o e can n n
 A P P E ND I X E

S C O RE C A R D M ULE S

Po s P O I NT S D E F I C I E NT
S C L A E OF P 0 1 NT 3 SI BL E
S t ude n t ’
C orr t ec ed
S C O RE
Sc or e
s

S or
c e

Ag e , es ti m t a ed y r .
,
a c ua t l
GE NE RAL APP E ARANCE 2 6 Po i t n s

i t
He g h ,
1 6ti m t d h an d s or o r ; ve es a e t l
ac u a

W i gh t
e to 6 l b i g ood o d tio ; ti m t d
1 2 00 1 00 n c n i n es a e

lh or ord i g to g
.
,

.
,
sc e acc n a e

F rm b ro d m
o ,
i y m m tri l b lo ky
a ,
as s v e , s e ca ,
c

Q l ty bo l
ua i l rg tro g ; t d o d fi d ; ki
n e , c e an , a e, s n en ns e ne s n

d h ir fi
,

an a ne

A ti
c on rg ti tr i ght tr ene l ti ; w lk tri d lo g
e c, s a u e , e as c a s e n

q i k r g l r ; trot fr b l d r p i d
, , , ,

u c ,
e u a ee, a an c e ,
a

T mpe r m
e t ti good d i p o itio ; ty li h rri g
a en ,
ac ve , s s n s s ca a e

HEAD AND NE CK — 9 P i t o n s

H d p rop ortio t
ea iz l t w ll rri d ; p ro fi l na e s e, c e an -c u , e -
ca e e
tr i ght l ghtl y Rom o d
,

s a or s i an - n s e

M zzl
u t ; o tril l rg fl xib l ; l p thi
e, n ea fi m
n s s a e, e e i s n , e ve n , r

Ey f ll b r ght l r l rg m olor
es , u ,
i ,
c ea ,
a e , sa e c

F r h
o e d b ro d f ll
ea ,
a ,
u

E r
a s, l rg t p ri g fi t xt r w ll rri d l rt
a e, a e n ,
ne e u e, e -
ca e ,
a e

Low r j w e gl w id
a p l , an es e, s a ce c e an

N k m d i m l g th w ll m
ec e l d r h d ; thro tl t h
u en e -
usc e a c e a a c

; w i d p i p l rg
, , ,

fi ne n e a e

F ORE Q UARTE RS 22 P i t o n s

Sh ld r
ou lo g m od r t ly lop g h ily d m ooth ly
e s, n e a e s in e av an s
l d xt d g i to b k
, ,

m usc e ,
e en in n ac

Arm hort h ily m l d throw b k w ll t

s, s ,
e av us c e ,
n ac ,
e -
se

F r rm lo g w i d
o ea l,
h ily m l d
n ,
e , c e an , e av usc e

K n ee s , str i ght w i d d p tro g w ll p p ort d

a ,
e, ee ,
s n ,
e -
su e

Ca n non s hort w i d l ; t d o l rg l s d e, c e an en ns a e, c ean , an

w ll d fi k
, ,

e d -
t b e ne ,
se ac

F tl
e k oc w id tr i ght tro g l
s, e, s a ,
s n ,
c e an

P t r m od r t lop d l gth tro g l

as e n s , e a e s e an en ,
s n ,
c e an

Fee t l rg; iz o d ; h or d
a e, w xy ;
e ve n ol s e, s un n e n se , a s es
c o n c ave ; b r tro g f ll ; frog l rg l ti ; h l a s s n u a e, e as c ee s
wid d tro g l y pp ort d
,

e an s n su e

L g
e i w d i fro t p rp d l r li fro m t h p oi t
s, v e e n n a e en i cu a ne e n
ho l d r ho l d f ll p o t h t r f th k
,

O f th e s u e s u a u n e ce n e o e nee,
ca n n o p t r d foot ; from t h i d p rp d l r
n, as e n an e s e, a e en i cu a

li d ro pp i g from t h t r f t h lb ow j m t ho l d
,

ne n e ce n e o e e o s u
f ll p o t h
a u t r of t h k n d p t r joi t
e d ce n e e n e e an as e n n s an
th b e k of t h hoofac e
 APPENDIX F

S C O RE C A R D DAIR Y C A T T LE

p 05 ,
P O I NT S D E F I C I E NT
S C L A E OF P 0 1 NT S SI BL E
S t ude n t C orr t
ec e d
S C O RE
Sc or e
s

S or
c e

GE NE RAL APPE ARANCE 1 8 Po i t

n s

r
Fo m, i li d to b w d g h p d
nc ne e e e -s a e

Q l t y h ir fi oft ; k m llow loo m d m th i k

ua i a n e, s s in e se, e iu c

r tio y llow ; b l fi
, ,

n e ss sec e n e o n e c e an ne
;
wh
,

T mp r m
e e at ro d i t d by l
en pp r
, ne v us , i n ca e e an a e a an c e en
i m ilk
n .

HE AD AND NE CK — 7 P i t o n s

M zz l
u l t ; m o th l rg ;
e , c e an c u o tril l rg u a e n s s a e

Ey es ,l rg b ri ght f ll m il d
a e, ,
u
,

F ace , l lo g ; q t xp r o
e an , n ui e e essi n

F r h
o e d b ro d
ea ,
a

E r
a s, m d i m iz y llow i i d
e ufi t xt r s e, e ns e, ne e u e

H r
o ns, fi t xt r w xy ne e u e, a

N k fi
ec , m d ml ne, g th thr t l ; l g ht d w l p
e iu en oa c e an i e a

F ORE Q UARTE RS 5 P t oi n s

W it h r l e s, th e an , in

Sh ou ld r li ght ob liq
e s, ,
ue

Le g s, s tr i ght hort ; h k f
a ,
s s an in e

B OD Y 26 P i t o n s

Ch t d
es p l w ; g irth l rg
, ee w ith f ll f
, fl k
o a e, u o re an

B r l r b b ro d lo g W d
a re , i sp rt ; l rg tm h a ,
n ,
i e a a a e s o ac

B ac k l , tr i ght op j i t d
e an , s a ,
en- o n e

L i
o n b ro d
, a

N av e l l rg , a e

HI ND Q UARTE RS 44 P t oi n s

Hi p f
s, p rt l ar a l a ,
e ve

R m p lo g w i d
u , n , e

P in b h gh w i d p rt
on es , i
,
e a a

T l lo g
ai , li m ; fi h r w t h
n ,
s ne ai in s i c

Th i gh thi lo g
s, n ,
n

Ud d r lo g tt h d h gh
e , n d f l l b h i hd a t d i hg f
ac e i an u e e x en ar
i f ro t d f ll fl bl ; q tr d fr fro m
, , ,
n n an u e x1 e u ar e s e v e n an ee
,

fl h es i n ess

T t
ea s , l rg aly p l d e , e ve n ace

M mm ry
a a l rg lo g tort o b r h d w ith
v ei n s , a e, n u us , an c e
d o bl xt o ; l rg d m ro m ilk w ll
,
u e e ensi n a e an nu e us e s
Le g s, str i ght ; h k fi a s an ne

T ot l a
 APPENDI X G

S C O RE C A RD B E E F C A T T LE

P O I NT S D E F I C I E NT
S TA N DA RD EX C L C S tud e n t ’
s C orr t ec ed
OF E LE N E
Sc or e S or c e

No . 1 No . 2

We i gh t ti m t d , es lb ord g to g a e .
,
acc in a e

F rmo tr ght t p l s d d rl
ai ; d p b ro d o ine an un e in e ee a

om p t y m m tr l
, , ,

l w o t ; -
se c ac ,
s e i ca

Q l t y h r fi b o fi m b t tro g ki p li b l
ua i ai ne ne r u s n s n a e
m llo w o r g of fi m fl h p lly i
,

e eve n c ve in r es es e ci a n
r g o f l bl t ; b f t d roll
, ,

e i n o va ua e cu s a se n ce o i e s an s

C d ti
on i pr m ; fl h d p ;
on id f fi i h i e es ee ev e n ce o n s es

p i l l y m rk d i t t l h k ho l d r
,

ec a d d fl a e n co a ai -
ea an s u e
d thro t ; b f t roll
, , , ,

an a a s e n ce o ies or s

H d ea l t y m m tr l; q t p m
c e an - cu s e i ca uie ex re s s n
m o th o tr l l rg l r d p l d ; f
, ,

ud an n s i s a e, c ea an a ci ac e
hort ; for h d b ro d f ll ; r m d m iz
,

s e ea a u ea s e iu s e,
t xt r r t
,

fi ne e u e, e ec

N k thi k
ec hort t p r g tly from h o l d r t
c s a e in n ea s u e o
h d ; thro t l
, , ,

ea a c e an

Sh ld r
ou i f ll e ve n , u

Sh l d r w ll o
ou r d with fl h ; om p t
e , e c ve e es c ac

B ri k t f ll b ro d b t
s e , t t p ro m i
u t ; br t
,
a u no oo nen e as

D wl p
e ki t loo
a , d d roo p i g
s n no s e an n

Ch t d es p w id, f ll ee , e, u

Cr p o s, f ll thi k b ro d u
,
c ,
a .

R b i lo g r h d thi kly fl h d
s, n ,
a c e c es e

ly fl h d
,

B ac k b ro d , tr ight thi kly d a , s a ,

c an e ve n es e .

L oi n thi k b ro d ; thi k
, c xt d g w l l f rw rd
,
a c n e ss e en in e o a

Fl k l w
an d f ll
, o an u

H k oo m oothly o r d ; w i d th i
s, s p ro p rt i t c ve e n o on o

oth r p rt b t t p ro m i t
e a s, u no nen .

R mp lo g l
u l w id d
n ; t il h d m ooth eve e , an e ve n a -
ea s
t p t h
, , , ,

no a c
y
t w i dth i p rop ortio w ith
.

P in b t p ro m
on es , no inen n n

th r p rt
,

o e a s

f ll fl h dw ll d ow t h Ok
.

T h i gh s, u ,
es e e n o c

Tw t d is
p f ll p r
, f ll
ee ,
u ,
u se u

L g e tr i gh t hort m f ll ; h k fi m ooth
s, s a ,
s ; ar u s an ne, s

To tl a

An ma i l
S t uden t
 A PPEND I X H

T H E A G E O F D O M E S T I C A NI M A L S A S I N D I C A T E D
BY T HE TE ETH

Thei i or t th f t h d i ff r t d o m ti
nc s i m l o ff r o
ee O e e en es c an a s e a c nven e n i t d an

co m p r ti l y a ar t g g ve to th ir r p ti g
a c cu Th a e au e as e es ec ve a es . e p ro g r i e ss ve

i i i d titio o f t h hor t h
n c s ve en w th h p d t h p ig
n e se , e co , e s ee , an e a r e as f ollow s :

T H E HO R S E

Th e hor i c i or i ith r j w t h m i d d l p ir o f w hi h
se h as s ix n s s m n e e a , e e a c are c o

m on ly k ownth m iddln as th xt p ir t h i t r m d i t
e es, d th o t r e ne a as e n e e a e s , an e u e

p ir
a t has or r or l t r l
e c ne s, a e a s .

A t b irth t h olt i w itho t i i or t h m i dd l p ir i ith r j w p p ri g

e c s u nc s s, e e a n e e a a ea n

w ithi nw k or t w f ollow d b y t h i t r m d i t t t h g o f f ro m t w
a ee o, e e n e e a es a e a e o

w ee k to s m o th on e d by th or r t b o t fi m o th T h
n an o tit t
e c ne s a a u ve n s . e se c ns u e

th e m ilk or olt t th w hi h
, c gr d
, eell y r p l d by t h p r m
, c to ar e a ua e ace e e an e n nes

as th olt
e c r m t rity T h m i d d l olt t th d ro p t w h t h olt i
n ea s a u . e e c ee ou en e c s

a b o t tw y r
u o d h lf l d d
e a s an r p l d t thr y r b y t h p r m
a a o an ar e e ac e a ee ea s e e a

n en t t th A t three . d h l f y r t h i t rm d i t
e e an r pt d d t
o n e- a ea s e n e e a e s ar e e u e , an a

f o r th ir p l i t k b y th ir p r m
u e ac e s a t enor T h or r e h d e an e n s ucce ss s . e c ne s are s e

a t b o t fo r
a u d u h l f y r d r p l d t fi by th p rm
an one- a t or r
e a s an e ac e a ve e e an e n c ne s .

T hi i t h l t o f t h
s s e ri o f h g f ro m olt to hor t th d t h p
as e se es c an es c se ee , an e ra c

ti ll y m t r
ca im l t fi y r of g p o
a u e an a , aw h t i k ow ve f llea s a e, sse sse s a s n n as a u

m o th u l l th i
, a i or b i g p r m
e nc s t d h i g i th ir h i g r f
s e n e an e n an av n n e e ar n su ace s

th e bl k acp w hi h cu p l i l y oti
s c bl i th rli r li f o f t h hor
are s o a n n ce a e n e ea e e e se .

At i y s x r o f g t h b l k p h d i p p r d f ro m t h lo w r m i d d l
ea s a e e ac cu s av e sa ea e e e e

i i or ; t
nc s s a f ro m t h lo w r i t r m d i t ; t i g ht f ro m t h lo w r
seve n , e e n e e a es a e , e e

c or r ; t i f ro m t h p p r m i d d l ; t t f ro m t h p p r i t r m d i
ne s a n ne, e u e es a en, e u e n e e

t ; d t l
a es an f ro m t h p p r or r T h h g i t h p p r t th
a e even, e u e c ne s . e c an es n e u e ee

d o no t t k pl a w ith
e m h i f or m ity tho o f t h lo w r d th r f or
ac e so uc un as se e e , an e e e

ar e n o t r li b lso g id
e i a
g d t rm i
e as tio u es n a e e e na n .

I nd d itio
a to t h r p l i g p ro
n d th
e lo o f p t h gr d l
e ac n ce s s an e ss cu s, e a ua

c h g i th h p
an es n d p o itio o f t h t th f ro m m t rity to d th o ff r
e s a e an s n e ee a u ea e an

a
pp roxi m t g id a e to t h g o f th ir p o
u e as or A t m t rity t h i i or
e a e e ss e s s . a u e nc s s ar e

s hort d w i d an d h thi k
e an q l to b o t av e athir d o f th ir w i d thc n e ss e ua a u one e .

A t thi ti m s th t th o f t h p p r d low r j w m t q r l y d ry
e e ee e u e an e a s ee s ua e an ve

n ea rl y t ri ght g l to t h p o itio o f t h j w A t h
a an es i m l g ro w ol d r
e s n e a s . s e an a s e

th e t th b o m lo g r rro w r d thi k r d t t h m ti m g r d lly

ee ec e n e , na e , an c e , an a e sa e e a ua

i li f orw r d d m t m or
nc ne a anrl y p r ll l w ith t h j w
ee e n ea a a e e a s .

X 11
 A PPEN D I X I

G E NE RA L S P RA Y S C H E D ULE FO R THE C O NT RO L OF THE

I M P O RT A NT I NS ECTS A ND DISEASES OF F R UI T S A ND

V E G E T A B LE S

P L A NT I NS E C T OR D I S E A SE RE M E DY TI M E TO A P P LY RE M E DY
o l g m oth
C d in 2 lb . t l dr
a sen a e ea Sp ry ?N a s os .
3 4 6
- —

C r l o
u cu i 2 lb . t l dr
a se n a e ea Spr y ? Na s os . 2 — 3—4

S p ri g n k rw orm
c an e 3 4
—l b r t .l da se n a e ea Spr y ? Na s os . 2 —3

Ap h ( p l t li )
is an ce K roe m l io
se n e e u s n Wh ph i
en a s app e a r
San Jo é l s s ca e Lim lph r w h
e -s u u as S pr y ? N
a o . 1

B lot h c B ord x 34 5e au ,
— — 0 Spr y ? Na s OS .
4 5
— —6

S c ab Lim lph r w h
e -su u as S pr y ? N
a s os . 2 — 3— 4

B itt r rot
e B ord x 345e au ,
- — 0 S pr y ? N
a s 05 .
5 6—-
7
B li t rs e kr c an e C t ff
u kr d
o c an e s an Spr y ? N
a s os .
4 5 6
— -

p r y w oo dy p rt
s a a s .

B ord x 345 e au ,
— 0

F ir b light
e C t u ff b li ght d
o e Fo llowi ng b loom i ng pe r od
i

tw i g w ith t r l s s e i e

tool
P e ac h ,
Cu r lio
cu 2 lb r t l d
. a sena e ea A t t e n -d ay t r l t rt
i n e va s , s a i ng

p l m
u ,
as b uds sw ll e

c h rry
e ,
Ap hi s So p tob o ol
a or acc s u As ap h is a pp r ea

tio n

r ot
ap i c B r°wn r° t
S l f b oil d li m
e -
l e e -s u sp r ay t No . 1

ph r w h u as .

B ord x or li me au e A t t e n —d ay i t r l follow
n e va s ,

lp h r w h
su u as in g b loo m i g p r o d n e i

G r ap e Be rry m oth 2 lb . r
a se n a e t l e ad Be for b loo m f t r fr t h
e ,
a e ui as

set d t and y l t ren a s a e

B l k rot
ac B ord e au x , 4
— — 0
4 5 Be for b loo m d ft r
e ,
an a e at

d y i t r l
seve n- a n e va s

o
D w n y an d p w d e y o r l k t ; or
S a m e as b ac ro ,
D us t h e ac d y s e ve n a s

m dew il d y l ph r d t
r su u us

Lea f ho p p r e
K ro e m l io sen e e u s n S t rt
a oo h op p r p
as s n as e s a

Cl lt r
e an c u u e p r K
ea p.V o r
ee d i n es c ve e

R as p b e rry An thr o ac n se B ord x445 e au ,

— 0 D or m t an

Le a f p ot s B ord x 45 e au ,
2 - -
0 At t d y i t r l
en- a p t n e va s u o

b l kb rry
ac e m id o s eas n
 A P P E ND I X XV

G E NE R A L S P RA Y S C H E D U LE FOR THE C O N T RO L OF THE

I M P O RT A NT I NS E C T S A ND D I S EA S E S OF F RUI T S A ND
V E G E TA B LE S ( C O NT I N U E D )

P L A NT I NS E CT OR D ISE A SE RE M E DY TI M E To A L
P P Y RE M E DY

Po t to
a C ol r o ad o be e tl e 3 4 lb
-
. r
a se n a e t l ead S e v e n d ay -
i tr l
n e va s
,
from
tl r
a pp e a an c e o f be e es

F l ea be e tl es B rd x 44 5o T d y i t r l
e au fro m ,
— — 0 en- a n e va s
,
ap

p f b tl e ar an ce o ee es

( fu sa ri u m ) Cl S l t d rot t rop
{
D ry rot d d 1
e an s e e an 5 01 e ec see ,
a e c s

Ea y b g rl li ht B r d x o 4 4 5 T d
e au y i t r l f ro m ,
— — 0 en- a n e va s
,
ap

La e b g t li ht s p f j ry e aran c e o In u

So k d tw h o r
a B f r see tti g ; l t l o u s e o e cu n s e ec c e an

i f r m l d hy d
n oi l o a e e s

( pt ) d w t r
1 . an a e

( 30 g al ) .

C uc u m b e r ,
A ph i s pt ot i. nic ine n 1 00 As n e ce s sa ry to o trol c n

s q h
uas , g l w t r
a . a e

C u cu m be rb l eet es 2—
3 lb r t l d . a s en a e ea S t rt
a as i j y n ur a pp e a s r ;
me lo ns Mi dew l Al o d t p l t
s us an s e v e n -d a
y to t e n -da
y in
F r t ui sp o t w ith d y l m h r i e , as e s, t e rv al s

o r o th e r d us t B o r .

d e au x ,
—
4 4 5o
—

W ilt ( b ac t e ri al ) Re m o ve ff t
al l a e c ed Fi rt s r
a pp e a an ce o f w ilt in
g
Vi n es . C o trol n al l

i n sec s t
Tom a t o Bl k t ac ro At a
ppea ran c e f j ry o in u or

L f b li g h t
ea
B ord e au x , 4 4 50
- -

b e gi n s hortly b f r r p e o e i
,

en

in g , seve n- d y i t r l
a n e va

ro m l b to 50 g l o f w t r
1 F 2 . a . a e .

S pr y N aD or m t p r y p p li d j t b f or b d w ll
o . I . an S a a e us e e u s s e .

Spr y N a S m m r tr o g th
.
p p2li d w
. h l t r
u b d p i k
e s en , a e e n c us e u s are n , be for e

b loo m i g n .

S pr y N 3 A p p ly wh
a O p t l
. b o t t w thir d o ff flo w r
. en e a s ar e a u o s e s .

Spr y N 4 A p p l y thr
a o w . k ft r N . ee ee s a e o . 2 .

Spr y N 5
a A p
p yl f o or . i w k f t
. r N i ve s x ee s a e o . 2 .

S pr y N 6 A p ply t
a o w . k ft r N . en ee s a e o . 2 .

Spr y N 7 A p p l y f ro m t w to f o r w k
a o . . ft r N 6 o u ee s a e o . .
 APPENDI X J
Q U A N T I T Y O F S E E D TO S O V Y P E R A C RE

A l f l f ( b ro d t)
a a a ca s M ill t b r y rd ( d rill
e ,
a n a ed )
A l f l f ( d rill d )
a a e M ill t G r m e ( for,
e an seed )
A rt hokic J r lm e, e u sa e M ill t p rl ( f h y )
e ,
ea or a

B rl y
a e M lo i

B e an fi l d m ll ri ti
,
e ,
s a va e es O t gr
a t ll as s , a

B e an , fi l d l rg ri t
e ,
a e va e ies O ta s

B ee t O r h rd g r
c a as s

B ro m g r e as s P r ip
a sn s

B roo m or c n P p or
o c n

B uc kwh t ea P ot to I ri h
a ,
s

B ur c lo r ve P ot to I r h (
a t t ,
is cu o on e or

C rrot ( for to k )
a s s c t w o e ye s ) 6 to 9 b u .

C lo r l ik
ve ,
a s e R ap e ( d rill e d ) 2 to 4 lb .

C lo r J p
ve ,
a an R ap e ( b roa d cas t) 4 to 8 lb .

C lo r m m m oth
ve ,
a Re d top r l ,
e c e an e d 12 to 1 5 lb .

C lo r ve d (,
rem ll g r on s a ai n R i ce 1 to 3 bu .

i n sp ri g ) n Ru t ab a
ga 3 to 5 l b .

C lo r w t
ve ,
s ee Ry e 3 to 4 pk .

Cl ov e r whit ,
e Ry e g as s r 2 to 3 bu .

Cl o ve r ri m o ,
c s n r h for g b ro d t)
S o g um ( b a e, a c as to 2 u .

C or n S rg h m ( f
o ud or r p ) 5 lb
or see Si u 2 to .

C otto n S orgh m h ri
u (f ,
s ac c a ne or

C owp ea il g or oili g d rill d ) 6 l b to ; b

s a e s n ,
e . . u .

C ow p ( d rill d w ith or )
ea e c n S y b
o ( d r ll d )
e an to 3 p k i e 2 .

C ow p (fea d) or see S y b
o ( b ro d t)
e an to ; b a c as 1 1 u .

F i ld p
e m ll ri ti
e a, s a va e es S g rb t
u a ee s
5 to lb 1 2 0 .

F i ld p
e l rg ri t
e a, a e va e ies S g r
u a c an e 4 to f ns o c an e

F l x ( for
a d) see S un fl ow r e to 5 l b 10 1 .

F l x ( for fi b r)
a e T m othy
i 5 to 5 l b 1 2 .

H m p ( b ro d t) lb
T i m othy d lo r
j
e a c as 10 ’

an c ve
H g ri
un a gr ( for h y )
an as s a 4 lb .

J oh o g r
ns n as s T r i p ( b ro d
u n t) ,
to 4 l b a c as 2 .

K fi ( d r ll d f or g r i )
a r i e a n T r i p ( d r ll d )
u n i lb e 1 .

K fi (f
a r f d d r)
or o e V l tb
e ve to 4 p k
e an 1 .

Kl a e V t h h i y ( d rill d )
e c ,
a r b e . 1 u .

L pi
u ne V t h h iry ( b ro d t)
e c ,
a t b a ca s I o 1
‘
u .

M an g e ] Wh t ea 3 t 9 p k o .
 APPEND I X L

A TA B L E O F C O M M O N F A R M W EED S 1

r d i g from l ft to ri ght t h t b l g i t h follow i g f t b o t w d t h

By ea n e e a e ve s e n ac s a u ee s : e

com m o m ; t h l m ; r g io wh r m o t i j rio ; t h ti m f d i g ; t h
n na e ec n i ca na e e n e e s n u us e e o se e n e

pl t h f r m wh r t h w
ace o n d g row
e d t h m m j r d b y th m ;
a d t h m th d
e e e ee s an e o in u e e an e e o s

of r d i tio
e a A lt r t ca lti tio m n. of r d tio m lt tio d ri g
e n a e cu va n as a e an s e a i ca n e an s c u i va n u n

th ed y or d h y d g f th g wm g o t
s e as n ,
an l rop h
a e av see in or e ro s e as n o an an n u a c ,
suc as

cri m lo r owp m ill t or o t

son c ve th t t h w d W ll b m oth r d
,
c e as , e ,
a s, so a e ee s i e s e e .

AC PL E OF

C M M NA M
T M G W TH M TH D I E OF RO AND E O S OF
O ON ES
S D P D U CT E EE I NG RO S RA D I C A 1 1 0 N

I JU D N RE

B y rd g
arn a b r P i m r ras s , M t t J ly t S p F l d ; p i g Pr t i
a n an c u c us f i n n e so a o u o e ie s s r n e ve n on o

gr k f t
as s , c o c g ll s oo M t t mb r wh a t i d g o n an a e e ea se e in

Bl k m
ac t rd 3
us a igr W h g t t J l y O t F l d ; g r i P
r as s 1ca n a f as in on o u to c o ie s a n re v e n t i o n o
C l f b rp d g; a i o rn i a er c o s se e in

h d p oe c ro s
d pl t i
rac t e ib P l t gan a n ri Oh i t I w J t D M d w ; p P
r an a o a t s o o o a un e o e ea o s as re ve n i o n

gr kh r t r
,

b
as s , t uc o n,mb ta a ce er u es
w t r bes e n kh r uc o n

Br m r p Or b K t ky t J l y t S p H m p ; Cl
'

oo a e h o an c e ra en uc o u o e e e an
N rh C t mb
.

m bo sa ; l i o t a ro e er t o acc o cu t v
tmt p th r o a oe s c ro s o e
th h m p an e ,

e tc
B ff l b k d S l C l J l y t N Gr i ; h d H y
.

u b
a o ur , m I w t
ea e o ari u ros d o a o o o u o o a n oe e av se e
h r tl
o se n e t t m e rd mb rp
ra t u i g; l a o ve er c o s n c o se
lt t cu i va io n

B ll th i tl mm rywh J ly t N M d w ; f
'

u s C d e, l co E on ar uu s P an c e ve e re u o o ea o s re ve n t i o n o
th tl is e l mb W t r wh
o a t us d g t ve er in e e at se e in ; cu
g f t in in a

B g
ur h dg h g C
r as s , hr e E y wh r
e J l y t N S dy
o enc p
us C lt t ;
t ri ve r e e u o o an as u i va i on

gr R ky M
a ss , b I d
oc oun mb u OI; w l b g
es ve er t ure s oo ur n i n
d b
t a i n sa n d ur, sa n
b d p r
u r , sa n s u

B rd k g
u oc t d k Ar m l p p N w E g l d A g t
re a oc W t pl
ct i u ; Pr a ti a f e n an u us to as e ac e s e ve n on o
b r p t r
,

t W m O ; d g; o i sc o n s cto e as u e s se e in

w l g bb g oo ru in
mm r su e

B t w
ut o n d ll g t eeD d a M yl di J ly t N W t p l
a or io ia ; Pr
t e re s t f ar an to u o o as e ac e s e ve n i o n o
d r p ;
,

h d ea L mb h d g o u i s i an a ve er oe c o s se e in

g fi ld l lti ra i n e s c o se c u va
t ion

C d th i tl
an a a C d s e N w E gl d J l y t O t F l d ; g r i ; Al r t
ar u u s a rv e n l e n an u o c o ie s a n te na e cu
I w b m d w
8 18 d to o a er ea o s t i va t i o n an
h y rp e av c o

p g in

C h l k wi l d m
ar o c B i N w E gl d J us t O F ld ; gr i
r a ss ca a rv e n Pr ti f e n an un e o c ie s a n e ve n on o

N rth D tbr
,

d y ll w m
ta r ,
d
e o u s ta r 8 18 d g; l to o a o e se e in cu

; n y anon
h d r p oe c o s

Ch h t wh
e ss , c Br m ea li N w E l d A g t t F ld ; g r i Cl
e at o u s s e ca d; e n an u us o ie s a n e an se e

h f W ll rd b r lt t
,

t ie t
i W a g O
’
s n us o as in cto e cu i va i o n

br m gr
,

o e as s
h kw dic ee S t ll ri m d i N w Y rk M r h t L w
e a g
a C lti t i
e a e o to a c o a n s, ar u va on in

N rh C r J ly d ; p r g l f ll d o t a o u ens s in a te a an

l rp ly p g i na c o s e ar s ri n

1
A d ap t ed f ro m F ar
’
me r s B u l l et i n 2 8, U n it ed S t t
a es D e pa rt m t o f A g ri lt r
en cu u e.

x iiiv
 AP P E N D I X xix

A TA B LE O F CO MMON F A RM W E E D S ( C O NT I N U E D )

CO MM ON N AM ES
ME TH 0OS O F
E R A D I LA T I O N
U DI NJ RE

C l i o n d n l l a , gu m s u c C h o n d ri l l a j un We s t V irg i n ia J uly to De W t pl as e C lt i ac e s ; u i v at o n ;
r
c o y , s ke e t o n w e e d , ce a l to M ry l a an d ce m b e r p t r as u e s h d p oe cr o s
t k
s i c we e d
Cl r d dd l f lf C
o ve o er, a a a us c u t a Ut ah to Ne J un e to No Cl r ; lf lf Cl
ove d;
a a a e a n se e
d dd r l o V p hy m m
e ov e ine e it u b r a s ka ; Ne w v e m be r lt t cu i va i o n

l
,

E n g an d
C kl oc r kle, Ag mm
co n coc e, ro ste a Ne w E n g l an d J lyu to Se p G i fi ld ;
ra n Cl e d; s e a n se e
r mpo s e ca g h g i on it a o t o W as h i n g t e m be r wh t ea li t c u t va i o n
to n
C kl b
oc l t b X hi m
e ur , c o ur, an t u r
E v e y wh e r e A u gu s t to W aste p l a ce s ; P r e v e n t i o n o f
d t h b m ll b
i c d ur, s a ur c an a e n se , N o ve m b e r p as t u e s ; r s e e d i n g , c ul

d k oc X th m an iu wo o l t i va t i o n
m m s t ru a ri u
C h gr
o uc q k A g py ass , u ac ro r on re Ne w E n gl a n d Au gu st t o Fi e d s ; l al l Al tr t
e na e cu l

g q kg
r as s , p ui c ra s s , en s to M i n n e s o ta S e p t e m be r c ro p s e x ce p t t i va t i o n an d
W h gr d l i tc a ss , e vi
’
s h ay h e av y c ro p

g r as s pi ng ; c o se l
g razm g
C o w h e rb , c o c kl e , c o w V ac c a ri a v ac C o l o r a do to J ul y to Au F i ld
e s ; g ra i n P re v e n t i o n of
h as “, c o w fa t , g l o n d c a ri a Uta h g us t s e e di n g ;
c l e an s e e d
C ra b gr a s s n ge fi rP i an cu m s an Ne w J e r se y to J ul y to Oc t o Ho e d c ro p s P re v e n t io n of
r i t g
.

g a s s , P o l sh m i l l e u i n al e M i s s o u ri an d be r s ee di n g ;

sou th c l o se r cu lti
v at i o n
C ur e d l do c k ye ll ow Ru me x c ri s p u s New E n g l an d J ul y to Oc t o M e a do w s ; Al t e r t na e cul
do c k ,

to W as h i n g be r g ra i n cro ps t i v at i o n an d
h e av y c ro p

n
D an de li on T ara x a c u m ta N e a r y l e ve ry M ay to N o M e a do w s ; Cu lt tii va on
r axa c u m w h e re v e m be r l awn s

Devi l
we e d , d e v i l s H i e ac i u m
’
s
’
r Ne w Y o rk Au g u s t to M e a do w s ; Sh e e p p as t u r
p a i n t b ru s h , ki n g p rae a l t u m O c o be t r p as t u r e s i n g ; cul t i v a

l
d e v i w e e d , g o de n l t oni an d
h a wkw e e d h e av y c r o p
n
Dog f l M yw en n e a eed An th e m i s cot r
E v e y wh e re J ul y to Se p Ro a d s i d e s P re ve n t i o n of
,

ul a te m be r se ed i n g

E g li h
n b i dw s n e e d, Co n vo l vu l u s Ne w E n gl a n d Aug u s t to G ra in fi e l ds ; re v e n t i o n of
m i g g l ry
o rn n -
o r
a ve n s i s a n d C a l i fo m i a O c t o be r h o e d c ro p s se e di n g la t e
cu l ,

ti va t i o n
F al s e fl ax , g o l d -
of C a m e in a l sa M i c h gan i to Ju n e to A u F lxa an d w in P re v e n t i o n o f
l p e a s u re W ld fl i ax ti va M i n n e so t a g us t t e r g ra in s e e di n
g
d dd r l t J l r f lf l
,

F ldie o e ove Cuscu a a rve n Ne w E n g l an d u y to No C l o ve ; al a a C e an se e d ;

Vi r d dd i
,

n e , c o ve l o er S IS to O h i o an d ve m be r c u l t v a t i on o f
s o u t h wa d r r
c ops o th e r
t h an c o v e r l
F l e ab an e , i
d a sy fl e a E ig e r r on an Ma i ne to Min J lyu t o Se p W as t ple a ce s r
P e ve n t o n o f i
ban e , swe e t s c ab i n uus me so a t an d t e m be r m e ad o w s s ee di n g
o us , whi te t op so u t h
re a t r ag w e e d , h o g Am b r i
os a t rifi I o w a t o L o u i s i Au gu s t t o Bo tt om l an d s lti i
C u v at on ;
we e d a ri a a n d e a s t O c t o be r h e avy c opr
pi ng
G u m p l an t r o s i n we e d , G ri n de i a l N o rt h D a kt o a Au g us t to M e a do w s ; p as P re ve n ti on of

s un fl o we r
,

s qu a rr osa t o U t ah N o ve m be r tu r es se e d i n g ; cu l
fi v a uO n
e dg e b in dwe e d C o n v o l vu u s l Ne w J
t o Au g u s
e r se y t to Co m a n d w h e at La t e lti cu va
r
m o n in g g o r y l s e p i um
-
,

l lli nois O c t o be r fi e l ds t ion

tl l
o r se n e t e b u l n e t S o l a n u m c a r
o Io w a t o N e w Au g u s t to W as te l an d A lt r t
e na e cu l
t l e , san d b i a r r l i n e n se
,

J e rse y an d N o ve m be r m e ado w s ; t i v at i o n an d
s o u th p as u e s tr h e avy c ro p

pi ng
xx T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

A T A B LE O F C O M MO N F A R M W E E D S ( CO NT IN UE D )

P LA L E OF

CO MM N AM TI W TH
M E OF G RO A ND M ET H D O S OF
ON ES
S D EEP DU C I NG RO TS ER A D CA T I IO N

I JU D N RE

Ho r bu e
se we e d , Le p t i l o n tt r can a E v e yw h e r r e J ly O t W t l d ;
u to c o as e an P r e ve n t o n i of
w ee d , co l t s-ta i l , fl e a
’
de n se m e ad o ws ; see di ng ; lt a e
ban e g r a i n fi e l ds c u l t i va t i o n
l
I n d i a n m a l o w , b u t e r Ab u i o n t tl ab u i t
t t lt t Il l i
ino s t o I o wa A u g u s o C u i va e d P r e ve n t i o n of

p in ,r t t s a m p we e d , dM S pt m b r l an i s s o u ri e e e an d s se e d i n g
l tl f
v e ve ea
Im s o n wee d , J am e s D t r t l
a u a V g A g t
atu a W t pl ir inia to u us to as e ace s P r e ve n ti on of
t o wn we e d , th o rn T O b r e x as ct o e se e di ng
ap p e l
J o h n so n g r a ss , C u b a S gh m h l
or N th C
u l J l y S p C l ti t d
a e or a ro i n a u to e u va e A lt e rn a t e cul

g r as s , A u s t ra i a n l p e n se T x d t mb r fi ld ; hto e as a n e e e s oe d t i va t i o n an d
m i le l t E g y p i an t C l f r rp a i o n ia c o s h e av y c opr
mil e lt ,

e ve r g r e e n pi ng
mi e ll t ,

M e an s ’
s

r
,

g as s
La m b
’
rt r p g
s- q u a e s, i Che n o p o di um E v e ry wh e re t
Au g u s to W ast e p l a ce s P r e v e n io n o f t
wee d al b u m N mb o ve er se e d i n g
Li v e - f r r g rd
o e ve a en Se d um t e l e p h i Ne w Y k or to A g t
u us t o Fi e ld s f
In e c t i o n w t h i
o rp i ne
,

Pe n n sy l v a n i a S pt mbe e er f
un g o u s d I S
e ase ; c o se l
l
c u t i va i o n t
Ma l v a , c o mm o n m al M al v a r o t un d i C a l i fo rn ia , A r i J lyu to Se p l
Fi e ds P r e ve n t i on of
fo l ia zo n a t e m be r se e d i n g ;
th oro ug h cu l
t i va t i o n
M anr t m f h Ip m p D l w r
oo an - o —t e o oea an e a a e t o Au g u s t t o Fi e ld s Pr e v e n t i o n of
rth
ea m m g d t ,

M o in u ra a i s s o u ri O c t o be r se e d i n g , ki l l
gl ry
,

o i n g roo t S W I t h
co a O l l l
M r ha sl d r h i g h I x th f l Me e va an i o ia i n n e so ta t
t o S e p e m be r l
Fi e ds ; p as r
P e ve n t i o n o f
w t r fl Ut h t
,

h b
a e s ru a se a to Oc o be r t u re s ; g ra i n se e di n g
flwr
sun o e
,

c ro p s

M x e p gw d C h
i c an
p d m V rg i
te a , i ee eno o iu i in a t o Augus t to W as t ple a ce s P r e ve n i o n t of

m br d L a o s i oi es o u i s i an a O b r c to e se e d i n g
M lkw d
i t A lp
ee y N w Y rk co to n sc e i as s e o to A g t
u us t o Fi e d s l re v e n t i o n of
l kw d N br k S p t mb
,

w d ee , Si ee e as a e e er se e d i n g ; c ul
t i va t i o n ;
h e avy c opr
n
M o m in g g - l ry
o Ip o mo e a p ur l
D e a wa e r an d Au g u s t
to Cu i va lt t ed r e v e n t io n of
r
pu e a Ca i o n lf r i a D e ce m be fi e d s r l se e di n g ;
r gh
t ho ou
lt t
cu i va i o n

Mo h mu t ll ie n Ma ry l d an to J ul y to No Me ad o w s S w g
o l
in c e an

Oh io an d v e m be r d
se e lt ; cu i

Or g e on t ;g b
va i o n ru
b g f ll
in In a

M usky al fil e ri l l a , E r
o di um mos C l f r i
a i o n a to M ay to Au Pas t u r es S w g
o l
in c e an

gr d o undl nee e c h at u m Ar i zo n a gu s t d
se eb r u n

ky h r b ll
, ,

m us e on i mg
N rr w l
a d ot k -
e av e s ic La p p u l a l ap E v e rywh e r
e J ul y to Oc t o Eve yw h er r e ; c l e an
d b gg r t k
se e e ic s pu a l be r wo o l ; c rp
o s cu lt i

t
a -
,

va ion

dg
u t se t gr e , nu as s , Cy e ru s ro t u n Ma ry l d an t o Au g u s t t o In h oe d c o rp s Alt r t e n a e cu ltd i

co c o se d ge us A rk a n sas an d N o v e m be r t
va i o n an

T x m h r
s ot e i ng
rp
e as
c o s

r g an e k
h aw w e e d , Hi e r ac u m a u i N w Y rk
e o an d Au gu s t to M e ad o w s ; p a s Pr ti
e ve n on of

ld ’
p ai n b u s h tr
r an t i a c u m w tw rd t r
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t
a ies es a
t i v at i o n sal

Ox y e e wh da s y ,i it e C h ry s an t h e Ma i n e to V ir J ly O t
u to c o M e a d o ws , p a s P r e ve n i o n t of

da i s y . w h i e w ee d t m u m l e uc an an d he r t u re s se e d i n g , c u l

t he m u m
gi n i a
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xxii T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E

A TA B L E O F C O M MO N F A RM W E E D S ( C O NT I N U E D )

AC PL E OF

MM N AM TI M E OF G W H
RO T A ND M ET H D O S OF
CO ON ES 4

SE E D I NG P DUC RO TS ER A D CAT
I ION

U D I NJ RE

i
S p an s h n e e d e s , b u r B i de n s b i p i n l E ve rywh r J ly N W t l d ;e e u to O as e an Pre ve n i o n t Of
m a n go d , be gg a l na a r t mb p t r ve er as u e s s e e di n g

a c ks
i
S p n y a m a r a n t h , s p m y Am a a n h u s r t V i gi i
r A g t
n a W t l d;
to u us to as e an P r e ve n ti o n of
c a e e ss rlwe e d , re d s p i n o s us T e xa s D mb r p t r e ce e as u e s se e di n g
rl
c a e e ss we e d
S p i n y c o c kl e b u Xa n t h u m s p i r i M yl d
ar A g t
an W t to l d u us to as e an P r e ve n ti on of
T x r ; ,

n o s um e d N
as an
p o ve astu e s se e di n g ; c ul
C l f ia i o rn a w l oo t iv a ti o n
Sp i n y n igh s th ad e l
S o a ri u m a c u N o rthC l J ly O W
a ro i n a pl u to c as t e ace s r
; P e ve n t ion of
l e a t I S S Im u m to M pp tbr
IS S IS S I
p t r I o e as u e s se e d n gi ; c ul
t i va t i o n
S q ui r l t il
re a Ho r d e u m j u b a T x
e U t h J ly
as to 0 P t r a u to 0 as u e s P r e ve n i o n t of
tbr
.

t urn o e se e d i n g , cul
t i va t i o n
S tr
a th is le , t Te x as Ce n t a u re a T e x as O kl J l y S p C l ti t d
to a u to e u va e P r e ve n i o n t of
t
t hi s le am e r i c an a h m o t mb r
a l d e e an s e e di n g ; cul
a v a uo n
S t b blu e spu rg e, Spo t E u ph o b ri a nu M ry l d
a A g t
an C lt to td u us to u i va e P r e ve n t i o n o f
ted sp u rg e t an s M r N
i sso u i mb r l d o ve e an se e d i n g ;
r
b u n in g s ub t
ble
S un fl o we r c om m o n li th
He an u s an N e b ra s ka t
t o Au g u s to Cu t li t va ed r t
P e v e n io n o f
fl r O t b r l
,

su n o we n uu s L o u i s i an a c o e an d se e d i n g
T o a d fl ax, b u tt r e an d Li r l i ri
na ia na a Ne w E n a n gl d A g t u us to M e ad o w s ; p a s ti t
C u l va i o n ;
e gg s t o W i s co n s m N o ve mbe r t ure s h e av y c ro p

f ll r
T e ase ] , u e rd D i p ’
s ca s ac u s syl Oh i o to Te n A u gu s t to M e ad o w s ; p a s Pr é
ri n g
v e n t io n of
tl r tr
,

I n d i an t h i s e v e s t ri s n e ss e e O ctobe u es se e d i n g ; c ul
ti va t i o n
T r f il b l k m d i
e o M di ac e c, e c ag o l u Ne w Y o rk t o Ap rl to D e M e a do w s ; C l d;
e an S e e
n o n e s u ch
,

p ul i n a V rg imb i nia ce
i

er l a wn s lt t
cu i va i on
T um bl e we e d, p igw e e d A m a r an h u s t M A g t
i n n e so t a u us to Cul ti va e d t Pr t f
e ve n i o n o
r g ae c i zan s K O t b r
an sas c o e l
an d d g
se e in
b r gu n in
Vp ri e
’
s b ug o s s l bl
ueE hi m c u l N w Y rk
vu e J ly N o to to o M e a do w s ; p as A lt r t li
e n a e cu t
t h tl g r N rh C r tr t
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is e , b l ue we e d a e mb
o t a o ve er u es d
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n
W he a t th if e co n r Lith o s p e rm u m M i h ig cJ ly O t an to to G rai n fi e l d s S o win g c l e an
r ll fi ld r lt
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g o mw e , e a ve n se Ohi o be r se e d ; cu i
r
g o m we l l , p ig e o n t
v a i on "
W thi
we e d hoe d c o ps r
t t tr tr i i
W h i e h e a h a s e , A s e e r co d e s M a ry l a n d S e p t e m be r t o M e a d o w s ; p a s M o w m g ; g raz
fr t trfl r tr Wt
~

o s we e d a s e , a l I n d i an a D e ce m b e u es ing i h
tr as e s he e p ; o a rt
t i o n o f c ro p s
W ld i b kwh t P l y g m uc ea o on u i
M ch igan to J ly t Oc t G ri d
a n an S o wi n g c e an l
bl k b dw d l r W h t fi ld lt
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ac l in ee c o n vo vu u s No t h Da b er ea e s se e d ; cu i
k t o a t va i on
W ld i rr t b ird D ca rt o
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s au cu s c a o a N w E gl d j l y
e n N M d w ;p
an G r bb g ito ea o s as u in n

t d il p l g t V rg tr f ll ; lti
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nes ev s a ue o i mb inia u es a cu va
l ve
t
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Q A ue e n nne s ace i on
W l d g rl
i fi ld g Alli m i l
a i c, e ar u v n ea e Penn s yl i Ag t v an aE rywh r ; A lt r t lti to ve e e e n a e cu
r w g rl W l d th C S pt mb r d ry r t
u us
l i c, c o a i c, i to S ou ar p d e d e e ai o v a i on an
o n i on l
o i na t ; gr h y rp ne s ai n e av c o

g in
Wild g rd ou c a l ab azi t a C uc u b i r t a pe C li f r i
a t J
o n a t S p C lti td
o K l g h
un e o e u va e i in t e roo ts
N w M i t mb r l d W th l 1
,

re n n i s e ex co e e an i coa 01
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ua M i n n e so ta J ly S p O fi ld to uS w mg l to e at e s o c e an
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i g p t r n as u s

i ng
 A P P E ND I X xxiii

A T A B LE OF C O M MO N F A RM W E E D S ( C O NT I N U E D )

PLAC E OF

MM N AM TI M E OF G ROW TH A ND MET H D O S OF
CO ON ES
SEE D I NG P D U CT
RO S ER A D CA
I T IO N

I JUN D RE

ld i J ly t r
'

Wi p a rs n p , q u e e n P a s t i n a ca sa N e w E n g l an d u o O c to M e ado w s ; p as P e v e n t io n of
t i va t o W i s con s m be r tu res se e d i n g , cu l
t i v at i o n
Y rr w m i l f l
a o oi ll ll
Ac h i e a m i e M a s sac h use t t s J un e to M e a d ow s ; p a s G r u bbi n g
,

f
oli um t o M n n e so t a i A ug u s t t u re s
Y ll w d y b l
e o ai s ac k R u d be c a h ir N e w ki
E n g an d l J ul y t o S e p M e a d o w s ; p as Pr even t on i of
eye d S u s an
,

to O hi o t e m be r tu esr se e d i n g c ul
t i vati o n
Y ll
e ow do ck , bi t e Rum e tr x o bt u s i Ne w Eng l Au g u s
an d t to M e ado w s ; p a s P re v e n t i on of
do ck, b r o a d l e a ve d
-
fo i u s l to W i s c o n s m O c t o be r t u re s se e di n g cul
k
,

do c t i v ati o n
Yl
e l o w d o g fe n n e l , b i t He l e n i um te T e x a s t o N o rt h A u gu s to t W as t e l an d P re v e n t i o n o f
t e r we e d n u i fo l i u m C a ro l i n a N o v e m be r p as u tr es ; se e d i n g ; c ul
d a i ry p r od t i v a t i on
ucts
Y ll
e ow me ll t y
i o el l
M e i lotus o ffi r
M a yl an d to J ul y to O c o t D ry m e a d o w s C u l t i v a t io n ; 1n

l ow s we e t l r c o ve
,

e i n al i s M i ch i g a n be r an d p as t u re s c re a se d fe r t i
l i za t i o n
xxvi T H E E S S E N T IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E
B e e s , 302 C an d oll l ho
e, A p n se de, 8

t
B e e s , 2 3 1 , 2 34 k r or
C an e w m , 31 4
o i
B e g n as , 4 0 C a n n a s , 37 , 4 1
r l ll
B e g e n a n d C a d w e , 34 , 1 38 Ca b r oh r t
d
y a e s , 3 1 , 32 5, 32 7 , 340
tt r l t l l t
B e e p a n s a n d a n i m a s S ee P a n s . r o
C a b n , 2 5, 3 1 , 33
i l
an d a n m a s r o i
C a b n c a c i d , 7 5, 1 04
l q ot
B i b e , t h e , 37 2 ; u e d , 300, 32 0 r
C a d, F W , 2 7 7 . .

ir h
B c e s , 2 80— 2 8 1 Ca rrot
s , 2 31

r i t tro r
B i ds as n s e c d e s y e s , 3 1 0— 3 1 1 i
C a s e n , 37 2 , 37 3
Bi ett r rot o f l ap p e s , 2 9 2 t r ill r
C a e p a , t h e , 1 86, 302
l k k ot o f l
B ac n h rri
p u m s an d c e e s , 2 90 to q ot
C a , u e d , 38 1 , 4 36
l k rot o f
B ac l a p p e s , 2 90 ttl
C a e , 1 6, I 7 , 2 0 S ee D a y c a e . ir ttl
l r
B u e g a s s , 38 , 32 8 , 4 05 s ee a l s o F e e d i n g a n i m a s l
l
B ue be rri e s , 63 C au liflo r w e , 38
B oll il
w e e v , 1 86 r
C e da s , 2 8 1
B oll or
w m , 1 86 l r
C e e y , 38 , 53
o l
B n e m e a , 1 04 , 32 8 tr l ri or
C e n a A m e c a , c n i n , 1 37
B ookk i f r
eep n g o n the a m , 4 4 2 - 446 tr l t t l ti or
C e n a s a e s , p a n n g c n i n , 1 50
or x xt r
B d e a u m i u e , 2 9 2 , 3 1 6— 3 1 7 h r o l
C a c a , 4 2 5, 4 2 7 , 4 2 9
r o i
B a c n d s , 309 h
C as e , L W , 4 5 5 . .

r
B a n , 3 2 8 , 34 1 , 34 5, 39 3, 4 02 , h
C e e s e , 37 3
42 9 h rri
C e e s , 44 , z éj fl , 2 8 1 l k k ot
b ac n

r ol
B e a d m d s , 2 89 , 2 99 o f 90 , 2

ri
B gg s a n d S a n , 34 h tz Ch t t t h 80— 8
es nu , e, 2 2 1

B riti h
s I n d i a , s u g a c a n e i n , 2 37 r Ch t t b rk d i
es nu -
th 96 a s e as e , e, 2

B roo i
d n g , 4 3 1 — 4 32 C hi k c Sens P o ltry . ee u

B roo or
m c n , 2 2 3— 2 2 5 C hil lf lf i
e, a 0 a a n , 2 1
ro
B w n , E , 4 34 . C hi n a, or i 34 ; ri
c i n
73 ; n, 1 ce n , 1

ro
B w n , W i i am C , u e d , 49ll . q ot sorgh m i 3 ; m ill t i
u
9;s n, 2 2 e n , 2 2

ro l l
B w n p um i c e , 31 5 appl i 6 ; p
es h i 6 n, 2 2 eac es n ,
2 2

ro
B wn rot o f
p e ac e s a nd
p ums, h l C hi h b g 30 303 304
nc u s, 2 ,
—

C hi n e s e asf rm r 84 0 a e s, , 1 1

C hloro p h y ll
’
B r o w n S w i s s B r e e d e r s A s s o c i a t i o n , 37 1 8 3 , 1 , 1

B u dd i n g , 4 4 Cl y H
a , ry 383 en ,

ll
Bu , Ep hr i
a m, 1 0 Cl m t
i m o d ifi d b y f or t
a e as 8 e e s s, 2 2

l
B u m b e b e e s , 2 09 , 2 1 0 C lo r 5 37 38 6 7 4 8 6 04
ve ,
2 , , , 2 , , , 1 , I I 1 ,

r k
B u b an , L u e , 1 0 th r 1 1 6, 8 , 1 1 9 , 1 2 5, 1 9 2 , 2 041 74 2 1 8,
1 1

Bu rk tt
e , C W , 7 1 , 8 1 , 1 1 4, 1 7 6
. . 2 8 7 — 2 88 , 32 8 , 34 1 , 34 5, 34 6, 39 3,
rl J
B u s e y, A , 4 55 . .
4 0 1 , 4 2 7 ; d u s e d b y, 73 ; in ro f oo
h l
B us e , l e g a l w e i g h t s ( Appe n d of ), ix K t at i o n , 8 6
xvn C lo rve h ay , 9 3
B us i n e s s as p e c s t o f f r m i g 43 67
a n , . C o rb u n , F D , M 2 , 4 08 . .

B us i n e ss s id e of m i t i i g l f
a n a n n S Ol er C o li
d ng m oth , t h e , 3 0 — 06
5 3 , 1
3 4
t i l i ty , t h e , 1 2 0 C o ff e e , 2 66

Bu tt r f t 37 37 5
e a , 2 , C o ff e e b e a n , t h e , 37

Bu tt r m ilk 404
e , C ol eus,
4 47 1 ,

C olor d o lf lf i
a 0; , g r b t a a a n , 2 1 su a ee s

C ab b ag e , 9 , 2 5, 38 , 53, 4 2 7 i 37 ; W h t i
n, 2 60 ea n, 1
l i
C a c u m , 2 5, 7 7 , 1 1 0, 32 7 C olor d o p ot to b tl
a th 3 3 3 4 a ee e, e, 1 -
1

Ca li f or i W h t
n a ea , rl
i n , 1 60 ; b a e y i n , C ol m bu C hri to p h r
us, 34 s e , 1

171 ; h lf lf
e m p i n , 1 88 ; a a a i n , 2 1 0 ; C ol m ll
u q ot d 3 0
e a, 0 u e , 2 , 1 1, 2 1

ve c t h or h
in , 2 2 0 ; s g um s i n , 2 2 7 ; C o m m r i l f rtil z r
e 0
c a e i e s, 1 2

g r t
s u a be e s in , 2 or h r
37 ; c a d s i n , 2 64 C o m p ti g f til z r
u l n 08 09 er i e v a ue s , 1 -
1

o t f or t
C a n a d a , a s i n , 1 69 ; e s s i n , 2 79 C o m to k J H 3
s c ,
. .
, 12

C an ad a p e as , 365 C opp r p r y 3 6 3 7
e S a s, 1 — 1
 I ND E X Xx v l l

C o m , 2 , 8 , 9 , 1 1 — 1 3, 2 4 , 2 5, 2 6, 36, o
C w p e a s , 7 4 , 88, 1 9 2 , 2 04 , 2 06, 2 1 8
8 6 0 0 1 1 6, 1 1 8 , 2 2 0, 2 7 4
32 8 , 34 1 , 367 , 4 2 7 ; i n r o
3 , 4 , 7 5 93
, , 1 9 , 1 1 , ,

1 1 9 , 1 3 4 4 3 32 7 , 3 2 8 , 34 1 , 34 5, 34 6. t at i o n , 86 ; W ilt r i t t
e s s a n , 2 96 -

6
3 5 3 , 9 2,
3 9 3 . 4 0 2 . 4 04 , 4 2 7 . 4 2 9 ; r r
C a b g as s , 2 1 4
w a e d aw n t r r m $ 01 1 b y , 2 9 ; d i af ro r l
C ad e , t h e , 2 — 3
r
g am o f g a n s r i of , 32 ; d use d f oo r i J oh
C a g, n A ,
352 , 37 1 , 4 1 7
.

by , 73 ; i n arot tion , 86 ; s
y , hi tor o f r
C an b e rri e s , 63

1 34 p d u c ro tio
n a n i d d s i bu n , tr tio o f ri o lo r or h r
C m s n c ve in c a ds , 2 74

1 35 ; u s e s of
, 1 35 ; ad ap a n , t tio o f to ro f rtiliz tio
C ss e -
a n , 1 38

l
c i ma e an d t s oil, 1 35 3
—1 6 ; d e n , t ro i
C s s n g , 1 4— 2 0
1 36 ; yp e s t ,
of
1
3 ;6fl i n , 1 3 6—1
37 ; t ro olli tio
C ss p -
na n , 42

p o d , 1 3 7 ; p op, 1 3 7 ; s , 1 37 ; oft ro ll
C w n g a , 2 88
s w e e , 1 37 ; p a n tl t of , 1 8 ; se e d bed
3 r
C u b a , s u g a c a n e i n , 2 37
of , 1 38 — 1
3 9 i ort
; m p o f oo
an c e g d r W lt o f
C u c u m b e s , 2 8, 38 ; i , 2 88

s e e d , 1 39 ; r io l ri ti
eg na v a e e s , 1 40 rr t
C u an s , 4 6
l ti r
1 4 2 ; s e e c n g s e e d e a s , 1 42 — 1 44 ; Cu tti n
g , 4
s 6 —
47
t rit o
m a u y an d s u n d n e s s, 1 44 ; S i e z t or
Cu w m s, 31 0
h
an d s ap e of h r t r
c a r s , 1 44 ; c a a c e

of k r l r
e n e an d ge m s , 1 4 i f or 5 un m ir ttl
D a y c a e , 35 3 97 ; s ag e ,
il
2 59 ; f or
of t tori ir t o f ir
5

i ty y p e , 1 46 ; s n
g s e e d, 1 46 t h e d a y , 3 53 a d v a n a g e s da y
1 47 ; t tie s n g an d ge m n a r i tio n , 1 47 i n g , 353— 3 54 ; t h e d a y e d , 3 54 ir h r
r
1 48 ; g ad i n g s e e d , 1 4 8 ; m e tho o f ds 3 55 ; e J r
s e
y , 3 55 3 56 ; G u e n s e y s ,
s — r
p l ti
an n
g, 4 1 8 — 1 r t o f l ti
49 ; a e p an n g , A y r s h I TC S , 1357 3 58 ; H o l -

1 49 ; d e p th o f l ti p a n n g , 1 50 ; ti me t i
s e n s, 8 —
3 5 3 59 ; B w n S I S S , 3 59ro W
o f p l t g 50 ; lt t o 50an in , 1 cu iva i n , 1 3 6 0 ; D u c Bt h
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C otto b oll w n- il t h 306 308 e ev , e, — 1 2 8 , 1 32 — 1 33, 1 0, 1 5 5, 1 7 6, 1 90
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a t t d r d z tio o f 44
u c s , s an a i a n ,

6 7 ; d y f rm i g r F a t , 32 5— 32 6, 32 7
1 2 — 1 2 r a
7
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F e e d n g a n i m al s , 3 2 ofi f , 339— 34 6, 365
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XXX T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E
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I i n s , c n i n , 1 3 5, 1 4 0 ; w e a i n , K an s as t t S a e A g cu u ri lt r l a E x p e ri
1 60 ; o t
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53 J oh t
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e 63 ; w i
e se , c a s n , 2 s ne

g i nes d l g ian 4 5 4 53 ; Oi en n es, 1— "1 1 39 7

l ti g d i t lli g oil g i
se ec n an ns a n en n es, Ne w York y i , r e n , 1 72 ; to b acc o in ,
4 53 4 54 ;
— l tri m otor th e ec c s on e 44 ; or h r d i
2 c a s n, 2 63 Swi n e i n , 39 7
f r m 4 54
a ,
N itr t o f o d
a e 0 s a, 1 2

M die lf lf i
a, a 0 a a n , 2 1 N itri id 75
c ac ,

M loe
3 8 W
n s,
; lt o f 88 i , 2 N itrifi tio 76 ca n,

M d l G r g or 4
en e , e , I N itro g 5 33 7 en ,
2 , , j i 2
, 8 2 —8
3 9 94 ,
, 2 ,

M d l L w 4 0
en e
’
s a , 1 —2 1 1 6, 1 1 8— 1 1 9 , 1 8 3— 1 84 , 2 00, 2 04

M t m or p ho i o f i
e a t 30 s s n sec s, 2
M xi o or i
e c ,35 c n n, 1 N itro g o f rtiliz r en us e e s , 1 0 2 — 1 03
M i h l J oh 37
c e s, n , 1 N orth A m ri or i e ca , c n n, 1 34 ; f or s t s e

M i hi gc or i 40 ; y i 7 ;
an , c n n, 1 r e n, 1 2 in ,
79 2

g rb
su at i 37 ; p h i 67 ; ee s n , 2 e ac es n , 2 N orth roli tob o i
Ca n a, ac c n , 2 45
ttl i 38 5
ca e n, N orth kot
Da or i a, c n n, 1 40, 1 42 ;
M i d d li g 34 40 4 9n s, 2 , 2 , 2 h t
w ea in , 58 ; l f l f i 1 a a a n, 2 10
XXX II T H E E S S E NT I A L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E
N orth D kot E x p ri m t S t tio
a a e en a n , 1
59 P al l a d i u s , u e d , 2 04 q ot
N orth r t t p l t g or i
e n s a es, an i n c n n, 1
50 l
P a m s , 2 66
Nu r ro p 96
se c s, 1 r t
P a as i e s , 2 8 7 — 2 89
r iti i
P a a s c n s e c s , 308— 309 , 4 2 2 — 4 2 4 t
O ak , t h e , 4 3, 63, 2 8 1 ri r
P a s g e e n , 3 1 4— 3 1 5
t
O a s , 38 , 60, 8 6, 1 1 0, 1 1 6, 1 1 8, 1 1 9, r i
P a s n p s , 38, 2 3 1
t r
P as u e s , 365, 368 , 404— 4 0 5 ; i n rot a

393 4 0 5,, 4 2 7, 42 9 ; w a e d aw n t r r tio

n , 86

f ro m $ 01 1 b y , 2 9 ;f oo d u s e d by , 7 3 ; t ri
P a s u n g S ee G a s s e s . r
in rot tio
a o t
n , 86 ; f r
a s a n d d ry a m P a w p aw s , 63
i tro tio o f
i n g, 1 3 1 ; n d uc n , 1 69 ; r e h
P e a c e s , 9 , 3 5, 4 4 , 2 62 777 ; b w n ro rot
g io o f g ro
ns w th o f 6 9 lti t io , 1 cu va n of , 2 89 , 2 9 2 l f ea cu rl o f , 2 92 ; s cab

o f 1 70 ; h r ti g 7 0 ;
, d a ve s n , 1 u se as of , 2 92
a r nu ro p 96 08 09 ; m t
se c , 1 , 2 —2 s u t
P e a n u s , 32 8 , 4 04 , 40 5
o h 2 9 3— 2 9 4 r
P e a s , 9 , 3 5, 2 63 fi ; b g li ht o f , 2 88 ,
O hio , c or
i n , 1 35, 1 40 ; w e a i n ,
n h t 2 89 — 2 90
1 60 ; s u g a b e e s i n , 2 37 ; r bac c t to o P e as , 1 4— 1 5, 2 5, 38 , 62 ,
i n , 2 4 4 , 2 4 5. 2 4 6 w a e d aw n t r r f ro oil
m s by , 2 9
O hio x ri t t tio
E pe m en S a n,
97 l i h t
P e n n s y v a n a , w e a i n , 1 60 ; r y e i n ,
i
O i l e n g n e s , 4 50— 4 54 1 72 ; ca e ttl
i n , 38 5 ; sw n e in , i
l
O i l m e a , 34 1 398
O il of t ar, 2 8 1 Pe ri s a, a lf lf a a in , 2 10 ; p e ac h es in ,
O a kl ho or
m a , c n i n , 1 49 ; w e a i n , h t 2 62
1 60 ; s or h g u m s in , 2 2 7 ; m u e s p ro l P h t
e as a n s S ee P
. o ltry
u

d u c e d i n , 338 P hili p p i n e s, th e , ri i ce n , 1 73 ; s uga r

li
O v e O i l , 32 8 c an e i n , 2 37
li
O v e s , 9 , 2 63 P ho sp h t ro k 05
a e c , 1

io
O n n s , 9 , 38, 4 6, 53 P ho s ph t 9 7 98
a es, -

r
O a n g e s , 3 5, 2 62 7 . P ho s p h ti f rtiliz r
a c e e s, 10 — 10
3 5
rh r
O c a d , s p ay e s r f or , 31 8 r P ho s p hor 5 33 7us, 2 , ,
2
fi i 92 , , 94 , 1 1 6,
rh r
O c a d s , 2 62 fi
”
ori o f gi n l
th e ap p e , . 1 1 8
2 62 — 2 63 ; or h r r io o f
c a d eg ns the i o
P g e n s S ee P u . o ltry
it t t
U n e d S a e s , 2 63— 2 64 ; c m a e , li t i
P gw e e d , w a e d t r r w f ro m oil a n s by,
2 64 ; s oil it
s , 2 64— 2 65 ; s e s , 2 6 5— 2 66 ; 29
air r i o
d a n ag e , 2 66— 2 67 ; b d i e s of i
P n e s , 63, 2 80— 2 8 1
t r r ri l
w a e , 2 67 p e p a n g t h e a n d , 2 67 P it s ilo s , 2 58
ri t to l t
va e ies p a n , 2 l ti
67 ; p a n n g , t h
Pi c , 2 81
2 68 2 69 ; -
h i
s ap n g t h e t o p , 2 69 ; l t i
P a n d s e a s e s , 1 8 6— 1 8 7 , 2 87 fi 3; d u e
p r i f or o
u n n
g p e f or
n m , 2 r
70 ; p un
~
to r t l t
p a a s i ic
p a n s , 2 8 7 — 2 88 ; b ac
in g f or r i l f or
py a m d a m , 2 7 0 —2
71 ; t ri
e a , 2 88 ; f i
u n g , 2 88— 2 89 ; c n o trol
ma ngki tr e e s bea r f r it u , 2 7 1 — 2
72 ; r i
b y p u n n g , 2 89— 2 90 ; c n o trol
by
or h r lt tio
c a d cu i va h
n , 2 7 2 — 2 74 ; w e n ro p rot tio
c 9 0 a9 o trol
n s, 2 b y
—2 1 c n

to p i k f r it 7 4 7 5
c u , 2 -
2 r
p y g
s i a 9 n9 ; p
, p l 2 b lot h
1—2 2 a e c ,

O r go e wh n, t i 6 ; l f lf i
ea n, 1 1 a a a n,
9 2 ; o2 trol bcy nd d i f tio see is n ec n,

0;
2 1 t hi ve c 0 n , 2 2 2
93 p ; r ti tr t m
eve n t o f m tve ea en s u ,

O r g o A g ri
e n lt r l C oll g 4 0 cu u a e e, 2
9 42 95 ;
— o2 trol b y g ro w c th o
n f re

O rg i m tt r 5
an c a e , 2 i t t
s s an ri ti va9 5 96 ; e it e s, 2 -
2 s an a

O g or
sa e g 43 an e, tio d q r ti
n an 97 ua an n e, 2
O m oti p r
s cr 7 e ssu e , 2 Pl t f oo d i oil 7 j i ; i m p ort t
an n s , 2 an

O ver p ro d tio 5 uc n, l m t i 7 ;
e e en s l bl n, d 2 av a i a e an un

O x yg 5 3 33
en, 2 i 1 1 il b l 7 7 3 ; m o t d 7 3
ava a e, 2- a un use ,

O y t r h ll 4 5 4 7
s e s e s, 2 , 2
74 ; m o t i
a oil 7 4un ; m o t n s s, a un

il b l i
av a a eo 75 ; h w p n a s e as n, o o

P ad d o k c , W 77 .
, 2 t i m
as s u d p ho p hor an m d s us are a e

Pa e s l ti ne, h t
w e a in , 1 66 il b l 7 5 7 6 ; h w itro g i s
av a a e, — o n en
X xxiv T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E
R i ce , 9 , 1 2
5 , 1 73 f .
, 42 9 ; w e e g wn , h r ro S h k p r W illi m q ot d 330
a es ea e, a , u e ,

1 7
3; cu lti tio o f va n , 1 7 3 7 4 ; h ar
—1 S h ll a 6 u, 7 2 2 —2 2

ti g 7 4
ves n , 1 S h w T ho m
a , 3 2 30 as , 1 2 , 22 , 2

R o b rt J P
e 00s, . .
, 1 S h p ee (, l F di g i s ee a so ee n an
R ob i o J H 4 35
ns n , . .
, m l ) ; m a s r o f 93 ; il g f or an u e , s a e ,

Rom f rm i g 9
an a n , 1 59 ; d
2 lo p m t o f ty p o f 409 ;
eve en es ,

Rom than s , of e, use ag ri lt r l

cu u a im h r t ri ti o f ty p 409 4 0 ;
c a ac e s cs es, — 1

p l e m e n t s b y , 1 68 fi w ool b r
n e- d 4 0 ; A m ri ee s, 1 e c an

R oot h ira s, 2 6 2 8 -
M ri o 4 0 4 ; D l i
e n , M ri o 1 — 1 1 e a ne e n ,

R oot rot o f to ob ac c , 2 9 1 4 ; R m b o ill t 4

1 1 a m i dd l w ool u e , 1 1 e-

R oot t i
ps, 41 br d ee 4 ; S o th d o w
s, 4 ; 1 1 u n , 12

R oot s an d t r ub e s , 2
3 1 9 ; v a ue , l of S hro p hir 4 4 3 ; H m p hir
s e, 1 2— 1 a s e
2
31 ; i ort
mp of
an c e , 2 31 ; s s oil D ow 4 3 ; O x f or d D o w
n, 4 4; 1 n, 1

t to
a d ap e d , 2
3 1 2 32 ; t h e p a ,
-
ot to D or t I I se 4 4 4 5; L i t r o rn , 1 — 1 e ce s e ,

2
33 ; ti o f l t
m e p a n i n g, 2
33 ; b ee s, t 4 5 ; lo g w ool b r
1 d 4 5 ; C ot
n -
ee s, 1 s

2 34 ; s w e e t ot to
p a e s , 2
34 w ol d 4 6 ; L i ,ol 4 6 1 nc n , 1

o r
R s e , L a u a , 380 Shi ff P tri k
rre 0 , a c , 1 — 1 1

o
R s e s , 2 88 S hort 34 367 40 4 7
s, 2 , , 2 , 2

R a ot tio o f ro
n c p s , 8 6 —8
7 , 1 1 6, 1 64 , S i kl
c th e, 3 e, 2 —

2 87 , 2 9 1 , 3 1 0

o h
R u g a g e . 34 2 — 34 3. 39 S ilk w or m 308 s,

i o t
Ru s s a , a s i n , 1 69 ; b a e
y i n, 1 71 ; rl S ilo sd l g 489 ; gr
an Si a d e, 2 een an

t r
fl a x i n , 1 8 7 p a s u e s i n , 1 9 2 ; s u ga r d ri d f o d d r
e o m p r d 4 8 49 ; e s c a e , 2 — 2

t
b e e s i n , 2 36 ; f or t
e s s i n , 2 79 h w il g k
o sp 49a
50 ; d e ee s, 2 —2 a v an

R u s s an i s e, thi tl
wa e t r r
d aw n m f ro t g o f t h 10 50 5 ilo d
a es e 81 , 2 —
2 1 s s an

s oil
by, 2 9 c ro p li m it 5 l g ro p 5 ; s, 2 1 Si a e c s, 2 2

Ru s s t of r i
g a n , 2 8 7 , 9 5 96
2 — 2
e ssen ti l o f t h 10
a s 5 53 ; e 51 , 2 2—2

Ry e , 38, 62 , 86, 1 1 0, 1 7 2 , 32 7 , 34 2 ; f d i g il g w h
ee n f r h 53 ;
S a e en es , 2

wa e t r r d aw n m $ 01 1 b y , 2 9 ; i n f ro Siz o f l es 54 55 ; o t o f
S l OS , 2 ilo —2 c s S s,

or h r
c a ds , 2 74 2
55 ; w h to t ro p f or
en il g cu c s s a e,

2 55 5 6,; filli g 2 t h ilo 5 7 ; p i t n e s , 2

ro J k o
S an d e s n a n d a c s n , 3 1 2 l
S I OS , 258 ; m o t o f il g to f d a un s a e ee ,

it t o
S a n a i n , 2 9 7 , 4 0 5— 4 06, 4 2 1 — 4 2 4 2 59
S an Jo l
sé s ca e , t h e , 31 5 S iz o f f r m 4 36
e a ,
—
4 39
r t
S a g e n , F L , 1 55 . . S ki m m lk 3 6 i , 2 , 3 2 8,
367
— 6
3 9 , 4 0 2,

S c ab of l
ap p e s , 2 9 2 404
S ch e rrfius , W 2 47 . li rl
S n ge a n d a n d C sby , 3 1 2 ro
S c i e n c e as aid ag i c u u e 2—4 to r lt r , Sm ith
, A d am , u e d, 1 1 5 q ot
or r
S c e c a ds ( A p p e n d e s A , B , C , D , ix Smu s t of r i
g a n , 2 87 , 2 9 — 2
3 95
E , F , G ) , i— x i S my e , W th illi a m E , 1 32 .

Sc otl
an d , c a e in , 8
3 4 38 5
—
ttl r rr
S n y d e , H a y , 9 0, 1 00, 1 1 4 , 1 2 1
r t hi
S c a c n g s e d , 4 2 6— 4 2 7 h 8 01 1, t h e , 4 9 9 7 ; d e n i n , 49
— 0
5 ; fi tio o f
r
S e a s , F C , 31 9 . . f or tio o f
ma n , 0
5 ; n d s , 2 —
5 53 ; ki of
S e e d, qu an y , p e r tit o f
ac e ( A p p e n r i r l tt r o f
m ne a ma e , 5 2 —
53 lo cum u se,

J
di x ) , xvi —
53 54 g ; l i l
a c a ,tr54 ; ort
a n s p e d , 54 ;

Seed se ec n, l tio
1 0— 1 4 ; c n, of or ae olian , 55 ; oll i l
c uv a , 55 ; s ig n i fi

1 42 1 46
-
c an c eo f ty p o f 55 ; p ro p rti o f e , e es ,

r i tio o f
S e e d s , ge m n a n , 3 6li f o f
—
37 ; e , 5 9
8 C; t xt r 8
5 5 9 ; w i g ht 59 ;
e u e, — e ,

—
lf lf lo r
37 38 ; a a a , 37 ; c a n n a , 37 c v e , t xt r
e d u ro p g ro w th 60—6 ;
e an c , 1

37 ; o ff b
c th 37 ;ee otto e an , e, c n str t r o f 6 p oor p h y i l
uc u e , 1 s ca co n

se e d 37 , lo t d 37 t t i fi cus se e s, s ra d itio 6 ; olor

n, i d i tor o f
2 c as n ca

ca tio 37 ; p l t g o f 38 ; t ti g
n, an in , es n l 6 63 ; p l t g ro w th i d i
v a ue , 2— an as n

f or g r m i tio 4 7 49
e na n, 1 —
1 ca tio f f rtil ty 63 ; oil w t r
n o e i ,
s a e ,

Se p r ti g
a a r m f ro m m ilk 37 5
n c ea , 64 66 ; m l h 66 67 t m p r t r e
— u c ,
— e e a u ,

37 7 67 ; li f i oil 68 e n s ,
 I ND E X XX XV
S oil f rtility r l tio o f ty p o f f r m
e , e a n
‘

e a r l
S u g a m a p e , t h e , 2 39
i g to
n 9 5 91 ; m i t
,
2 , of 1 1 a n e n an c e , l h t of
Su p a e o
a m m n i a , 1 02

8 9 ; r t r
2 g t h r m o d
e u nini e, e ve n l h ri
S u p u c a c i d , 1 03
ro p
c 5 ; li s, to k1 1 d 5 ve s c an , 1 1 S un flo r
w e s , 2 6, 30
8 ; gr
1 1 f rm i g d 8 9 ; ai n a n an , 1 1 —1 1 rf hi
S u ac e w a s n g, 8 4— 86
b l of g i
a an c e d lo 9 0; a n an ss, 1 1 —1 2 o t
S w e d e n , a s i n , 1 69
th b ie id f m i t i i g 0
us n e s s s e o a n a n n , 1 2 S wee t lo r
c ve , 2 1 6— 2 1 7 , 4 0 ; t r
5 wa e
S oil s, d f rt liz r an 09 ; f or roote i e s, 1 s r
d aw n f ro oil
m s by , 2 9
and t b r 3 u 3 e s, 2 1—2 2 t ot to
S w e e p a e s , 2 3 1 , 2 34
S org h m 9 u4 8 s,
3 8 3 7 , 2 , 2 1 , 2 2 —2 2
, 2 , i
S w n e , 3 95 9 ; ori i o f
g n , 39 5 ; t h e
34 5 34 6 365 39 3 4 05 ; w t r d r w
, , , , a e a n l r
a d ol
h o g , 39 5— 39 6 ; t h e P a n d
f ro m oil b y 9 ; or gh m d d y
s , 2 s u s an r hi ro J r
C n a , 39 6— 39 7 D u c- e s e y , 39 7 ;
f rm i g 3
a m t of
n , 9 3 94
1 1 s u s , 2 —2 rk h r h t r ht
B e s i e , 398 ; C e s e W i e , 39 8
S orr l 63 e , , 1 1 1 o
399 ; b a c n h o g , 399 ; L a g er Y ork
S o t h a m , W H , 383 . . s hir e , 399 ; T a m w orth , 4 00 ; H a m p

o th
S u , t h e , c n i n , 1 4 1 , 1 4 2 , 1 49 ; or s hir e, 4 00 —
40 1 t of
m a n ag e m e n
o t
a s i n , 1 69 ; ce i n , 1 7
3; c ri n otto h re d , 4 0 1 — 40 2 ; f o
e e di n g i
y u n g p gs ,
in , 1 78 ; B e m u d a g as s i n , 2 01 r r fi i hi ho f or rk t
4 02 ; n s n g gs m a e , 4 02
ca pe r t rg as s i n , 2 0 2 ; a p an c ve J lo r f
4 03 ; e e d f or f tt i ho
a en ng g s , 4 03
in , 2 1 7 ; v e c in , 2 2 0 t h l
b a an c e d a r tio f or f i
ns e e d n g , 40
3
S u o th ri
A m e c a , c n i n , 1 3 5, 1 37 ; or 0
4 4; h o g p a st r
u a e 0 —
g , 4 4 4 05 s a n i
t r r
p a s u e s i n , 1 9 2 ; s u g a c an e i n , 2 37 ; o o i
t at i o n a n d c m m n d s e as e so f ho gs,
f or t
e s s i n , 2 79 4 5 4
0 — 06

S u o th roliCa il
n a , s e a s an d c n in , -
otto
1 78 ; to o
bac c in , 2 4 5 k
T a n a g e , 9 3, 1 02 , 32 6, 32 8, 4 02
S u o th kot
Da or a, c n i n , 1 4 0, 1 4 2 ; h t
T e n n e s s e e , w e a i n , 1 60 ; p a s u e s t r
h t lf l f
w e a i n , 1 58 ; a a a i n , 2 1 0 ; k ao i n , 1 93 ; ba c c to o
i n , 2 46 ; m u e s l
li
an g i n , 2 2 6 p rod u c e d i n , 338
S o y b e an s , 2 04 , 2 2 0, 32 8, 4 04 ; i n ti
T e s n g e gg s , 4 31
or h r
c a d s , 2 74 x or h
T e as , s g u m s i n , 2 2 7 m u e s p r o l
i lf lf
S p a n , a a a in , 2 1 0 ; d e v e p m e n lo t d u c e d i n , 338
of hs e e p in , 4 1 0 h o hr t
T e p a s u s , u e d , 58 , 2 62 q ot
i liz f r i
S p e c a e d a m n g , 4 39— 4 4 0 T hor n e , C E , 57 , 90, 1 00, 1 2 1
. .

ill
S p m an , W J , 2 03 . . ili
T n g , 1 2 3— 1 2 4
r h l
S p ay s c e d u e ( A p p e n d ix I ) , x iv x v - i oth
T m y , 4 6, 7 3, 86, 9 3, 1 9 2 , 1 9 4 , 1 9 5,
r i
S p ay n g , 2 9 1 — 2 9 2 , 3 1 3 9 1 , 4 2 4 ; s i g 1 9 6, 1 9 7f , 34 51 367 .

n ifi c a n c e of i —
, 3 3 31 4 ;
1 n s e c i c de s, t i o o
T b a c c , 1 06, 1 07 , 1 1 0, 2 1 8 , 2 4 2 9 7,
1 —
r i f or f
3 4 3 1 6 ; s p ay n g un
g u s d is o 2 66 ; as a m c f rp ,
ro 2 4 2 l
; c as s e s
o r r
e a s e s , 3 1 6 ; c p p e s p a y s , 3 1 6— 3 1 7 ; t
an d yp e s , 2 43 ; of
cu u a m elt r l tho ds,
r t f or r i
app a a us s p ay n g , 3 1 7— 3 1 8 2 4 3— 2 4 4 ; c g a i rl f
e a , 2 4 4 2 4 ; m an u
5
-

r
S p u c e s , 2 80— 2 8 1 f ac t u r i n g yp , e 2 t
4 5 2 46 ; e p
—
x ort
t
S an d a d ar iz tio o f f r ro
n a m p d u c s , 44 2 t t y p l to
e , 2 4 6 ; $ 01 1 d e p e i n , 2 4 6 ; root
t t o r hi o f f or t
S a e wn e s p e s s , 2 82 rot o f , 2 91 use d f or tr tio o f
d e s uc n

t
S e v e n s , F L , 2 99 . . i t
n se c s, 31 6
to r
S v e , 93, 34 6 T o m to
a e s , 2 1 8 2 88 ,

tr
S aw , 93, 32 5, 34 2 . 393 T s ch e r m ak , E c , 1 4 ri h
tr
S aw b e rri e s,
39 r lo i
T u b e c u s s , 2 88
r
S u d a n g a s s , 2 02 rk
T u e y s , 3 1 0 S ee a l s o P . o ltry
u

r i
S u g a , 3 1 — 32 , 2 3 69 7, 37 2 ; m p an c e ort r i
T u n p s , 9 , 38, 2 3 1
of, 2
36 ; s u gr t
a b e e s , 2 3 6 —
2
37 ; s u g a r
c an e , 2 7— 2 8 ; s u a
3 3 r g m a p e s , 2 39 ; l l ri ht T C 4 5 5
U b c , . .
,

ho ne
y b e e s , 2
39 40
— 2
Un it d Ki g d o m o t i 69
e n , a s n, 1
S ug a r t
b e e s , 2 36— 2 37 , 367 wa e t r Un it d S t t t h o m p tio o f
e a e s, e, c nsu n
r
d aw n f ro m 5 01 1 b y , 2 9 su g r ia 36 ;n g r
, i 2
37 ; su a c an e n , 2
r
S u g a c a n e , 3 5, 2 37 — 2 38 f or t i 7 9 8 ; d iry i g i 353 ;
es s n, 2 — 2 1 a n n ,
xxxvi T H E E S S E NT IA L S O F A G R I C U LT U R E
be e f i n 38 1
ca ttl
de ve pm e n e , lo t of 168 ; us e d as a n u s e c r ro p ,

h
s e e p i n , 4 1 0— 4 1 I g n p u
y ori i o f o ltr smu t o f 93 9 4 ;
s , 2
9 5 96 2 r t of
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