002 IWC-DE-Petroleum Geology

Drilling Essential
Introduction to Petroleum Geology
SCHLUMBERGER LEARNING
Schlumberger-Private
Objectives
At the end of this session, you should be able to :
• Explain the rock cycle and the different types of rocks

• Explain the importance of sedimentation
• Explain in detail the 5 parameters required for commercial petroleum accumulation.
• Explain the impact of the depositional environment to grain sorting, physical properties.
Topics
• Plate Tectonics
• Rock Cycles
• Rock Classification
• Hydrocarbon Formation and Accumulation
• Depositional Environments
Tectonic Plates
Drifting Continent
The Earth
The Earth
The Geological Time Scale
Plate Tectonic Theory
Mantle Convection
Lithosphere forms from

hot rising magma
Lithosphere cools
as it spreads
Asthenosphere
Cooled lithosphere sinks
Basic Elements of Plate Tectonics
DIVERGENT BOUNDARY CONVERGENT BOUNDARY
Mid-ocean ridge Plate subduction
Sea floor spreading Volcanism Mountain
Lithosphere building
Oceanic Deep-sea Continental

crust trench crust
Magma rising
Asthenosphere
Magma forming
• Earthquake centres
Elements of the Plate Tectonics (Margin Types)
Supercontinent (Pangaea)
Plate Tectonic Boundaries - Today
Plate Tectonics
Continental drift Animation…..The making of the oil
Rock Types
Rock Types
The Rock Cycle
Classification of Rocks
IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC
Source of
material
Rocks under high

Molten materials in Weathering and
temperatures
deep crust and erosion of rocks
and pressures in
upper mantle exposed at surface
deep crust
Rock-forming
Recrystallization due to
process
Crystallization Sedimentation, burial

heat, pressure, or
(Solidification of melt) and lithification
chemically active fluids
The Rock Cycle Weathering and erosion
Deposition in
oceans and on
continents
Increasing Temperature and

Uplift Sediments
Burial and
lithification
Pressure
Uplift
Igneous Uplift Sedimentary

Rock
Rock
Heat &
Pressure Heat &
Pressure
Cooling Metamorphic
Rock
Melting
Magma
Igneous rocks
Basalt Gabbro
Rhyolite Granite
Metamorphic rocks
Mica schist Gneiss Marble
Slate Quartzite
The Rock Cycle
The Rock Cycle Processes
• Weathering is the gradual wearing down of all rock types once they are exposed at the surface.
• Crystallization is the cooling of magma to form an igneous rock.
• Lithification is the transformation of loose sediment into a rock by a slight heating and/or cementation.
• Metamorphism occurs when a rock is subjected to heat and pressure, transforming a rock. This can occur on any
rock, even a metamorphic rock.
Sedimentary Rock
Sedimentary rocks are the most important for the oil industry.
They contain most of the source rocks and cap rocks.
Clastic Rock
• Formed from the materials of older rocks by the actions of erosion, transportation and deposition.
Non Clastic Rock

• From chemical or biological origin and then deposition.
Clastic Rocks
• Consist primarily of Silicate Minerals
• Classified based on Mineral Composition and Grain Size (sands, silts, clays)
Sedimentation
grains fluid
• Grains settle to the bottom of the

sedimentary basin
• Increased pressure and temperature causes grains are

closer
water to be expelled together
• Consolidation occurs to form the rock some material

dissolves and
fluid in is redeposited
pore spaces as cement
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
Breccia Conglomerate
Sandstone Shale
Non Clastic Rocks
Consist primarily of Carbonate Minerals
Carbonates are formed in shallow seas containing features

such as: Reefs, Lagoons, Shore-bars.
Non Clastic Rocks
Carbonates:
Calcite or Limestone (CaCO3)
• Low porosity.
Dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2).
• Replacement of some of the calcium by magnesium in limestone.
• Creates porosity and permeability paths vital to production.
Chalk
• Is a special form of limestone formed from the skeletons of small creatures (coccoliths).
• High porosity, low permeability.
Non Clastic Rocks
Evaporites:
• Salt (NaCl)
• Anhydrite (CaSO4).
Crystallize from evaporating sea water in enclosed basins under dry climatic conditions.
Good cap rock
Carbonate Rocks, Limestone, Oman
Non-Clastic Sedimentary: Evaporites
• CaSO4 + 2H2O → CaSO4·2H2O

Halite (NaCl) Crystal
• anhydrite + water → gypsum
❑ Halite (rock salt) crystal from Germany
❑ Desert rose, from Sahara, 10 cm long
Sedimentary Rock Abundance
Sandstones and carbonates are reservoir rocks.
Not shale which is associated to source rock
Limestone and dolomite

~14%
Sandstone and
conglomerate (clastics)
~11%
Siltstone and
shale (clastics)
~75%
Limestone Sandstone Shale

Hydrocarbon Formation
The creation and accumulation of Hydrocarbons
Petroleum Accumulation System
There are five important factors:
1. Mature Source Rock

2. Migration of petroleum
3. Reservoir rock
4. Trap (Geologic Structure)
5. Seal or Cap rock (an Impermeable Rock)
1. Mature Source Rock
Accumulation of Organic Matter, which if heated enough, will generate oil or gas.
Thermal Maturity
Subsurface heat
“HC Window“
60-180 C / 140-350 F
Most Common Oil
Shale ~ 65%
Carbonate ~ 21%
Marl ~ 12% Gas
Coal ~ 2%
2,3. Migration & Reservoir Rock
4. Traps
4.1 Structural Traps
Created or affected by tectonic forces after, sedimentation and lithification (exp…faults, Folds)
4.1 Structural Trap: Faults
A fault is a surface or zone along which one side of a rock body has moved relative to the other. It may be
thought of as a plane of movement.
Normal Fault
Reverse Fault
Moab Canyon, Utah
Moab Canyon, Utah

4.1 Structural Trap: Folding
Anticline
Youngest
Syncline
Oldest rock
4. Traps
Created or affected by tectonic forces after, sedimentation and lithification (exp…faults, Folds)
4.2 Stratigraphic Traps

Created by the way in which sedimentary layers are deposited. (exp…unconformities, pinch out)
4.2 Stratigraphic Trap: Unconformity
Unconformity occurs when a section of reservoir rock is tilted and eroded and then covered again with
sedimentary deposits on top of the tilted bed
4.2 Stratigraphic Trap: Unconformity
New Red Sandstone
Old Red Sandstone
Unconformity at Siccar Point, Scotland
4.2 Stratigraphic Trap- Pinch out
A pinch out of reservoir rock into a non permeable sediment layer such as shale
4. Traps
created or affected by tectonic forces after sedimentation and lithification (exp…faults, Folds)
4.2 Stratigraphic Traps

created by the way in which sedimentary layers are deposited. (exp…unconformities, pinch out)
4.3 Salt dome

A mushroom-shaped or plug-shaped diapir made of salt, commonly having an overlying cap rock.
4.3 Trap: Salt Dome
Traps: Structural / Statigraphic / Domes
Anticline: 75% Fault: 1%
Salt dome / diapir: 2% Unconformity: 3%

5. Cap Rock
A relatively impermeable rock, usually shale, anhydrite or salt, that forms a barrier or seal above and around
reservoir rock so that fluids cannot pass beyond the reservoir.
Source Rock-Decomposition
Sedimentation
Motion
Maturation
Migration
Trapping
Depositional Environments
• The depositional characteristics of the rocks affect the reservoir properties:
• pore volume (porosity)
• flow properties (permeability).
• The type of porosity (especially in carbonates) is determined by the environment plus subsequent events
(diagenesis).
• The depositional environment determines the geometry of a reservoir. Rivers, deltas, reefs, each have specific
external geometries and internal properties
The Various Depositional Environments
Glacier
Lake Tidal flat

Con
tine
ntal
Desert mar
Organic reef gin
Continental shelf
River
Delta Beach
Continental slope
Deep sea
Clastic Depositional Environments
The main reservoir forming environments:
• Aeolian
• Fluvial
• Coastal and Shallow Marine
• Deep Marine
Aeolian-Fossil Dunes
• Sediment well sorted
• Grains well rounded
Fluvial-Rivers
• The river forms a channel where sands are deposited in
layers
• Rivers carry sediment down from the mountains which is

then deposited in the riverbed and on the flood plains at
either side.
• Changes in the environment can cause these sands to be

overlain with a shale, forming a potential trap
Fluvial -River Channels
Allier River (France)

Notice how the position of the river has changed in many places (color lines).
Fluvial-Alluvial Deposition
Alluvial fan in Cooper, Death Valley California
Fluvial-River Deltas
• Sediments are transported to the basins by rivers.
• A common depositional environment is the delta

where the river empties into the sea.
• A good example of this is the Mississippi.
Coastal and Shallow Marine
Beach Profiles
Swash zone
Surf
zone
High-tide
Dune
shoreline
belt
Low-tide
shoreline
Offshore Foreshore Backshore
Deep Marine-Submarine Fan
Continental
shelf
Continental
slope
Submarine
Submarine fan
canyon
Abyssal plain
Turbidite deposits
Putting all Together
Sedimentary basins were formed over hundreds of millions of years by the action of the deposition of eroded material
and the precipitation of chemicals and organic matter in the sea water. External tectonic forces then distort and modify
the layered strata.

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002 IWC-DE-Petroleum Geology

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Drilling Essential

Introduction to Petroleum Geology

• Explain the rock cycle and the different types of rocks

Lithosphere forms from

Cooled lithosphere sinks

Oceanic Deep-sea Continental

Continental drift Animation…..The making of the oil

The Rock Cycle

Rocks under high

Crystallization Sedimentation, burial

Increasing Temperature and

Igneous Uplift Sedimentary

Mica schist Gneiss Marble

• Crystallization is the cooling of magma to form an igneous rock.

Non Clastic Rock

• Grains settle to the bottom of the

• Increased pressure and temperature causes grains are

• Consolidation occurs to form the rock some material

Carbonates are formed in shallow seas containing features

• CaSO4 + 2H2O → CaSO4·2H2O

Limestone and dolomite

Limestone Sandstone Shale

The creation and accumulation of Hydrocarbons

1. Mature Source Rock

Moab Canyon, Utah

Moab Canyon, Utah

4.2 Stratigraphic Traps

Old Red Sandstone

Unconformity at Siccar Point, Scotland

4.2 Stratigraphic Traps

4.3 Salt dome

Anticline: 75% Fault: 1%

Salt dome / diapir: 2% Unconformity: 3%

Lake Tidal flat

• Coastal and Shallow Marine

• Grains well rounded

• Rivers carry sediment down from the mountains which is

• Changes in the environment can cause these sands to be

Allier River (France)

Alluvial fan in Cooper, Death Valley California

• A common depositional environment is the delta

• A good example of this is the Mississippi.

Offshore Foreshore Backshore

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