BUILDING TECHNOLOGY 03

PRELIMINARY

DIVISION 03: CONCRETE

1. CEMENTING MATERIALS

1.1 LIME

 One of the oldest manufactured building materials used as a mortar

and plaster by all the early civilizations:
 Egyptians used lime plaster before 2600 B.C.
 Greeks used it extensively for mortars and plasters
 Romans developed a mixture of lime putty and volcanic ash for the
first real cement.
 Manufactured by the calcination of limestone (carbonates of
calcium and magnesium).

 The carbonates decompose into carbon dioxide, which is expelled,

and calcium oxide (CaO) called quicklime.
 Before quicklime can be used, it must first be mixed with water in
the process called slaking or hydration.
 The lime has now become calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), known as
slaked lime or hydrated lime.

 Hydrated lime mixed with water to make lime putty, is

used as an ingredient of hard-finish coat for two-and three-
coat Portland cement plasters. It is also used for mixing
with cement mortar or concrete to:
i. increase its workability
ii. decrease its permeability to water
iii. reduce cracking due to shrinkage
 A type of lime which will set under water is hydraulic
lime, used only where slow underwater setting is required.

1.2 GYPSUM

 Gypsum, like lime, was used as a plaster by the

Egyptians, Greeks and Romans.
 “Plaster” from the Greek word for both the raw
material and calcined product. In architectural
terminology the words “Plaster” and “gypsum” are
often used interchangeably.
 Gypsum rock is ground fine and heated (calcined) to between 325 ° F. to 340 ° F. when it loses about three-fourths
of its combined water.

 The remaining product is Plaster of Paris if pure gypsum is used, or hard wall plaster if 39.5 % impurities are
present or added to retard the set and improve the setting qualities. Hard wall plaster is harder than lime plaster,
sets more quickly and thoroughly.

 Gypsum plaster is rendered more plastic by the addition of hydrated lime.

 Fiber or hair is also sometimes added for greater cohesiveness. The fiber may be hemp, sisal or jute; the hair is
generally cleaned goat or cattle hair.

1.3 CEMENT

 First developed by the Romans by mixing slaked lime with pozzolana (volcanic ash) which hardened under water.
 With the fall of the Roman Empire the art of cement-making was lost and for several centuries.
 In 1756, Smeaton, an Englishman, rediscovered hydraulic cement but it was not until 1824 that Aspdin, an English
bricklayer and mason, invented and patented Portland cement.
 Today, the word “cement” generally refers to Portland cement which is the principal type of cement in use.

 Portland cement is sold in bags of 40 kilos total weight.

 Portland cement is obtained by finely pulverizing clinker produced by calcining a proportional mixture of
argillaceous (silica, alumina) and calcareous (lime) materials with iron oxide and small amounts of other
ingredients.

 Types of Portland cement:

o slow-setting cement
o quick-setting high early strength cement
o sulfate-resisting cement for applications where alkaline water and soils occur
o white cement (or stainless cement which is free of iron impurities).
2. STORAGE CEMENT
 Cement should be protected at the building site from
injury through contact with dampness.
 They should be stored in a shed with a wood floor
raised about 300mm (12”) from the ground.
 Cement is soft and silky to the touch. If it has lumps
that do not readily break, the cement has already
absorbed a damaging amount of moisture.

 Cement should be used as soon as possible after

delivery.
 Piles should be limited to twelve sacks in height.
 Warehouse set - when the cement is stored in high
piles for long periods, there is a tendency for the lower layers to harden caused by the pressure above.

3. CONCRETE

3.01 DEFINITION

 Concrete is:
o a proportioned mixture of cement, aggregate and water.
o a plastic mass which can be cast, molded or formed into predetermined size or shape
o upon hydration, becomes stone-like in strength, hardness and durability. The hardening of concrete is
called setting.
o when mixed with water and a fine aggregate of less than 6mm (¼“) is known as mortar, stucco or
cement plaster.
o when mixed with water, fine aggregate and a large aggregate of more than 6mm (¼”) in size produces
concrete.
o When strengthened by embedded steel, it is called reinforced concrete.
o When without reinforcement, it is called plain or mass concrete.

3.02 QUALITIES OF GOOD CONCRETE

 Concrete should be:

o Strong
o Durable
o of uniform quality, and
o thoroughly sound

 These are obtained through:

o careful selection of materials
o correct proportioning
o thorough mixing
o careful transporting and placing
o proper curing or protection of the concrete after it is placed

3.03 MATERIALS OF CONCRETE

a. Cement
 o in reinforced-concrete construction should be high-grade Portland cement conforming to the “Standard
Specifications and Test for Portland Cement” of the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM).
o The kind of tests usually made are
 soundness, or constancy of volume
 time of setting
 fineness
 tensile strength
o Each bag of cement is equivalent to approximately 1 cu. ft. and weighs 94 lbs.

b. Aggregates are:

o inert mineral fillers used with cement and water in making concrete, should be particles that are durable
strong, clean, hard and uncoated, and which are free from injurious amount of dusts, lumps, soft and
flaky particles, shale, alkali, organic matter loam or other deleterious substances.

o Fine aggregates
 (aggregates smaller than 6mm (¼”) in size)
consist of sand, stone screenings or other inert
materials of similar characteristics.
 Specs: 80% to 95% shall pass a No. 4 wire cloth
sieve and not more than 30% nor less than 10%
shall pass a No. 50 sieve.

o Coarse aggregate (aggregate larger than ¼” in size)

consists of crushed stones, gravel or other inert materials of
similar characteristics.

Coarse aggregates should be well graded in size to a size which will readily pass between all
reinforcing bars and between reinforcement and forms but not exceed 25mm (1”) in size for
reinforced beams, floor slabs, & thin walls.
 They may range up to 50mm (2”) for less highly reinforced parts of the structures such as
footings, thick walls, and massive work.
o Special aggregates, such as cinders, blast furnace slag, expanded shale or clay, perlite, vermiculite, and
sawdust, may produce:
 lightweight, nailable concrete
 thermal insulating concrete.
 c. Water

o should be free from oil, acid, alkali, vegetable matter, or other deleterious substances
o should be reasonably clear and clean.
o The use of sea or brackish water is not allowed.
o Water combines with the cement to form a paste which coats and surrounds the inert particles of
aggregates.

o Upon hardening, it binds the entire mass together.

o The strength of the mixture therefore depends directly upon the strength of the paste. If there is an
excess of water the paste becomes thin and weak, and its holding power is reduced.
o The water-cement ratio is the amount of water used per bag of cement.
o This usually varies from 5 to 7 gallons, with 6.5 gallons as average for ordinary job conditions. The less
water used in mixing, the better the quality of concrete.
o The ideal mix is one that is plastic and workable. It should not be too dry that it becomes too difficult to
place in the forms, nor too wet that separation of the ingredients results.

3.04 SLUMP TEST

 used for measuring the consistency of a concrete mix.

 Consistency may be defined as the “state of fluidity of the
mix”, and it includes the entire range of fluidity from the
wettest to the dries possible mixtures.
 In this test the tendency of a mix to “slump”, or reduce its
height due to gravity action, is measured. The apparatus
consist of metal cone, the bottom opening being 200mm (8”) in
diameter, the top opening being 100mm (4”), and the height
exactly 300mm (12”).

 In making the test, the slump tester is placed on a flat,

smooth surface and is filled with newly mixed concrete from
mixer. In filling the mold with concrete, the latter is tamped in with a 12mm (½”) rod pointed at one end and the top of
 the concrete is smoothed off exactly level. The mold is then slowly raised vertically and the height deducted from the
original height of 300mm (12”) represents the slump.

 A harsh mix is efficient for slabs, pavements, or mass concrete where the lowest possible water-cement ratio is
desirable.
 The following table gives the permissible slump for various types of concrete in relation to their uses:

3.05 PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE

 Briefly stated, the principles of proper proportioning are as follows:

o Use good quality materials: Portland cement, water, and aggregate.
o Determine the strength of the concrete using the water-cement ratio. (The strength increases as the water-
cement ratio decreases).
o Determine the consistency of the mix using the slump test using as dry a mix as practicable.
o Add correct proportions of aggregates to the cement and water as will give a mix of the desired consistency.
o Make a mix that’s workable, not harsh.
 The strength of a workable concrete mix depends upon the water-cement ratio.
 The economy of the mix depends upon the proper proportioning of the fine and coarse aggregates.
 There are several methods of proportioning concrete:
o Proportioning by arbitrary proportions
o Proportioning by the water-ratio and slump test
o Proportioning by water-ratio, slump and fineness modulus
 Proportioning concrete by the arbitrary selection of the proportions is the oldest, the most commonly used, the most
convenient and the least scientific method.
 In this method, the aggregates are measured by loose volume, that is,
its volume as it is thrown into a measuring box. One sack of
cement is taken as 1 cu. ft. Enough water is used to give the
desired consistency.

a. Proportioning by arbitrary proportions

  Proportioning concrete by the arbitrary selection of the proportions is the oldest, the most commonly used,
the most convenient and the least scientific method.
 In this method, the aggregates are measured by loose volume, that is, its volume as it is thrown into a measuring
box.
 One sack of cement is taken as 1 cu. ft.
 Enough water is used to give the desired consistency.
 Common mixes expressed in proportions by volumes of cement to fine aggregate to coarse aggregate are as follows:

 The proportion is to be read:

 Class A : 1 part cement is to 2 parts sand is to 4 parts gravel.
 Each ‘part’ is equivalent to one cubic foot which is the measure of the box constructed to be 1 foot (12 inches) on each
of the three sides.
 Each bag of cement is equivalent to approximately one cubic foot.

b. Proportioning by the water-ratio and slump test

 There are two steps to be observed:
o Select the amount of water to be added to the cement to give the desired strength (see Table)
o Add just enough mixed aggregate to the water and cement to give a concrete mix the desired
consistency.
 It is customary to specify
o the cement in sacks
o the water in gallons per sack of cement and
o the mixed aggregate in cu. ft. per sack of cement.
 Proportions of cement to fine aggregate to coarse aggregate may be given if desired.

c. Proportioning by water-ratio, slump and fineness modulus

 This method is the same as the second except that the proportions of the fine and coarse aggregate are determined
by the fineness modulus method.
 For economy, proportion the fine coarse aggregates so that the largest quantity of mixed aggregate may be used
with a given amount of cement and water to produce a mix of the desired consistency of slump.
 Comparatively, the coarse aggregate has a lesser total surface to be covered with cement paste and, therefore, is
more economical.
 However, there must be enough fine aggregate present to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate, or extra cement
paste will be needed for this purpose. A well-graded aggregate contains all sizes of fine and coarse particles in
such proportions that the voids in the combined aggregate will be a minimum

3.06 MIXING OF CONCRETE

 Reinforced-concrete work should be mixed by machine

 Machine-mixed concrete is usually or more uniform quality than that mixed by hand and is generally less expensive
when in large volume.
 The strength of concrete is largely dependent upon the thoroughness of mixing.
 a. MACHINE MIXING
 In machine-mixing, the mixing of each batch should continue not less than one minute after all the materials are in
the mixer and whenever practicable, the length of the mixing time should be increased to 1.5 or 2 minutes. The
entire contents of the drum should be discharged before recharging the mixer. The mixer should be cleaned at
frequent intervals while in use.
 Concrete mixers may be divided into two general classes:
o Batch mixers - into which sufficient materials are placed at one time
to make a convenient size batch of concrete, the whole amount being
discharged in one mass after it is mixed.

o Continuous mixers - into which the materials are fed constantly and
from which the concrete is discharged in a steady stream.
 Concrete mixers may also be classified as:
 drum mixers
 trough mixers
 gravity mixers, and
 pneumatic mixers.
 The drum mixers are the most common type.

b. HAND MIXING
 hand-mixing must be done on a
water-tight platform.
 cement and fine aggregate shall first be mixed dry until the whole is
a uniform color.
 water and coarse aggregate shall then be added, and the entire mass
turned at least three times, or until a homogeneous mixture of the
required consistency is obtained.
 since initial set of concrete takes place 1 to 3 hours after mixing, a
batch may be used anytime before initial set takes place, provided
that the mix is plastic.
 Regaging or retempering of concrete that has been allowed to
stand more than ½ hour is not to be permitted.

3.07 TRANSPORTING AND PLACING OF CONCRETE

 Fresh concrete should be transported from the mixer

as rapidly as practicable by methods that will permit
the placing of the concrete in the forms before initial
set occurs and without loss or separation of materials.
 The delivery of the concrete from the mixer to the
forms should be fairly continuous and uninterrupted.
 The time of transportation should not exceed 30
minutes.
 The concrete may be transported by means of barrows,
buggies, buckets, cableways, hoists, chutes, belts and
pipes.
  When chutes are used, the slope should not be more than 1 vertical to 2 horizontal or less than 1 vertical to 3 horizontal.
The delivery end of the chutes shall be as close as possible to the point of deposit.

 Before placing concrete, the forms shall be cleaned and inspected, surfaces
wet or oiled, and reinforcement properly secured.
 Concrete should be deposited in approximately horizontal layers in wall,
column and footing forms. They should not be piled up in forms which may
result in the separation of the cement mortar from the coarse aggregate.
 Concrete should never be allowed to drop freely over 5 ft. for unexposed
work and over 3 ft. for exposed work.

3.08 SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE & TEMPERATURE CHANGES

 Shrinkage of concrete due to hardening and contraction from temperature

changes, causes cracks the size of which depends on the extent of the mass.
They cannot be counteracted successfully but they can be minimized by
placing reinforcement so that large cracks can be broken up to some extent to
smaller ones.
 In long continuous length of concrete, it is better to place shrinkage or
contraction joints. Shrinkage cracks are likely to occur at joints where fresh concrete is joined to concrete which has
already set, and hence in placing the concrete, construction joints should be made on horizontal and vertical lines.

3.09 CURING OF CONCRETE

 Concrete must be allowed to “cure” or harden after it is placed.

 Hardening is a rather slow process in which the cement and water unite to form compounds that give strength and
durability to the concrete. It continues as long as the temperatures are favorable, and moisture is present.
 Three main factors that affect hardening are:
o age or time

o temperature, and
o moisture.
 In order that the hardening may proceed favorably, the fresh
concrete, for about 7 days after placing, should be protected
from, excessive vibration, loads, extreme heat or cold, too
rapid drying, and contact with impurities which may
interfere with the chemical action.
 The strength of the concrete increases with age when the
curing conditions remain favorable.
 The increase in strength is rapid during the early ages and
continues more slowly as time goes on. The compressive
strength reaches about 60% of its own maximum value at an
age of 28 days and about 80% at the age of 3 months.
 Curing consists primarily in keeping the concrete from drying out too rapidly. This may be done by:
o Covering the concrete. Floors shall be covered with paper sacking wetted down at the edges or with burlap,
sand or earth that is kept moist, after the concrete is hard enough to walk on.
o Removal of forms at prescribed time. Forms shall not be removed until after the time specified.
o Sprinkling with water. Beams, columns and walls are sprinkled or sprayed with water as soon as the forms
are removed.
o Using curing compounds (see ADMIXTURES).
3.10 ADMIXTURES

 Substances added to cements, mortars, and concrete for the purpose of improving or imparting properties, such
as:
o To improve workability of concrete, e.g. hydrated lime
o To improve durability by entertainment of air
o To accelerate setting or hardening (accelerators) e.g. calcium chloride
o To retard setting (retarders).
o To improve wear resistance
o To impart water-repellant or water-proofing qualities e.g. hydrated lime, KAOLINE, CELITE
o To impart water-repellant or waterproofing qualities, e.g., hydrated lime, waterproofing compounds,
KAOLINE, CELITE.
o To impart color, MINERAL OXIDES, COLORCON, METALICHROME.
 Admixtures may be grouped into three categories:

o those for mixing into concrete

o those for mixing into mortar
o those for surface application or finish.

 Admixtures come in powder, paste, and liquid form, and are usually patented and sold under trademark names.
 Concrete admixtures include
o Accelerators - to speed up setting time, to develop earlier strength, and to reduce length of time for
protection. The principal ingredients are calcium chloride. The maximum amount added is 2 lbs. per bag of
cement.
  Disadvantages: they increase the expansion and contraction of concrete, reduce resistance to sulfate
attack, and increase efflorescence and corrosion of high-tension steels.
o Retarders - to slow down the hydration of the cement during very hot weather. Principal ingredients include
zinc oxide, calcium lignosulfonate, derivatives of adipic acid.
 Disadvantages: this may cause some loss of early strength and will therefore require careful control
and more frequent slump tests, also reduces the expansion and contraction of concrete.
o Air-entraining agents - introduce minute air bubbles to greatly increase the resistance of concrete to
freezing and thawing, increase plasticity and reduce bleeding. Addition of air-entraining admixtures is
usually in the proportion of 3 to 6% of the volume of concrete. They are manufactured from such ingredients
as rosin, beef tallow, stereates, foaming agents (soap).

 Disadvantages: These require careful control and more frequent slump tests. They may also cause
some loss of strength.
o Inert, finely divided powders such as powdered glass, silica sand, stone dust, hydrated lime - are added
to improve workability, used as per manufacturer’s directions. Hydrated lime is usually in the proportion of
10 to 15% of the cement by volume.
o Waterproofing (permeability-reducing) compounds - reduce the capillary attraction of the voids in the
concrete or mortar, but while it may decrease water absorption of the concrete or mortar, it does not render
concrete waterproof. They are manufactured from stearic acid or its compounds, mainly calcium stearate, and
include asphalt emulsions. They are introduced usually in the amounts of 0.1 to 4.0% of the weight of
cement.

o Colored pigments are mainly to use to give color to concrete floors. There are two types:
 Dry-cast, broadcast or dust-on, for surface coloring. They are dusted on, usually in two coats,
after all surface water has disappeared. The surface is then finished with a steel trowel.
 Integral colors, for body coloring. Integral color pigments are incorporated in the mortar topping.
They are mixed dry with cement and aggregate before water is added. The amount of color pigment
required is not more than 10% of the cement by weight, generally 3 to 6 lbs. per bag of cement.
 Admixtures for mixing into mortar include:
o Accelerators
o plasticizing agents (correctly called water-reducing agents) to lower water cement ratio and make the mix
more workable
o waterproofing agents, and
o color pigments
 Surface application finishes for concrete consist of:
o hardeners
o color pigments
o special aggregates
o sealers
o abrasive materials
o waterproofing agents, and
o fillers and patchers.

3.11 FORMS

 LUMBER FORMS
o Lumber used in form construction should only be partially
seasoned.
o Kiln-dried lumber has a tendency to swell when soaked by
the concrete, and this swelling causes bulging and distortion
of the forms.
o Green lumber, on the other hand, dries out and shrinks if
allowed to stand too long before the concrete is placed.
This tendency of green lumber to check and warp may,
however, be prevented to some extent by keeping the boards
thoroughly saturated with water.
 o When using natural, well-seasoned lumber, care should be taken not to drive the work up too close, since
forms should always be left in a position to experience some slight swelling without any undesirable results.

a. LUMBER FORMS

 Sheathing lumber dressed at least one side and both edges even are used where the removal and cleaning of the
forms are necessary for re-use.
 Sheathing lumber dressed on all four sides shall be used in face work, where smooth and true surface is important.
 Tongue-and-groove lumber will achieve tight joints between boards in floor and wall panel construction.
 Simply dressing the lumber true to edge form square of butt joints in the forms for columns, beams, and girders.

Sizes of lumber frequently used:

 2-inch thick for columns, beams and girder bottoms

 1-inch thick for floor panels and beam and girder sides
 2x4s for struts, posts, shores, and uprights
 1 or 2-inch thick for cleats
o Use nails sparingly in the construction of forms
o Unnecessary nailing not only adds to the labor of
wrecking but also renders the lumber unfit for continued
use.
o Where nails must be used, leave the head protruding so
that they may be withdrawn without injury to the lumber.
o All forms for concrete require a coating of some
lubricant to prevent concrete from adhering to the wood
and thus make a rough, unpleasant appearance. Crude oil
and petroline preserve the forms against damage by
alternate wetting and drying. The forms should
preferably be oiled before they are set in place. Oil
should not be used, however, on forms against surfaces
which are to be plastered, as oil prevents adhesion of the
plaster. In such cases, wetting with water will be
sufficient.
o The inside of forms which have been used once and are to be used again shall be coated with an
approved soap or other approved material, or thoroughly wetted before concreting. No application of
soap or other material should be made to forms after the reinforcements are in place.
o Forms should be durable and rigid and should be well braced so that bulging or twisting cannot occur.
The joints should be made tight enough to prevent leakage of the mortar.

b. PLYWOOD FORMS

 Works best where a smooth surface is required. The

plywood should be waterproof, Grade “A” and at least 12mm
(½”) thick.

c. STEEL FORMS

 Steel forms may be in the form of pans for concrete joist

construction or steel decking or corrugated steel for
concrete slabs and slab-and-joist construction.

d. PLASTIC FORMS

 Polystyrene forms are now available for concrete work.

4. PROCESSED CONCRETE

4.01 TYPES OF PROCESSED CONCRETE

a. “AEROCRETE”

 A lightweight, expanded structural concrete produced by adding a small amount of metallic aluminum powder to
the mixture of Portland cement and sand of cinders.
 On the addition of water, a gas is generated which expands the wet mix and forms small air cells throughout the
material.
 Used for structural floor and roof slabs, partition blocks for sound proofing, wall insulation, in rooms of
refrigerator plants, lightweight fill on top of structural floor and roof slabs.
 Has excellent fire-resistive qualities.

b. “GUNITE”

 Mixture of sand and cement deposited under

high pneumatic pressure with a machine
manufactured under the trade name CEMENT
GUN, to which the required supply of water is
added just before the dry constituents emerge
from nozzle.
 Used for encasing structural steel, when
reinforced, for floor and roof slabs and curtain
walls. Ideal for swimming pool construction.

c. “PORETE”

 A Portland cement concrete to which a

chemical foam is added to generate gases in the process of deposition, resulting in light weight precast or shop-
made unit in both hollow and solid forms. It is manufactured in solid slabs for short spans roofs and siding of
industrial buildings.

d. “HAYDITE”

 Processed concrete added with lightweight aggregate.

4.02 AGGREGATES FOR LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE

Lightweight aggregates have the following advantages:

 Reduction of dead loads saves structural steel, reduces bearing on foundation and cuts cost of concrete forms
 High insulating value is provided by numerous dead air spaces.
 Rough texture of surfaces have good acoustical properties.
 Lightweight allows easier handling of precast slabs and blocks
 Lightweight plaster has less tendency to crack and its heat resistance makes it a good material for fireproofing
structural steel
The major disadvantages of lightweight aggregates are a result paradoxically of the physical qualities which make them weight
saving and good insulators:

 Porosity requires changes in the usual formulas for water and slump, and closer supervision of mixing. Very light
aggregates tend to float out of the mortar and some coarse aggregate concrete mixtures require the addition of a fine
aggregate like sand to prevent harsh working and serious bleeding.
 As aggregates become lighter they become structurally weaker so the strength of the matrix must be modified by
adding more cement. More cement is needed, also to “wet” the greater aggregate surface area, due to the irregularity of
the particles.
 The cost of raw aggregates is higher than for gravel, rock, and sand because of small production facilities and the
additional processing that is sometimes necessary.
 Concrete using lightweight aggregate should not weigh more than 75% of ordinary concrete. Since the aggregates
compromise about 50 percent of the usual mixes, its weight should not be more than 50 percent of that of rock or gravel
aggregates for the same volume. Grade rock, gravel aggregates weigh a little less than 100 lbs. per cu. ft. thus a good
lightweight aggregate should weigh less than 50 lbs. per cubic foot.

Lightweight aggregates can be divided into four general classifications:

a. Aggregates of Volcanic Origin

 Pumice, weighing from 25 to 60 lbs.per cu. ft. is well qualified as a lightweight

aggregate when dry and well graded. It is hard to be handled and mixed without
excessive breakdown.
o Undesirable feature: water absorption. This can be mitigated by wetting the
aggregate before it is mixed with cement.
 Perlite is composed of stable silicates, and is inert and thus durable for use as a
lightweight aggregate or for insulation. Its disadvantages are its friability, small
particle size, and extreme lightness. The small particle size requires more
cement, while its lightness, from 8 to 16 lbs. per cu. ft. increases the tendency to
float out of the mortar.
o useful where maximum strength is not required, as in precast slabs
and blocks and in floor fill, fireproofing and plaster.

b. Micaceous Minerals

 Vermiculite is a micaceous mineral which expands on

application of heat to as much as 30 times its original volume.
o Dried ground ore is subjected to about 1,800 degrees heat for
4 to 8 seconds, after which it weighs only 6 to 12 lbs. per
cubic ft.
o It is used as an aggregate in concrete fireproofing steel,
for floor and roof fill, and for acoustic and fireproof plaster.

c. Expanded shales and clays

 Lightweight aggregates from shales and clays require heating the material in a kiln to a temperature near its fusion
point. The material softens and coalesces to a sticky mass; escaping gases are trapped, forming cellular structures and
expanding the volume of the material about 50%.
 The crushing and firing operations are varied with different processes. In some, the material is fired to a clinker, then
crushed and sized; the process is often reversed with crushing operation first.
 Examples of clay, shale aggregates are “AIROX”, “ROCKLITE”, Diatomite, “HAYDITE”.

d. By-product Aggregates

 Expanded Slag or “foamed” slags are made by treating molten blast furnace slag with controlled quantities of water
or steam. Some slags are expanded are expanded in pits in the ground; others are made in machines. Close control of
 steam is very important because too much granulates the slag, yielding soft, friable particles; too little gives a heavy
aggregate.
 Foamed slag has been used for precast blocks, cast-in-place walls of houses and for panel filling of steel-framed
buildings.
 Cinders are composed of the ash components of the coal along with the various quantities of unburned or partially
burned combustible matter. Cinders containing a minimum amount of combustible material are satisfactory for use in
concrete but are not particularly weight saving. Lightweight cinders often have unsound physical and chemical
properties.

WEIGHT OF AGGREGATE AND CONCRETE BY TYPE OF AGGREGATE

BUILDING TECHNOLOGY 03
PRELIMINARY

CONCRETE AND CONCRETE WORKS

13 Types of Cement and their Uses

1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

 the most widely used type of cement, which is suitable for all general concrete construction.
 most commonly produced and used type of cement around the world, with annual global production of around 3.8
million cubic meters per year. This cement is suitable for all kinds of concrete construction.

2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)

 prepared by grinding pozzolanic clinker with Portland cement. It is also produced by adding pozzolana with the
addition of gypsum or calcium sulfate or by intimately and uniformly blending Portland cement and fine pozzolana.
 has a high resistance to various chemical attacks on concrete compared with ordinary portland cement, thus, it is widely
used.
 used in marine structures, sewage works, sewage works, and for laying concrete underwater, such as bridges, piers,
dams, and mass concrete works, etc.

3. Rapid Hardening Cement

 attains high strength in the early days; it is used in concrete where formworks are removed at an early stage and are
similar to ordinary portland cement (OPC). This cement has increased lime content and contains higher c3s content and
finer grinding, which gives higher strength development than OPC at an early stage.
  the strength of rapid hardening cement at the three days is similar to 7 days strength of OPC with the same water-
cement ratio.
 formwork can be removed earlier, which increases the rate of construction and decreases the cost of construction by
saving formwork cost.
 used in prefabricated concrete construction, road works, etc.

4. Quick setting cement

 the difference between the quick setting cement and rapid hardening cement is that quick-setting cement sets earlier. At
the same time, the rate of gain of strength is similar to Ordinary Portland Cement, while quick hardening cement gains
strength quickly. Formwork in both cases can be removed earlier.
 used where works is to be completed in very short period and for concreting instatic or running water.

5. Low Heat Cement

 produced by maintaining the percentage of tricalcium aluminate below 6% by increasing the proportion of C2S.
 a small quantity of tricalcium aluminate makes the concrete to produce low heat of hydration. Low heat cement suitable
for mass concrete construction like gravity dams, as the low heat of hydration, prevents the cracking of concrete due to
heat.
 has increased power against sulphates and is less reactive and initial setting time is greater than OPC.

6. Sulfates Resisting Cement

 used to reduce the risk of sulfate attack on concrete and thus is used in the construction of foundations where the soil
has high sulfate content. This cement has reduced the contents of C3A and C4AF.
 used in construction exposed to severe sulfate action by water and soil in places like canals linings, culverts, retaining
walls, siphons, etc.

7. Blast Furnace Slag Cement

 mixture of ordinary Portland cement and fine granulated blast furnace slag obtained as a by product in the manufacture
of steel with percent under 70% to that of cement.
 ground granulated blast furnace slag cement (GGBFS) is a fine glassy granule which contain cementatious properties.
 obtained as a byproduct in the extraction of iron from its ore. The process of extraction of iron is blast furnace. The slag
that is obtained on the iron ore is separated and cooled down slowly, which results in the formation of nonreactive
crystalline material.

8. High Alumina Cement

 obtained by melting a mixture of bauxite and lime and grinding with the clinker.
 a rapid hardening cement with initial and final setting time of about 3.5 and 5 hours.
 The compressive strength of this cement is very high and more workable than ordinary portland cement and is used in
works where concrete is subjected to high temperatures, frost, and acidic action.

9. White Cement

 prepared from raw materials free from Iron oxide and is a type of ordinary portland cement, which is white.
 costlier and is used for architectural purposes such as precast curtain wall and facing panels, terrazzo surface, etc. and
for interior and exterior decorative work like external renderings of buildings, facing slabs, floorings, ornamental
concrete products, paths of gardens, swimming pools, etc.

10. Colored cement

 produced by mixing 5-10% mineral pigments with ordinary cement.

 widely used for decorative works on floors.

11. Air Entraining Cement

 produced by adding indigenous air-entraining agents such as resins, glues, sodium salts of sulfates, etc. during the
grinding of clinker.
  especially suited to improve the workability with a smaller water-cement ratio and to improve frost resistance of
concrete.

12. Expansive Cement

 expands slightly with time and does not shrink during and after the time of hardening.
 mainly used for grouting anchor bolts and prestressed concrete ducts.

13. Hydrographic cement

 prepared by mixing water-repelling chemicals and has high workability and strength. It has the property of repelling
water and is unaffected during monsoon or rains.
 mainly used for the construction of water structures such as dams, water tanks, spillways, water retaining structures,
etc.

TYPES OF AGGREGATES USED IN CONCRETE

Concrete can be considered to be an artificial stone made by binding together particles of some inert material with a paste made
of cement and water. These inert materials are the aggregate. Aggregates used are sand, gravel crushed stone, cinder, crushed
furnace slag, bumed clay, expanded vermiculite, and perlite.

CONCRERTE MIXES

One part cement is to two parts sand plus four parts ·gravel.

The designing of concrete mixtures is based primarily on the water-cement ratio theory, which states that the strength of concrete
is inversely proportional to the amount of water used per unit (1b) of cement.

This means that if. for example, 68 lb. of water per lb. of cement will produce concrete capable of developing 2,500 psi in 28
days, then less water per bag will produce stronger concrete and more water will produce concrete of lesser strength.

Compressive strength of concrete for various water-cement ratios

CONTROL OF CONCRETE MIXES

Slump test-When freshly mixed concrete is checked to ensure that the specified slump is being attained consistently. A standard
slump is 12 inches high (0.30) and 8 inches (0.20) in diameter at the bottom and 4 inches (0.10) on top which is open on both
ends.

The cone is filled in three equal layers, each being tamped or rodded 25 times with a standard 5/8" bullet nosed rod.

When the cone has been filled and leveled off, it is lifted carefully, and the amount of slump is measured

Allowable Deflection ‘X’

Compressive Strength Test-Common quality-control test of concrete, based on 7- and 28-day curing periods. Specimens are
usually cylindrical with a length equal to twice the diameter. Standard size is 12 inches high and 6-inch diameter. Filling is done
the same way as the slump test but taken out from the mold in 24 hours. It is then sent to a compression testing laboratory, by
marking the cylinder while still wet. Some compressive stresses are 2,000 psi, 2,500 psl, 3,000 psi