ADVANCED COMPUTER

NETWORKS

Dr. Irfana Memon

Department of CSE, QUEST

https://sites.google.com/a/quest.edu.pk/dr-irfana-memon/lecture-slides
Course Content
NO TOPIC
01 Introduction: Motivations of studying networking

02 Foundation (Problem: Building a network)

03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
 Chapter 02
Foundation Problem: building a
network
 Chapter 2: Outline
• Foundation Problems
• Building block
• Transmission Basics
• Types of Signals
• Signal properties
• Signal encoding
• Digital-to-Digital
• Analog-to-digital
• Digital-to-analog
• Analog-to-analog
• Multiplexing and DeMultiplexing
• FDM
• WDM
• TDM
Overall Problem:
How to build a scalable heterogeneous network
Problem:
How to directly connect nodes into a single
network?
Problem:
How to connect nodes that cannot be directly
connected (for any reason including cost) ?
Problem:
How to interconnect nodes belonging to different
networks ?
Problem:
How can processes on different nodes
communicate efficiently ?
Problem:
How to ensure that communication links are not
overburdened ?
Problem:
How to translate the (potentially) different data
representation formats on different networks/
nodes ?
Problem:
How to ensure the security of network and the
data that traverses on it ?
Problem:
How to design protocols for applications that use
networks ?

HTTP SMTP

IMAP
SNMP
FTP POP
DNS
SIP
Problem:
How to monitor the performance of networks and
manage them to ensure proper operation ?
 Building Blocks
• Nodes: PC, special-purpose hardware…
– Hosts
– Switches

• Links: coax cable, optical fiber…

– Point-to-point

– Multiple access …
Point to Point Link

Multiple-access Link
Links connect computers through physical
medium
Wide variety of transmission links:
1) Magnetic media (transported)
2) Copper twisted pair
3) Coaxial cable
4) Optical fiber
5) Wireless media
 Direct Link

Multiple-access Link
Switches/ Routers
Hosts, PCs
A network can be defined
recursively as two or more
nodes connected by a
physical link, by two or
more networks connected
by one or more nodes.
 Net 2

Net 1 Net 3
1. Addressing
2. Routing messages
3. Support for unicast/ multicast/ broadcast
 Internetworking
• An internetwork is defined as two or more computer
network LANs or WAN or computer network segments
are connected using devices, and they are configured by
a local addressing scheme. This process is known
as internetworking.
• An interconnection between public, private,
commercial, industrial, or government computer
networks can also be defined as internetworking.
• An internetworking uses the internet protocol.
• The reference model used for internetworking is Open
System Interconnection(OSI).
 Types Of Internetworking
1. Extranet:

• An extranet is a communication network based on the

internet protocol such as Transmission Control
protocol and internet protocol.
• It is used for information sharing.
• The access to the extranet is restricted to only those
users who have login credentials.
• An extranet is the lowest level of internetworking.
• It can be categorized as MAN, WAN or other computer
networks.
• An extranet cannot have a single LAN, at least it must
have one connection to the external network.
 Types Of Internetworking
2. Intranet:
• An intranet is a private network based on the internet
protocol such as Transmission Control
protocol and internet protocol.
• An intranet belongs to an organization which is only
accessible by the organization's employee or
members.
• The main aim of the intranet is to share the information
and resources among the organization employees.
• An intranet provides the facility to work in groups and
for teleconferences.
 Intranet Advantages
• Communication: It provides a cheap and easy
communication. An employee of the organization can
communicate with another employee through email,
chat.
• Time-saving: Information on the intranet is shared in
real time, so it is time-saving.
• Collaboration: Collaboration is one of the most
important advantage of the intranet. The information is
distributed among the employees of the organization
and can only be accessed by the authorized user.
 Intranet Advantages
• Platform independency: It is a neutral architecture as
the computer can be connected to another device with
different architecture.
• Cost effective: People can see the data and documents
by using the browser and distributes the duplicate
copies over the intranet. This leads to a reduction in the
cost.
 Transmission Basics

• Transmit means to issue signals to the network

medium
• Transmission refers to either the process of
transmitting or the progress of signals after they have
been transmitted
• On a data network, information can be transmitted via
one of two signaling methods: analog or digital
 How signal is represented?
Mathematically, signals are represented as a function of
one or more independent variables.
For instance a black & white video signal intensity is
dependent on x, y coordinates and time t f(x,y,t)

f(t)

t
 Measuring signal

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

de
Amplitu
0
1 22 43 64 85 106 127 148 169 190 211 232 253 274 295 316 337 358 379 400 421 442 463 484 505 526 547 568 589 610 631 652 673 694 715

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1

Period
 Types of signals

Signals

Continuous-time Discrete-time

Continuous-value Continuous-value Discrete-value

Analog Discrete Digital

 Types of Signals
Analog signals: continuous in time and amplitude
◦ Example: voltage, current, temperature,…
Digital signals: discrete both in time and amplitude
◦ Example: attendance of this class, digitizes analog signals,…
Discrete-time signals: discrete in time, continuous in amplitude
◦ Example: hourly change of temperature
Theory of digital signals would be too complicated
◦ Requires inclusion of nonlinearities into theory
Theory is based on discrete-time continuous-amplitude signals
◦ Most convenient to develop theory
◦ Good enough approximation to practice with some care
In practice we mostly process digital signals on processors
◦ Need to take into account finite precision effects
 Types of Signals

• Continuous time – Continuous

amplitude

• Continuous time – Discrete

amplitude

• Discrete time – Continuous

amplitude

• Discrete time – Discrete

amplitude
 Basic Signal elements
• Most of the cases signals are analog in nature. It may be
processed directly by appropriate analog system

Analog Signal output

Input Signal Processor Signal
• An analog signal may be processed by digital signal
processor using interface between the analog signal and
the digital processor. This interface is called an analog-
to- digital (A/D) converter. An other interface may be
required after the processing to convert from digital
signal to the analog signal, which is called a digital-to-
analog (D/A) converter.
 Signal properties
• An analog signal, like other waveforms, is
characterized by four fundamental properties:
amplitude, frequency,wavelength, and phase

• A wave’s amplitude
• Frequency
• Phase
• Digital signals composed of
• pulses
• precise
• positive voltages and zero voltages
Terminology: Periodic (CT/analog
signal )
Period:
•The period of a periodic waveform will be denoted with a
capital T.
•The period is measured in seconds.
•The period is the smallest value of T satisfying
g(t) = g(t + T) for all t. g(t) = g(t ± nT)

•In essence, it's the smallest amount of time it takes for the
function to repeat itself.
•If the period of a function is finite, the function is called
"periodic".
Terminology: Periodic (CT/analog
signal )
Frequency:
•The frequency of a periodic function is the number of
complete cycles that can occur per second.
•Frequency is denoted with a lower-case f.
•It is defined in terms of the period, as follows: f= 1/T
(Hertz/ cycles per seconds)
Terminology: Periodic (CT/analog
signal )

Radial Frequency/Angular frequency:

• The radial frequency is the frequency in terms of

radians.
• It is defined as follows:
ω =2πf (radians per seconds)
Terminology: Periodic (Discrete-
time/Digital signal )
Period: • g[n] = g[n + mN]
• g[n] = g[n ± mN]
• N is the smallest amount of time it takes for the function to
• repeat itself.
• It must be an integer.
• Frequency:
• F= 1/N (Hertz/ cycles per seconds)

Radial Frequency/Angular frequency:

• The radial frequency is the frequency in terms of radians.
• It is defined as follows:
ω =2πF (radians per seconds)
 Transmission Modes
• The way in which data is transmitted from one device to
another device is known as transmission mode.
• The transmission mode is also known as the
communication mode.
• Each communication channel has a direction associated
with it, and transmission media provide the direction.
• Therefore, the transmission mode is also known as a
directional mode.
• The transmission mode is defined in the physical layer.
 Transmission Modes
The Transmission mode is divided into three categories:
• Simplex mode
• Half-duplex mode
• Full-duplex mode
 Simplex Mode

• In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional,

i.e., the data flow in one direction.
• A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or
it can receive the data but cannot send the data.
• This transmission mode is not very popular as mainly
communications require the two-way exchange of data.
• The simplex mode is used in the business field as in
sales that do not require any corresponding reply.
 Simplex Mode: Example

• The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits

the signal to the listeners but never allows them to
transmit back.
• Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex
mode as a keyboard can only accept the data from the
user and monitor can only be used to display the data
on the screen.
• The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the
full capacity of the communication channel can be
utilized during transmission.
Advantages of Simplex Mode

• In simplex mode, the station can utilize the entire

bandwidth of the communication channel, so that
more data can be transmitted at a time.
 Disadvantages of Simplex Mode

• Communication is unidirectional, so it has no inter-

communication between devices.
 Half-Duplex Mode
• In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the
station can transmit and receive the data as well.
• Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same
time.
• The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is
utilized in one direction at a time.
• In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error
detection, and if any error occurs, then the receiver requests
the sender to retransmit the data.
• A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode. In
Walkie-talkie, one party speaks, and another party listens.
After a pause, the other speaks and first party listens.
Speaking simultaneously will create the distorted sound
which cannot be understood.
Advantages Of Half-Duplex Mode

• In half-duplex mode, both the devices can send

and receive the data and also can utilize the entire
bandwidth of the communication channel during
the transmission of data.
Disadvantages Of Half-Duplex Mode

• In half-duplex mode, when one device is sending the

data, then another has to wait, this causes the delay
in sending the data at the right time.
 Full-Duplex Mode

• In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the

data flow in both the directions.
• Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously.
• Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel has traffic
moving in one direction, and another channel has traffic flowing in
the opposite direction.
• The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication
between devices.
• The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone
network.
Advantages Of Full-Duplex Mode

• Both the stations can send and receive the data at the
same time.
 Disadvantages Of Full-Duplex
Mode

• If there is no dedicated path exists between the

devices, then the capacity of the communication
channel is divided into two parts.
 Difference b/w Transmission
Modes
Basis for comparison Simplex mode
Direction of communication In simplex mode, the
communication is
unidirectional.
Send/Receive A device can only send the
data but cannot receive it or
it can only receive the data
but cannot send it.
Performance The performance of half-
duplex mode is better than
the simplex mode.
Example Examples of Simplex mode
are radio, keyboard, and
monitor.
Half-duplex mode
In half-duplex mode, the
communication is
bidirectional, but one at a
time.
Both the devices can send
and receive the data, but one
at a time.
The performance of full-
duplex mode is better than
the half-duplex mode.
Example of half-duplex is
Walkie-Talkies.
Full-duplex mode
In full-duplex mode, the
communication is
bidirectional.
Both the devices can send
and receive the data
simultaneously.
The Full-duplex mode has
better performance among
simplex and half-duplex
mode as it doubles the
utilization of the capacity of
the communication channel.
Example of the Full-duplex
mode is a telephone network.
Signal encoding
 Terms
• Unipolar
– All signal elements have same sign
• Polar
– One logic state represented by positive voltage the other by
negative voltage
• Data rate
– Rate of data transmission in bits per second
• Duration or length of a bit
– Time taken for transmitter to emit the bit
• Modulation rate
– Rate at which the signal level changes
– Measured in baud = signal elements per second
• Mark and Space
– Binary 1 and Binary 0 respectively
 Interpreting Signals

• Need to know
– Timing of bits - when they start and end
– Signal levels
• Factors affecting successful interpreting of
signals
– Signal to noise ratio
– Data rate
– Bandwidth
Why need signal/channel coding
• => Need channel coding and error control to improve
transmissions
• Channel coding (CC)
= coding (discrete digital) information into a form suitable for
transmission, with emphasis on enhanced reliability
– CC adds redundancy that allows for info restoration or
recovery when needed
• Price paid: need broader bandwidth
– CC ensures proper transmission quality
• Measured by
– Bit error quality (BER) / Frame error quality (FER)

– See where channel coding/decoding is done (next slide)

 Why need signal coding
Channel coding/decoding in a wireless communication
system

Information to
be transmitted Source Channel
Modulation Transmitter
coding coding

Channel
Information
r
Channel Demodulation Receiver
decoding
 Reasons for Choosing Encoding
Techniques
• Digital data, digital signal [wired LAN]
– less complex and expensive
• Analog data, digital signal [codec]
– use modern digital transmission and switching
equipment
• Digital data, analog signal [modem]
– Some transmission media will only propagate analog
signals
E.g., optical fiber and unguided media
• Analog data, analog signal
– transmitted easily and cheaply
– Done with voice transmission over voice-grade lines
 Signal Encoding Criteria
• What determines how successful a receiver will be in
interpreting an incoming signal?
– Signal-to-noise ratio
– Data rate
– Bandwidth
• An increase in bandwidth allows an increase in data rate
• An increase in data rate increases bit error rate
• An increase in SNR (Eb/N0) decreases bit error rate

• Another factor to improve performance: encoding

scheme
– Mapping from data bits to signal elements
 Comparison of Encoding
Schemes
• Signal Spectrum
– Lack of high frequencies reduces required bandwidth
– Lack of dc component allows ac coupling via
transformer, providing isolation
– Concentrate power in the middle of the bandwidth
• Clocking
– Synchronizing transmitter and receiver
– External clock
– Sync mechanism based on signal
 Comparison of Encoding
Schemes
• Error detection
– Can be built in to signal encoding
• Signal interference and noise immunity
– Some codes are better than others
• Cost and complexity
– Higher signal rate (& thus data rate) lead to higher
costs
– Some codes require signal rate greater than data rate
 Error Correction (EC)
• The key EC idea:
– Transmit enough redundant data to allow receiver to
recover from errors all by itself
• No sender retransmission required
• Major categories of EC codes (really: forward error
correction – FEC)
– Linear block codes
• Cyclic codes
• Reed-Solomon codes
– Convolutional codes
– Turbo codes
Pulse Code Modulation
Digital signal Modulation
 Digital to Analog Conversion
• Digital data needs to be carried on an analog signal.
• A carrier signal (frequency fc) performs the function of
transporting the digital data in an analog waveform.
• The analog carrier signal is manipulated to uniquely
identify the digital data being carried.
Digital-to-analog encoding
Types of digital-to-analog
conversion
 Note
• Bit rate, N, is the number of bits per second (bps).
• Baud rate is the number of signal elements per second
(bauds).
• In the analog transmission of digital data, the signal or
baud rate is less than or equal to the bit rate.
• Bit rate is important in computer efficiency
• Baud rate is important in data transmission

• S=N/r bauds
• S is baud rate
• N is bit rate
• Where r is the number of data bits per signal element
Bit and baud
Bit and Baud
 Example1
An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal element. If 1000
signal elements are sent per second, find the bit rate.
 Example1
An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal element. If 1000
signal elements are sent per second, find the bit rate.

Solution
In this case, r = 4, S = 1000, and N is unknown. We ca
find the value of N from
Example 3 (Exercise)
An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a baud
rate of 1000 baud. How many data elements are
carried by each signal element? How many signal
elements do we need?
Example 3 (Exercise)
An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a baud
rate of 1000 baud. How many data elements are
carried by each signal element? How many signal
elements do we need?

Solution
In this example, S = 1000, N = 8000, and r and L are
unknown. We find first the value of r and then the value
of L.
 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
• ASK is implemented by changing the amplitude of a
carrier signal to reflect amplitude levels in the digital
signal.
• For example: a digital “1” could not affect the signal,
whereas a digital “0” would, by making it zero.
• The line encoding will determine the values of the
analog waveform to reflect the digital data being
carried.
 Describe Amplitude Shift Keying
ASK

Amplitude-shift keying (ASK) is a form of modulation that

represents digital data as variations in the amplitude of a
carrier wave.
 Bandwidth of ASK

• The bandwidth B of ASK is proportional to the signal

rate S.
B = (1+d)S
• “d” is due to modulation and filtering, lies between 0
and 1.
Binary amplitude shift keying
Implementation of binary ASK
 Advantages/Disadvantages of
ASK

Advantages: Simplicity

Disadvantages: Very susceptible to noise3 interference

(noise affect on amplitude)

Application: ASK is used to transmit digital data over

optical fiber
What is Relationship between baud rate and
bandwidth in ASK
Example 1
Example 1
Example 2
Example 2
Example
Given a bandwidth of 10,000 Hz (1000 to 11,000 Hz), draw
the full-duplex ASK diagram of the system. Find the carriers
and the bandwidths in each direction. Assume there is no gap
between the bands in the two directions.
Example
Given a bandwidth of 10,000 Hz (1000 to 11,000 Hz), draw the full-duplex ASK
diagram of the system. Find the carriers and the bandwidths in each direction. Assume
there is no gap between the bands in the two directions.

Solution
For full-duplex ASK, the bandwidth for each direction is BW =
10000 / 2 = 5000 Hz
The carrier frequencies can be chosen at the middle of each band
fc (forward) = 1000 + 5000/2 = 3500 Hz
fc (backward) = 11000 – 5000/2 = 8500 Hz
Exercise
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans
from 200 to 300 kHz. What are the carrier frequency and the
bit rate if we modulated our data by using ASK with d = 1?
Exercise
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from
200 to 300 kHz. What are the carrier frequency and the bit
rate if we modulated our data by using ASK with d = 1?
Solution
The middle of the bandwidth is located at 250 kHz. This
means that our carrier frequency can be at fc = 250 kHz. We
can use the formula for bandwidth to find the bit rate (with d
= 1 and r = 1).
Frequency Shift Keying
Frequency Shift Keying
 Relationship between baud rate and bandwidth in FSK
what is the Relationship between baud rate
and bandwidth in FSK ?
 Frequency Shift Keying

• The digital data stream changes the frequency of the

carrier signal, fc.
• For example, a “1” could be represented by f1=fc + f, and
a “0” could be represented by f2=fc- f.
Example 1
Find the minimum bandwidth for an FSK signal transmitting
at 2000 bps. Transmission is in half-duplex mode, and the
carriers are separated by 3000 Hz.
Example 1
Find the minimum bandwidth for an FSK signal transmitting
at 2000 bps. Transmission is in half-duplex mode, and the
carriers are separated by 3000 Hz.

Solution
For FSK
BW = baud rate +
BW = bit rate + fc1  fc0 = 2000 + 3000 = 5000 Hz
Example 2
Find the maximum bit rates for an FSK signal if the
bandwidth of the medium is 12,000 Hz and the difference
between the two carriers is 2000 Hz. Transmission is in
full-duplex mode.
Example 2

Find the maximum bit rates for an FSK signal if the

bandwidth of the medium is 12,000 Hz and the difference
between the two carriers is 2000 Hz. Transmission is in
full-duplex mode.

Solution
Because the transmission is full duplex, only 6000 Hz is
allocated for each direction.
BW = baud rate + fc1  fc0
Baud rate = BW  (fc1  fc0 ) = 6000  2000 = 4000
But because the baud rate is the same as the bit rate, the
bit rate is 4000 bps.
Exercise
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans
from 200 to 300 kHz. What should be the carrier frequency
and the bit rate if we modulated our data by using FSK with
d = 1?
Exercise
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans
from 200 to 300 kHz. What should be the carrier frequency
and the bit rate if we modulated our data by using FSK
with d = 1?
Solution
we are modulating by using FSK. The midpoint of the band
is at 250 kHz. We choose 2Δf to be 50 kHz; this means
Exercise
We need to send data 3 bits at a time at a bit rate of 3
Mbps. The carrier frequency is 10 MHz. Calculate the
number of levels (different frequencies), the baud rate,
and the bandwidth.
Exercise
We need to send data 3 bits at a time at a bit rate of 3 Mbps. The carrier
frequency is 10 MHz. Calculate the number of levels (different
frequencies), the baud rate, and the bandwidth.
Solution
We can have L = 23 = 8. The baud rate is S = 3 Mbps/3
= 1 Mbaud. This means that the carrier frequencies must be
1 MHz apart (2Δf = 1 MHz). The bandwidth is B = 8 × 1M
= 8M. Figure shows the allocation of frequencies and
bandwidth.
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
• Use different phased signals to represent binary values
– 0 = in phase with reference
– 1 = out of phase with reference
Reference
• Not practical

0 1 0 1
Amplitude

Time

1 baud 1 baud 1 baud 1 baud

1 second
Advantage:
• PSK is less susceptible to errors than ASK, while it requires/occupies
the same bandwidth as ASK
•more efficient use of bandwidth (higher data-rate) are possible, compared to
FSK !!!
Disadvantage: more complex signal detection / recovery
process,
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Phase Shift Keying (4-PSK)
Phase Shift Keying (8-PSK)
what is the Relationship between baud rate
and bandwidth in PSK ?
 Phase Shift Keying

• We vary the phase shift of the carrier signal to

represent digital data.

• The bandwidth requirement, B is:

B = (1+d)Nbaud

• PSK is much more robust than ASK as it is not that

vulnerable to noise, which changes amplitude of the
signal.
Example 1
Given a bandwidth of 5000 Hz for an 8-PSK signal, what
are the baud rate and bit rate?
Example 1
Given a bandwidth of 5000 Hz for an 8-PSK signal, what
are the baud rate and bit rate?

Solution
For PSK the baud rate is the same as the bandwidth,
which means the baud rate is 5000. But in 8-PSK the bit
rate is 3 times the baud rate, so the bit rate is 15,000 bps.
Note:
Quadrature amplitude modulation
is a combination of ASK and PSK so
that a maximum contrast between
each signal unit (bit, dibit, tribit,
and so on) is achieved.
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
(QAM)
• Combine ASK and PSK such that each signal corresponds to
multiple bits
• More phases than amplitudes
• Minimum bandwidth requirement same as ASK or PSK

3 amplitudes
12 phases

Advantage: higher data rate than in PSK (2 bits per bit interval),
while bandwidth occupancy remains the same
•4-PSK can easily be extended to 8-PSK, i.e. n-PSK
however, higher rate PSK schemes are limited by the ability of
equipment to distinguish small differences in phase
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
(4-QAM and 8-QAM)
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
(16-QAM)
 Table 1 - Bit and baud rate comparison

Modulation Units Bits/Baud Baud rate Bit Rate

ASK, FSK, 2-PSK Bit 1 N N

4-PSK, 4-QAM Dibit 2 N 2N

8-PSK, 8-QAM Tribit 3 N 3N

16-QAM Quadbit 4 N 4N

32-QAM Pentabit 5 N 5N

64-QAM Hexabit 6 N 6N

128-QAM Septabit 7 N 7N

256-QAM Octabit 8 N 8N
83
Example 1
A constellation diagram consists of eight equally spaced
points on a circle. If the bit rate is 4800 bps, what is the
baud rate?
Example 1
A constellation diagram consists of eight equally spaced
points on a circle. If the bit rate is 4800 bps, what is the
baud rate?

Solution
The constellation indicates 8-PSK with the points 45
degrees apart. Since 23 = 8, 3 bits are transmitted with
each signal unit. Therefore, the baud rate is
4800 / 3 = 1600 baud
Example 2
Compute the bit rate for a 1000-baud 16-QAM signal.
Example 2
Compute the bit rate for a 1000-baud 16-QAM signal.

Solution
A 16-QAM signal has 4 bits per signal unit since
log216 = 4.
Thus,
1000·4 = 4000 bps
Example 3
Compute the baud rate for a 72,000-bps 64-QAM signal.
Example 3
Compute the baud rate for a 72,000-bps 64-QAM signal.

Solution
A 64-QAM signal has 6 bits per signal unit since
log2 64 = 6.
Thus,
72000 / 6 = 12,000 baud
 Bandwidth Utilization

• Can be classified as:

 Multiplexing
 Multiple Access
Multiplexing and De-multiplexing
 Multiplexing
• Allows multiple signals to travel simultaneously over
one medium
• In order to carry multiple signals, the medium’s
channel is logically separated into multiple smaller
channels, or sub channels
• A device that can combine many signals on a channel,
a multiplexer (mux), is required at the sending end of
the channel
• At the receiving end, a demultiplexer (demux)
separates the combined signals and regenerates them
in their original form
 Multiplexing

Multiplexing allows one to select one of the many

possible sources.
 Multiplexing
Method by which multiple analog or digital signals are
combined into one signal over a shared medium.
Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is
greater than the bandwidth needs of the devices, the link
can be shared. Multiplexing is the set of techniques that
allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals
across a single data link. As data and telecommunications
use increases, so does traffic.
Need of Multiplexing
Categories of multiplexing
Frequency-division multiplexing

FDM is an analog multiplexing technique

that combines analog signals.
FDM process
FDM demultiplexing example
 Example 1
Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4 kHz.
We need to combine three voice channels into a link with a
bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20 to 32 kHz. Show the
configuration, using the frequency domain. Assume there
are no guard bands.
Solution
•We shift (modulate) each of the three voice channels to a different
bandwidth. We use the 20- to 24-kHz bandwidth for the first channel, the
24- to 28-kHz bandwidth for the second channel, and the 28- to 32-kHz
bandwidth for the third one.
•Then we combine them.
 Example
Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be multiplexed
together. What is the minimum bandwidth of the link if there is a need for a
guard band of 10 kHz between the channels to prevent interference?
 Example

Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be multiplexed together.

What is the minimum bandwidth of the link if there is a need for a guard band of
10 kHz between the channels to prevent interference?
 Example
Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be multiplexed
together. What is the minimum bandwidth of the link if there is a need
for a guard band of 10 kHz between the channels to prevent
interference?

For five channels, we need at least four guard bands.

This means that the required bandwidth is at least
5 × 100 + 4 × 10 = 540 kHz,
 Example
Four data channels (digital), each transmitting at 1 Mbps, use a satellite
channel of 1 MHz. Design an appropriate configuration, using FDM.
 Example
Four data channels (digital), each transmitting at 1 Mbps, use a satellite
channel of 1 MHz. Design an appropriate configuration, using FDM.
 Example
Four data channels (digital), each transmitting at 1 Mbps, use a satellite
channel of 1 MHz. Design an appropriate configuration, using FDM.

The satellite channel is analog. We divide it into four channels, each channel
having a 250-kHz bandwidth. Each digital channel of 1 Mbps is modulated such
that each 4 bits is modulated to 1 Hz. One solution is 16 QAM modulation.
Analog hierarchy
Wavelength-division multiplexing
WDM is an analog multiplexing
technique to combine optical signals.

•Wavelength division multiplexing multiplexes multiple data streams

onto a single fiber optic line

•Different wavelength lasers (called lambdas) transmit the multiple

signals

•Each signal carried on the fiber can be transmitted at a different rate

from the other signals
 WDM Operation
• Same general architecture as other FDM
• Number of sources generating laser beams at different
frequencies
• Multiplexer consolidates sources for transmission over
single fiber
• Optical amplifiers amplify all wavelengths
– Typically tens of km apart
• Demux separates channels at the destination
• Mostly 1550nm wavelength range
• Was 200MHz per channel
• Now 50GHz
Why WDM
Time-division multiplexing
TDM is a digital multiplexing technique
for combining several low-rate
channels into one high-rate one.

157
 Synchronous Time-division
multiplexing
In synchronous TDM, the data rate of
the link is n times faster, and the unit
duration is n times shorter.
 Synchronous Time Division
Multiplexing
• Data rate of medium exceeds data rate of digital signal to
be transmitted
• Multiple digital signals interleaved in time
• May be at bit level of blocks
• Time slots preassigned to sources and fixed
• Time slots allocated even if no data
• Time slots do not have to be evenly distributed amongst
sources
 TDM Link Control
• No headers and trailers
• Data link control protocols not needed
• Flow control
– Data rate of multiplexed line is fixed
– If one channel receiver can not receive data, the others
must carry on
– The corresponding source must be quenched
– This leaves empty slots
• Error control
– Errors are detected and handled by individual channel
systems
 De-Multiplexing
• If any of several signals was put onto a single carrier, then
at the other end the signals must be separated and each
sent to the appropriate destination.
• One input (the shared channel) is routed to one of
several outputs.
– Like mail, it is possible for me to send a message to any
individual one of you. So there must be a set of
paths from me to each of you, and there must be a
mechanism for selecting one of those paths in a
particular instance.
• In addition to data input, there must be select inputs.
– To select from 2N data outputs requires N select inputs.
 Demultiplexing

Demultiplexing allows one to select one of the many

possible destinations.
 Transmission Flaws
• Noise is any undesirable influence that may degrade or distort
a signal
• Crosstalk occurs when a signal traveling on one wire or cable
infringes on the signal traveling over an adjacent wire or cable
• Attenuation is the loss of a signal’s strength as it travels away
from its source
• Latency is a delay between the transmission of a signal and its
eventual receipt
•The most common way to measure latency on data
networks is by calculating a packet’s round trip time (RTT),
or the length of time it takes for a packet to go from sender
to receiver, then back from receiver to sender
•RTT is usually measured in milliseconds
 Media Characteristics
• Five characteristics are considered when
choosing a data transfer media:
• Throughput
• Costs
• Size and Scalability
• Connectors
• Noise Immunity
•The type of media least susceptible to noise is
fiber-optic cable
Wish You Good Luck