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BIO Notes MOD 7 - n/a

biology (St Marys Senior High School)

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

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INFECTIOUS DISEASE

INQUIRY QUESTION 1: HOW ARE DISEASES TRANSMITTED?

DESCRIBE A VARIETY OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES CAUSED BY PATHOGENS, INCLUDING MICROORGANISMS, AND
NON-CELLULAR PATHOGENS, AND COLLECT PRIMARY AND SECONDARY-SOURCED DATA AND INFORMATION
RELATING TO DISEASE TRANSMISSION, INCLUDING:
CLARIFYING DIFFERENT PATHOGENS THAT CAUSE DISEASE IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

PATHOGENS DISEASE

A disease-causing an organism- it may be A condition that adversely affects the normal

single-celled microbes (e.g. bacteria, protozoa or
yeasts), multicellular parasites (e.g. fungi and worms)
or non-cellular agents (e.g. virus and prions)
functioning of a living thing or parts of a living thing.
- An infectious disease is caused by another
organism or an infective agent known as a
pathogen that can be spread from one person
to another.

Pathogens are organisms or proteins that cause disease/illness in a host. They live and reproduce at the expense
of the host organism.

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PATHOGENS DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES

Bacteria - Single-celled prokaryote - Salmonella

- DNA is a circular shape (no - Whooping cough
nucleus)
- Size 0.5-100um
- Reproduce by binary fission
- They secrete toxins, invade
cells and form colonies
(biofilms) which disrupt cell
function

Fungi - Eukaryotic organisms with - Thrush

cell walls and nucleus - Ringworms
- Reproduce either sexually, - Rust in plants
asexually or both - Blight in plants
- Reproduce by spreading
spores that can release
harmful enzymes
- Absorb nutrients from the
environment by secreting
digestive enzymes

Protozoa - Single-celled eukaryotic - Malaria

organisms
- Heterophic - absorb
nutrients from the host
- Size 1-300um
- Secretes toxins, invade
cells and form colonies to
disrupt cell and tissue
function

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Macroparasite - Visible with the naked eye - Ectoparasite: fleas, ticks

- Ectoparasite (outside) - and mites
lives on an organism - Endoparasites: roundworm,
- Enoparasite (inside) - lives hookworm and tapeworm
in an organism
- Invade and destroy cells,
create competition for
nutrients

Virus - Non-cellular infective agent - COVID 19

consisting of nucleic acid - AIDs
(DNA or RNA) inside a - Measles
proteien coat (envelope) - Influenza
- Replicates inside living cells
- Not free living- they can
only survive and reproduce
within a host
- Small; 20-300um

Prion - Consists of protein - Mad cow disease

- Abnormally folded protein - Cruetzfeldt Jacob disease
which propagates by
transmitting the misfoleded
protein state to other
cellular proteins
- Do not contain genetic
material

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- Smallest pathogen

INVESTIGATE MODES OF TRANSMISSION OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES, INCLUDING DIRECT CONTACT, INDIRECT

CONTACT AND VECTOR TRANSMISSION

TRANSMISSION OF INFECTIOUS DISEASE

Transmission of infectious diseases involves the carrying or transfer of a pathogen from an infected host to a
non-infected organism. The mode of transmission relates directly to the ability of the pathogen to survive outside
a host cell. A human may be an active carrier, harbouring the disease in their own body, or a passive carrier,
transmitting the pathogen from person to person on unwashed contaminated hands.

For a disease to spread between organisms, a ‘chain of infection’ must be present. This chain has three elements:
1. A host that is susceptible to the disease
2. A pathogen that is capable of causing the disease
3. A mode of transmission - a way for the pathogen to get from host to host

There are three modes of transmission that a pathogen can get from host to host:
1. Direct contact: transfer of the pathogen via exposure to infected skin or body secretions
2. Indirect contact: transfer of the pathogen to a new host via a non-living object
3. Vector transmission: transfer of the pathogen via another organism, such as an arthropod
(invertevrates/insects)

DIRECT CONTACT INDIRECT CONTACT VECTOR TRANSMISSION

Transmission by direct contact Transmission by indirect contact Vector transmission is a special

occurs when there is physical
contact between the host and a
non-infected organism. Physical
contact includes:
- Touching
- Sexual contact
- Kissing
- Contact with nasal or oral
secretions
- Biting
- Direct contact with any
blood or other body fluids
- Direct contact with wounds
- Prenatal (before
birth/during pregnancy)
- Perinatal (around the time
of birth)
Diseases caused by direct contact
include:
- Skin infections, such as
occurs when the host and another
organism have no other direct
contact with each other. Infection
occurs from a reservoir created by
the host itself, such as
contaminated materials and
surfaces or objects.
A fomite is any substance that
carries an infection. Airborne
diseases are di cult to control
once an outbreak occurs. Infection
may also occur via a vector.
Indirect means of transmission
include:
- Airborne transmission -
coughing or sneezing
- Touching an infected
surface
- Contaminated food or water
case of indirect transmission of
pathogens. It occurs through
arthropods such as mosquitoes,
sand flies, ticks and fleas. It usually
involves a bite from an arthropod
that is blood-sucking and transmits
the pathogen during a meal,
although in some cases the animal
swallows the arthropod in the act of
grooming themselves e.g. flea
tapeworms in dogs. Sometimes
infected plants and fungi are
sources of pathogens and can act
as vectors.
Vector diseases are most common
in warm, human parts of the world
where the condition for insect
survival and reproduction are
favourable.

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ringworm - Infected surgical Diseases spread by vector

- Glandular fever instrument that has not transmission include:
- HIV/AIDs been sterilised correctly - Malaria
- Herpes simplex virus (HSV) - Vectors such as mosquitos, - Dengue fever
ticks and fleas - Canine and feline
heartworm
Examples of diseases spread by
indirect contact include:
- Measles virus - from
infected droplets
- Gastro - caused by the
bacterium E. coli from
contaminated food and
water
- Toxoplasmosis - from
infected cat droppings
- Influenza - exposure to
droplets and other
biological matter
containing influenza virus
particles

INVESTIGATING THE TRANSMISSION OF A DISEASE DURING AN EPIDEMIC

TRANSMISSION OF DISEASE DURING AN EPIDEMIC

The chain of infection identifies the interactions that occur during the spread of disease. Breaking a link in the
chain will stop the spread of disease.

Epidemics occur when the number of people affected by a disease is higher than usual. It is a sudden increase in
the occurrence of a particular disease among the population.

When epidemics are occurring across multiple countries and continents it is known as a pandemic.

Epidemics are the result of a change in one or more of the following factors; virulence of the pathogen, migration
of the pathogen and host exposure and susceptibility.

TRANSMISSION OF DISEASE - MALARIA

CAUSE TRANSMISSION HOST RESPONSE EPIDEMICS

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Plasmodium protozoa Vector transmission by - Immune system World health organisation

Anopheles mosquito attempts to clear attempt to forecast
- Plasmodium sex the body of outbreaks by assessing a
cells reproduce in plasmodium by number of factors
the mosquito, the cell-mediated including identifying
forming zygotes in response epidemic-prone areas
cysts of its (activation of and vulnerability
stomach wall phagocytes and T assessment of the
- Cysts burst and cells) population.
travel to the - Anaemia occurs
salivary glands of as the red blood
the mosquito, cells are damaged
transferring it to - This leads to
humans when enlarged liver and
bitten spleen, sweating,
- Infected cells fever, shivering
burst causing and eventual
malaria fever death
- Cycle continues
when the human
host is bitten by a
mosquito, passing
mature cells back
into the vector
Malaria is prevalent in
tropical environments
where the climate suits
mosquito propagation,
and temperatures at
which plasmodium
growth is successful.

PREVENTION CONTROL

- Mosquito nets - Breaking the plasmodium life cycle by draining

- Protective clothing swamps and killing mosquitos
- Insect repellent
- Pesticides

INVESTIGATE THE WORK OF ROBERT KICK AND LOUIS PASTEUR, TO EXPLAIN THE CAUSES AND
TRANSMISSION OF INFECTIONS DISEASES, INCLUDING:
KOCH’S POSTULATES
PASTEUR’S EXPERIMENTS ON MICROBIAL CONTAMINATION

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KOCH’S POSTULATES PASTEUR’S EXPERIMENT

Hee discovered the Through his experiments, he disproved the theory of

microbial origins of many
diseases including anthrax,
cholera and tuberculosis.
He also developed a
procedure for isolating and
identifying
disease-causing microbes.
spontaneous generation by demonstrating that all
microbes come from pre-existing microbes. Pasteur
produced the first vaccines for rabies and anthrax,
making significant contributions to the field of
immunology. He was also involved in the discovery of
microbial fermentation and developed the technique
called pasteurisation.

The criteria must be met to determine whether a

particular microorganism is responsible for causing a
disease known as Koch’s Postulates:
1. The same
microorganisms
must be present in
every diseased
host
2. Micro-organisms
must be isolated
from the diseased
organism and
cultured in the
laboratory
3. When a sample of
the pure culture is
inoculated into a healthy host, this host must
develop the same symptoms as the original
host
4. Isolate and re-grow the microorganism from
the newly infected organism. It must be
identified as the same.

PASTEUR’S FLASKS
Used flasks that had long drawn-out necks (like those of swans) that were not sealed. Meat broth was boiled in the
flasks and as they cooled the aid was drawn in from outside. Any microorganisms present in the air did not reach
the broth, as they were trapped in the narrow neck and the curve of the glass.

Bacterial growth occurred if the curve of the flask was broken off and the contents of the flask were exposed to
the air. Furthermore, tipping a flask to allow the solution in it to reach the curve where the microorganisms were
trapped resulted in bacterial growth occurring.

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His experiment discredited the theory of spontaneous generation (the idea that life arose spontaneously from
non-living things). It supported the hypothesis that the organisms that contaminated the broth and caused it to
decay must be carried in the air and not be spontaneously generated.

MAIN POINTS
- Koch and Pasteur increased our understanding of the nature of the infectious disease
- Koch developed postulates to guide scientists in determining the causal pathogen for a disease.
- Koch showed that specific infectious diseases are caused by specific pathogens
- Pasteur identified microbes as the agents responsible for spoilage during the production of wine, beer
and vinegar, leading to the development of pasteurisation (heating solutions long enough to kill the
contaminating bacteria)
- Pasteur’s germ theory of disease was supported by his swan-necked flask experiment
- Pasteur’s theory of disease states that germs (microbes) cause disease and that all microorganisms
come from pre-existing micro-organisms
- Pasteur’s work contributed to the development of vaccines for diseases such as fowl cholera, based on
the principle of immunity.

ASSESS THE CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF DISEASES ON AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION, INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO:
PLANT DISEASES
ANIMAL DISEASES

DISEASES IN AGRICULTURE
Agriculture involves the
cultivation of crops and
pastures and the rearing of
animals to provide meat,
milk, fibres and other
products for humans.

Australian agriculture is
relatively free of many of the
infectious diseases that
affect animals and plants in
other countries. This makes
our products highly sought
after around the globe. Hence, there are strict biosecurity measures in place to reduce disease transmission.

Two types of plant and animal diseases are of concern in agriculture in Australia:

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- Endemic diseases (diseases constantly present within a country or region) such as bovine Johne’s disease
in cattle and sheep
- Exotic (introduced species) such as foot and mouth disease and avian influenza

ANIMALS

Disease Cause Effect

Sheep lice Insect: Bovicola Sheep lice cost producers in NSW over $100 million per year in lost
ovis production and treatment costs.
Sheep with lice produce about 10% less wool and the wool has broken
fibres, making the fleece more felted and matted and 10% less valuable;
infected sheep are stressed through the discomfort of irritated skin
which causes rubbing, affects feed intake and are more susceptible to
flystrike.

Foot-and-mout Virus The 2001 UK outbreak caused losses of $19 billion; highly contagious; the
h disease in (aphthovirus) disease does not occur in Australia but it is a major threat and has
cattle, water with seven prompted strong quarantine regulations, including support from
buffalo, sheep, strains: A, O, C, neighbouring countries to reduce chances of entry into Australia.
goats, pigs SAT1, SAT2,
antelope, bison SAT3, and Asia1
and deer

PLANTS

Disease Cause Effect

Potato Blight Fungi: Phytophthora Causes one million deaths from starvation and over one million
infestans people to migrate from Ireland in the mid-1800s.

Golden potato cyst Golden nematode: Microscopic, soil-borne plant pests which feed on the roots of
nematode Globodera potato plants and are a serious threat to Australia’s potato
rostochiensis industry.
(macroparasite) Root development and tuber yield are reduced and plant
growth is stunted, crop damage may appear as patches of
poorly growing plants and can extend to complete crop failure.

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EFFECTS OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN FARM PLANT DISEASES

ANIMALS

- Death of the affected animal The main consequences of plant disease outbreak
- Loss of appetite and weight over a short or include:
extended period of time - Reproduction in yield of grains, pastures, fruits
- Economic loss to the farmer, with adverse and vegetables (biological effects on the
effects on profitability and production individual plant)
- Loss of international trading - Loss of trading opportunities (social economic
- Human illness and disease effects on Australia’s economy)
- Low growth rates in young animals - Economic loss for the farmer
- Loss of fertility in females through embryonic The introduction of an exotic plant disease into
death or stillbirths Australia could have severe consequences for the
- Loss of economic value of individual due to national economy.
blemishes or ectoparasites

COMPARE THE ADAPTATIONS OF DIFFERENT PATHOGENS THAT FACILITATE THEIR ENTRY INTO AND
TRANSMISSION BETWEEN HOSTS.

ADAPTATIONS OF PATHOGENS
For a pathogen to successfully establish an infection, it must find a way to adhere to the host’s cells, colonise,
spread and persist long enough to reproduce, so it must:
- Enter the host
- Multiply in host tissues
- Resist or not stimulate the host’s defence mechanism
- Damage the host

Most pathogens must enter a host to cause disease. Microbes enter human hosts through the respiratory tract
(mouth and nose), the gastrointestinal tract, the urogenital tract and skin surfaces. To do this they must get
through protective barriers.

In plants, protective barriers include physical barriers such as thick cell walls, thick cuticles, and the presence of a
secondary cell wall or thick bark, while chemical barriers include antimicrobial compounds.

In animals, protective barriers include physical barriers such as the skin and other epithelial surfaces while
chemical barriers include the pH of the skin and stomach, along with body fluids.

Vector-transmitted diseases such as bacteria, viruses and protozoa have evolved the ability to survive in
arthropods (e.g. insects and ticks). These pathogens use the vector to gain entry into the hot when the vector
bites the host or sucks its blood; to do this the pathogen needs adaptations to survive in the gut of the vector and
survive being pushed into the salivary glands before being injected into the next host. The use the lifecycle of the
vector allows the spread from one host to another; for example, the plasmodium protozoan that causes malaria.

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Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) causes a bacterial

infection of the stomach lining. It survives in
the stomach by producing an enzyme (urease)
that converts urea to ammonia and carbon
dioxide. By doing so, the bacterium surrounds
itself in a layer of ammonia that neutralises the
stomach’s natural acidity.

The bacterium causes stomach ulcers in

humans. It has a flagellum that allows it to move
and penetrate the mucus lining/barrier of the
stomach wall.

Intracellular pathogens (e.g. viruses) have adaptations to facilitate their entry into the host cell, survive and
replicate within the cell, these pathogens are not accessible to antibodies once inside the host cell and they are
not easily targeted by phagocytic cells.

The first step for any intracellular pathogen is to bind to the surface of the host cell. Intracellular pathogens have
acquired genes that encode proteins that interact specifically with particular molecules of the host cell.

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DESCRIBE A VARIETY OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES CAUSED BY PATHOGENS, INCLUDING MICROORGANISMS,

MACROORGANISMS, AND NON-CELLULAR PATHOGENS, AND COLLECT PRIMARY AND SECONDARY-SOURCED
DATA AND INFORMATION RELATING TO DISEASE TRANSMISSION, INCLUDING:
DESIGN AND CONDUCT A PRACTICAL INVESTIGATION RELATING TO THE MICROBIAL TESTING OF
WATER OR FOOD SAMPLES

MICROBES IN FOOD OR WATER

Microbes are all around us, however, not all are able to cause disease. Some have little or no effect on us, and
others are even beneficial. Sometimes food and water can become contaminated by pathogens. These commonly
cause symptoms such as vomiting and diarrhoea but occasionally can lead to more severe consequences.

Deletion of microbes in food and water is not possible with the naked eye. However, many microbes, such as fungi
and bacteria, cluster together when given suitable conditions for reproduction and growth, including moisture,
nutrients and warmth. The clusters are known as colonies and can be seen with the use of microscopes.

The features of a colony can be used to help identify the specific pathogen. Bacterial colonies tend to be smooth,
glossy and coloured whereas fungal colonies are furry and large.

BACTERIAL COLONIES FUNGAL COLONIES

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INQUIRY QUESTION 2: HOW DOES A PLANT OR ANIMAL RESPOND TO INFECTION?

INVESTIGATE THE RESPONSE OF A NAMED AUSTRALIAN PLANT TO A NAMED PATHOGEN THROUGH
PRACTICAL AND/OR SECONDARY-SOURCED INVESTIGATIONS FOR EXAMPLE:
FUNGAL PATHOGENS
VIRAL PATHOGENS

PLANT RESPONSES TO PATHOGENS

Plants have inherent disease-resistance strategies. These defences may be
passive (such as physical and chemical barriers) or active (once the pathogen is
recognised. If a plant can prevent the pathogen from invading its tissue, or
prevent the pathogen from reproducing then it will be resistant to that pathogen.

PASSIVE ACTIVE

Plants have two major types of passive defences
against pathogen invasion:
1. Physical barriers
Physical barriers such as a thick cuticle, cell walls and
small stomata all inhibit pathogen entry.
- Some pathogens secrete enzymes that break
down the cuticle but plants with a thicker
cuticle can withstand this
- Bark offers plants extra protection against
pathogens that might invade and try to reach
the food source (sap) in the phloem beneath
the tree bark
- Vertical hanging leaves do not accumulate
water film and reduces the likelihood of the
build-up of pathogen reservoirs outside of the
leaves
- Stomata tend to open during humid weather
and rainstorms; a potential entry port for
pathogens
When its passive barriers are breached, the plant is
now at risk of harm. The next line of defence involves
three major groups of responses such as recognition
pf the pathogen, rapid responses and delayed
response.
Pathogen recognition: plants are able to recognise
pathogens by detecting certain physical and chemical
signals, including fragments from the cell walls of
bacteria and fungi. Genes within the cells of the plant
are thought to regulate plant responses.
Rapid active response: recognition of a pathogen by
proteins on the surface of cells in plants causes
changes in the permeability of the plant cell
membrane. This allows the movement of certain ions
(calcium ions) into the cell and triggers defence
responses by activating the expression of certain
genes. The release of hydrogen peroxide in an
oxidated burst can kill microbes directly. Another
response is the reinforcement of the cell wall with
aggregates of material in the cytoplasm near a defect
in the wall - this is known as cell wall apposition. A
third response is programmed cell death (apoptosis)
which causes a cluster of dead plant cells to
accumulate around the pathogen to isolate it, followed

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by the secretion of antimicrobial compounds.

Delayed active response: limits the spread of the

pathogen.
- (strategy) repaired the wounds in the bark
through cork cell production and gum
secretion
- Lysozyme-like chemicals are also released and
have an antimicrobial action
- Salicylic acid may act as a signalling agent of
subsequent infections and play a role in the
plant’s ‘memory’ of a particular pathogen. This
limits the severity of subsequent infections
with that pathogen.

2. Chemical barriers
The presence of chemical compounds in the tissues of
plants can reduce fungal and bacterial growth and
ward off vectors of viruses. Examples of chemicals
include glucosides and saponins.
- Plants may produce enzymes to break down
pathogen-derived toxins
- Chemical receptors on plant cells can detect
the presence of a pathogen (detects
pathogen-associated molecular patterns
(PAMPs) that are secreted by bacteria) and
activate the next stage of defence

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EXAMPLE: Eucalyptus (Australian plant)
PHYSICAL BARRIERS
- Thick cuticle
- Thick bark
- Waxy leaves
- Dry leaf surfaces
- Vertically hanging leaves
All of which prevent the formation
of moisture on the lead which
provides some protection from
water moulds.
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CHEMICAL BARRIERS
Stored oils function as chemical
defences as antifungal and
antibacterial agents or for priming
of defences in both the host and
neighbouring plants
ACTIVE DEFENCES OR INDUCED
RESPONSES
The formation of barrier zones in
the new tissue produced by the
vascular cambium; these zones
protect the healthy sapwood from
damage by separating it from the
adjacent infected or damaged
tissue; which prevents the spread
of the disease. The secretion of
gum seals the wound from further
infection.
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ANALYSE RESPONSES TO THE PRESENCE OF PATHOGENS BY ASSESSING THE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL
CHANGES THAT OCCUR IN THE HOST ANIMALS’ CELLS AND TISSUES.

LINES OF DEFENCE
The body’s immune system consists of different levels of defence.
INNATE IMMUNITY FIRST LINE OF DEFENCE SECOND LINE OF DEFENCE

- Present at birth and (physical and chemical barriers) (cellular responses)

genetically determined
- Response to pathogens are
non-specific and include
both physical and chemical
barriers as well as cellular
responses.
The body’s first line of defence
against pathogens consists of
barriers to entry. These barriers
may be physical such as the skin,
chemical such as tears of biological
such as sphincters.
When a barrier is breached, the
second line of defence is activated.
It involved a non-specific chemical
and cellular attachment on the
pathogens, characterised by the
process of inflammation and
phagocytosis by white blood cells.

ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY (THIRD LINE OF DEFENCE)

This is a specific defence mechanism consisting of specialised cells (lymphocytes) that act if the pathogen
persists in its invasion.

PHYSICAL BARRIERS AGAINST INFECTION:

Physical barriers are structures the body uses to restrict entry to pathogens, making it di cult for the pathogen
to adhere to cells or penetrate tissues.
- Epithelial tissues line all the central internal cavities of the body and include the skin and mucous
membranes.

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- The skin is classified as epithelial tissue (consisting of 3 layers). Skin is well supplied by blood,
contributing to its effectiveness as a barrier to diseases by providing early access for white blood
cells, red blood cells and platelets to any wound.
- The epidermis consists of sheets of cells covered by a special barrier called keratin, a waterproof
protein that provides an extra layer of security against pathogen entry.
- The upper layer of the epidermis consists of dead skin cells, which form an effective physical
barrier against pathogen entry, as dead cells exfoliate (die and flake off) they take pathogens with
them.
- MUCOUS MEMBRANES: moist pink tissues lining the entry points of the body, such as the mouth and nasal
cavity.

The body has special processes to seal the skin barrier due to
wounds/burns:
1. Inflammation
2. Proliferation - new cells multiply rapidly to seal the wound
3. Maturation - cells mature and complete the new barrier

MUCOUS MEMBRANES Mucous membranes are typically pink, moist lining

tissues such as in our mouth and nose. They are found
in the digestive and respiratory systems. The following
features of mucous membranes restrict pathogen
entry:
- Cell junctions between epithelial cells are
designed to anchor them together more
effectively, increasing cohesion and restricting
access to pathogens
- Lined with tiny hair-like structures called cilia,
which beat in a coordinated way to remove
particles from the respiratory system
- Composed of sheets of cells that are
constantly growing and moving upwards to
replace surface cells lost due to wear and tear
or pathogen attack
- They secrete a number of protective
substances such as mucus, lysozyme and
immunoglobulins (antibodies)

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TIGHT JUNCTIONS Blood vessels are lined internally by endothelial cells

that adhere tightly to each other to help prevent the
entry of pathogens from infected tissue into the blood
vessels.

MUCUS - A slipper substance secreted by cells that line

the mucous membranes
- Protects the linings of the body by trapping
foreign particles such as pathogens, dust and
pollen
Increased mucus production in the respiratory tract is
a sign of ill health as the body attempts to flush away
an invading pathogen. Green mucus can indicate the
activity of white blood cells, as they secrete
iron-containing enzymes to deal with pathogens.

Mucus also prevents the entry of pathogens through

the cells lining the alimentary canal (the passage
where food passes from mouth to anus).

PERISTALSIS The alimentary canal consists of muscles that

contract in a coordinated way, known as peristalsis to
move food downwards. The lack of movement (stasis)

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SPHINCTERS
PHYSICAL RESPONSES
Vomiting is a reflex action which can occur from the
presence of pathogens in the gut.
When the bladder lining is attacked by a pathogen a
common response by the body is inflammation and the
need to pass frequent small amounts of urine to help
flush out pathogens.
Wound healing reseals the physical barriers against
infection by pathogens.
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of the intestines can lead to intestinal bacterial
overgrowth, as the bacteria can reproduce
(proliferate).
A sphincter is a circular muscle that maintains
constriction of a natural body passage and relaxes as
required by normal physiological functioning.
Sphincters are found in:
- The lower esophageal sphincter - between the
oesophagus and the stomach
- The pyloric sphincter - between the stomach
and the duodenum
Sphincters help to physically seal off compartments in
the body to reduce the likelihood of pathogen invasion.
CHEMICAL RESPONSES
Urine: these chemical components of urine help
defend against pathogens:
- Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) secreted by the
cell lining in the urinary tract to prevent
binding of bacteria to epithelial cells and
breakdown of bacterial cells
- pH of normal human urine within the range of
4.5-8
- Phagocytes such as neutrophils work best
when urine is alkaline (above pH of 7)
Saliva has a flushing action against microbes as well as
chemical activity against them due to antimicrobial
molecules contained within it, such as IgA
(immunoglobulin A) and other AMPs.
The glands along the eyelids secrete a sebum-like
substance that contributes to the tears and has
antimicrobial properties. The tear film has the
following chemical substances, which have
antimicrobial properties: lysozyme, AMPs,
complement, IgA and mucins.
Gastric secretions- the parietal cells lining the
stomach (gastric) wall secrete hydrochloric acid. This
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creates a ehighly acidic environment in the stomach,

which discourages the growth and survival of
microbes.
- Sebum
- Sweat
- Saliva
- Tears

THE IMMUNE SYSTEM (SECOND LINE OF DEFENCE)

An antigen is any molecule that the body recognises as foreign and that triggers an immune response. Pathogens
that enter the body have a variety of chemical markers (antigens) on their surface, the immune system recognises
these markers as not belonging to the body (non-self). The presence of antigens causes the immune response to
activating to destroy pathogens.

When pathogens penetrate the barriers against entry, the second line of defence is quickly activated before they
cause damage to the body. This second-line, non-specific defence adaptations include:
- Inflammation
- Phagocytosis
- Fever
- Cell death to seal off the pathogens

INFLAMMATION PHAGOCYTOSIS NEUTROPHILS

A chemical response that helps
wounds repair and leads to
pathogen destruction.
The five signs of cardinal signs of
the inflammatory response are:
1. Pain due to the release of
chemical mediators of
inflammation
The process by which phagocytes
change their shape so they can
surround a foreign particle, such as
a bacterium and completely
enclose it.
Once the foreign particle is inside
the cell, enzymes are released to
destroy it.
All phagocytic cells, including
neutrophils originate in the bone
marrow. They are capable of
deforming and squeezing between
the endothelial cells lining the local
capillaries, to move from the blood
to the tissues.

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2. Heat due to the increase in
microcirculation
3. Redness associated with Main types:
increased microcirculation
4. Swelling as fluids move
from the intravascular
space to extracellular space
5. Loss of function due to pain
and swelling
- Are specialised white blood Neutrophils are the first to move to
cells or leucocytes the site of infection to inactivate
pathogens. An increase in
1. Neutrophils
circulating neutrophils in the blood
2. Macrophage/monocytes
3. Dendritic cells (neutrophilia) is indicative of an
4. Natural killer cells active site of inflammation
somewhere in the body.

INQUIRY QUESTION 3: HOW DOES THE HUMAN IMMUNE SYSTEM RESPOND TO EXPOSURE TO A PATHOGEN?
- INVESTIGATE AND MODEL THE INNATE AND ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEMS IN THE HUMAN BODY

INNATE IMMUNE RESPONSE ADAPTIVE IMMUNE RESPONSE

Genetically programmed. With repeated exposure to - Next line of defence

the same pathogen, the body responds in exactly the - Swings into action when the innate immune
same way (this is present from birth). response fails to clear the pathogen from the
body
Provides a first and second line of defence against - Also referred to as the third line of defence or
pathogens through: acquired immunity
- Physical barriers (e.g. skin)
- Body fluids (e.g. urine, mucus) Two main components:
- Non-specific cellular responses (e.g. 1. Humoral response is effective against
phagocytosis) pathogens in body fluids
- Non-specific biochemical responses (e.g. 2. Cell-mediated response is effective against
complement activation) intracellular pathogens
The cells responsible for generating the adaptive
immune system are known as B and T lymphocytes (or
B and T cells).

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Some B lymphocytes develop

into plasma cells, which produce antibodies/immunoglobulins against the
pathogen.
- ANTIBODIES:
Protein molecules that with a specific molecular structure that
helps them to recognise and bind to specific pathogens (humoral
response). The humoral response occurs in the blood and tissue
fluids of the body.
- T LYMPHOCYTES:
Transforms into cytotoxic T cells (‘killer’ T cells) and seek our
infected body cells, binding to them and destroying them
(mediated response)

ADAPTIVE IMMUNE RESPONSE:

Different from the first two lines of defence as it:
- Is specific
- Involves a great diversity of possible responses
- Has memory
- Capable of self-tolerance

ANTIGENS & ANTIBODIES

- Components of bacteria, viruses, tumour cells and non-cellular materials
- Generally molecules made of protein found on cell membranes and in viral coats
Antigen molecules have regions known as epitopes that can be recognised by specific lymphocytes in the immune
system. B and T lymphocytes have complementary antigen binding sites, known as antigen receptors, on their cell
membranes.

Antibodies are Y-shaped molecules that consist of four chains of protein. An antibody molecule has two binding
sites. When antibodies and antigens bind, the resulting molecule is called an antigen-antibody complex.

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When an antigen is present in the body, the B cell that is specific for that antigen is activated and then cloned.
Once the antigen is destroyed, these cloned B cells remain, ready for the next time this specific antigen presents
itself to the body- they become memory cells.

B cells develop and mature in the bone marrow and T cells develop in the bone marrow and mature in the thymus
gland.

B lymphocytes are the cells primarily responsible for the adaptive immune response outside cells, mature B
lymphocytes are stored in lymph nodes and peripheral lymphoid tissues, and circulate in the blood.

Helper T cells release substances such as cytokines that are involved in the activation of B cells. Two adaptive
responses follow:
1. The B cell multiplies, making many copies of itself with the same specificity as the original B cell
2. These B cells differentiate into two possible cell types:
- Plasma cells (short lives antibodies that secrete up to 2000 molecules per second)
- Memory cells (long- and stored for subsequent infections)

T CELLS
The adaptive immune system has another branch, responsible for the elimination of pathogens located inside host
cells (intracellular pathogens). This is known as cell-mediated immunity where special types of T lymphocytes
target and destroy the entire infected host cell, along with the pathogens inside them.

T lymphocytes make direct contact with infected cells via special receptors can also identify tumour cells and
destroy them.

T lymphocytes control cell-mediated immunity, which is effective in defending the body against:
- Protozoa (bacteria and viruses that are inside the host’s body cells)
- Macroparasites (e.g. fungi, roundworms)
- Cancer cells and transplanted tissue
T cells respond to antigenic fragments that have been processed and presented to
the MHC by macrophages.

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- MHC: (major histocompatibility complex) molecules bind fragments from pathogens and display them on
the cell surface for recognition by T cells
- The ‘self-identity’ molecules of organisms. Each person has a different set of MHC marker molecules in
their cells. These molecules have a binding site for a specific antigen.
When protein-containing antigens are present, helper T cells are activated when they bind to the antigen.
- These T cells release special molecules known as cytokines (which stimulate the immune system)
When B lymphocytes are exposed to cytokines they proliferate and differentiate into memory cells and plasma
cells

CELL-MEDIATED
IMMUNITY

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
- A network of vessels that drains lymph fluid from the tissues back into the circulatory system

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- Part of the immune system and is

one of the body’s major defences
against infection
- LYMPH: fluid of the lymphatic
system
- Lymph is mixed up with pathogens
and other foreign particles that
must be destroyed. The lymph
nodes are the sites where this
occurs
- A lymph node that is actively
fighting an infection becomes
swollen and hard as the lymph cells
reproduce rapidly to increase their
numbers
- Lymph nodes produce B and T cells

- EXPLAIN HOW THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

RESPONDS AFTER PRIMARY EXPOSURE TO A PATHOGEN, INCLUDING INNATE AND ACQUIRED IMMUNITY

EXPLAIN HOW THE IMMUNE SYSTEM RESPONDS AFTER PRIMARY EXPOSURE TO A PATHOGEN, INCLUDING
INNATE AND ACQUIRED IMMUNITY.
* ADAPTIVE AND INNATE IMMUNITY

INQUIRY QUESTION 4: HOW CAN THE SPREAD OF INFECTIOUS DISEASE BE CONTROLLED?

INVESTIGATE PROCEDURES THAT CAN BE EMPLOYED TO PREVENT THE SPREAD OF DISEASE, INCLUDING BUT
NOT LIMITED TO:
HYGIENE PRACTICES
QUARANTINE
VACCINATION, INCLUDING PASSIVE AND ACTIVE IMMUNITY
PUBLIC HEALTH CAMPAIGNS
USE OF PESTICIDES
GENETIC ENGINEERING

HYGIENE PRACTICES:
- Washing hands
- Cleaning wounds
- Responsible food preparation (wear gloves, clean food utensils, avoid sneezing and coughing, cover
wounds, cook food thoroughly)

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QUARANTINE:
- Isolation of an individual for a set period of time in order to prevent the spread of disease. This allows
either for the infectious period to elapse or for symptoms to develop
- Quarantine may be used for foods, plants and animals
- By physically detaining diseased individuals, it allows for other individuals in the community to be
protected
- Minimises the risk of exotic pests and diseases entering Australia to protect our flora and fauna

PUBLIC HEALTH CAMPAIGN:

Raises levels of awareness and knowledge about the causes and transmission of infectious disease. This enables
people to make more informed choices based on scientific knowledge. It helps to persuade and engage the public
to stop specific behaviours to minimise the transmission of disease.

Government regulations ensure that standardised procedures are followed when handling, cooking and storing
food. Strict guidelines must also be followed in hospitals, surgeries and clinics when sterilising equipment
between patients. When these guidelines and procedures are followed, the spread of pathogens is prevented; in
turn, this prevents the occurrence of diseases such as food poisoning.

Government regulations are in order to ensure that garbage is disposed of properly, drinking water is treated
effectively and sewage is removed and treated.

PESTICIDES:
Pesticides are chemicals used to kill the pests of plants and animals, including pathogens and the vectors that
transmit pathogens between organisms. Killing these pests and vectors reduces the occurrence of disease or
controls the spread of disease through the population.
Types of pesticides:
- Insecticides (kills insects)
- Fungicides (kills fungal pathogens)
- Herbicides (kill weeds)

Pesticides are widely used to spray items bought into Australia, to kill any insects or other organisms present. This
prevents the spread of any diseases associated with these insects.

GENETIC ENGINEERING
Genetic engineering involves altering the genetic composition of an organism. By altering the genetic makeup of
organisms, it is possible to make them resistant to diseases. This prevents the disease from occurring and
controls the spread of disease through the population. (Organisms with genes from other organisms inserted into
their own genetic material are called transgenic species.)

Using genetic engineering to produce disease-resistant plants and animals prevents the occurrence of disease in
individual organisms, controls the spread of disease through the population, and reduces the incidence of
particular diseases and pests.

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INVESTIGATE PROCEDURES THAT CAN BE EMPLOYED TO PREVENT THE SPREAD OF DISEASE, INCLUDING BUT
NOT LIMITED TO:
VACCINATION, INCLUDING PASSIVE AND ACTIVE IMMUNITY

Immunisation is the process in which the body reacts to a vaccine by going through the immune response. This
response produces memory cells for the antigen and confers immunity to the body so that if the antigen enters
the body again in the future, the secondary response will occur and the person will avoid the worst symptoms of
the disease.

Vaccination primes the immune system to deal with a pathogen it has never been in contact with.

ACTIVE ACQUIRED IMMUNITY

- When the immune response occurs and memory cells are produced.
It can be naturally induced, as the body undergoes the immune response and suffers the symptoms of the disease.
It can also be artificially induced, through the use of vaccines, which cause the production of memory cells
without the body experiencing the symptoms of the disease. Vaccines contain cultures of micro-organisms, which
may be either:
- Living but weakened and therefore harmless (rabies, measles)
- Dead (whooping cough)

For a vaccine to be effective, a series of vaccinations (booster shots) should be given over a number of years.

PASSIVE ACQUIRED IMMUNITY

- Involved the introduction of antibodies into the body to prevent a disease from developing. These
antibodies have been produced by another organism that has had the disease
- Vaccines are a vital part of the solution to infectious disease control

HERD IMMUNITY
- Occurs when a high percentage of the community is immune to a disease (through vaccination), making
the spread of this disease from person to person unlikely
- Even individuals who are not vaccinated are offered protection as the disease has little opportunity to
spread within the community

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INVESTIGATE AND ANALYSE THE WIDE RANGE OF INTERRELATED FACTORS INVOLVED IN LIMITING LOCAL,
REGIONAL, AND GLOBAL SPREAD OF A NAMED INFECTIOUS DISEASE

LIMITING DISEASES SPREAD

There are 3 levels we can target to control the spread of disease; local, regional and global

LOCAL REGIONAL GLOBAL

Local factors are usually related to
a neighbourhood, village, town or
city. Major factors that influence
the spread of disease include
sanitation, especially how waste
and sewage are disposed of.
Ways to control the spread of
disease locally:
- Immunisation to create
herd immunity within local
populations
- Personal hygiene practices
- Safe health practices
- Provision of public health
information to improve
public knowledge of
diseases and prevention
The geography of a region
influences the disease
transmission. A region may be
characterised by mountains,
deserts, grasslands, etc. These
geographical factors determine
whether a population in that region
is highly mobile or relatively
isolated.
Ways to control the spread of
disease regionally are through
consideration of environmental
conditions:
- A clean water supply
- Sanitation facilities
- Food (may lead to
contamination)
- Climate
- Flooding
- Continued surveillance,
disease awareness and
reporting
- Rapid recognition of
presence through health
programs
- E cient diagnosis of the
microbial cause
The increased movement of people
around the world for travel and
work creates di culty in limiting
the spread of infectious diseases.
Ways to control the spread of
disease globally are through:
- Pre-migration medical
examinations
- Communication between
countries and with global
heath organisations is
essential
- Implementation of
quarantine measures,
which involves things like
travel bans into or out of
countries significantly
affected by disease
outbreaks
- Monitoring movement of
potentially affected
individuals

The cause of disease transmission are multifactorial and involve pathogen (how virulent it is), host (effectiveness
in fighting off pathogen), environmental/geographical factors (disease may be able to build up in an environment
e.g. reservoir which increases the spread) and societal factors (lack of education and vaccinations due to poverty).

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- Investigate and assess the effectiveness of pharmaceuticals as treatment strategies for the control of
infectious disease, for example
Antivirals
Antibiotics

PHARMACEUTICALS FOR CONTROLLING INFECTIOUS DISEASE

The pharmaceutical approach to infectious disease control involves the use of medications to control infectious
diseases in humans and plants.
- E.g. antibiotics and antiviral medication
- ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS: designed to control infectious diseases caused by microbes

ANTIVIRAL MEDICATIONS:
- Used to control viral infections
They do not kill viruses but inhibit their development inside infected cells. They do not cure the disease but simply
slow down its progress, allowing the body’s natural defences to take over. If taken early in the course of the
disease, symptoms will be milder and of shorter duration. They stop the spread of viral diseases and therefore are
a useful addition to the control of epidemics and pandemics.

The viruses most commonly targeted by antiviral drugs include:

- HIV
- Seasonal influenza A
- Herpes
- Hepatitis B and C

Viruses use the host’s cell to produce new virus particles, making it challenging to develop a class of drugs that
stops viral replication without killing the host cells.

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The genetics of viruses vary in the following ways:

- They may contain DNA or RNA
- The genetic material may be single-stranded or double-stranded

ANTIBIOTICS
Are used to control bacterial infections. They work by either killing or slowing down the grown of bacteria.
Antibiotics are not effective against viruses. Antibiotics are most effective when:
- They are used solely for the treatment of bacterial infections and not viral infections
- Bactericidal antibiotics are used to kill rather than inhibit growth of the bacteria
- Narrow-spectrum antibiotics are chosen that target the specific pathogen
- They are able to get to the site of infection and kill the bacteria
- The whole course of medication is taken, to reduce the risk of bacterial resistance
- A gram stain and culture and sensitivity tests are done, to ensure that the appropriate antibiotic has been
chosen and that the bacterium has been correctly identified as the causal agent of the disease

ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE
Bacterial resistance limits the effectiveness of antibiotics in controlling outbreaks of infectious diseases. This
problem arises as an antibiotic becomes less effective over time in treating a particular bacterial disease. This
problem also arises from the overuse of antibiotics.

In the presence of a mutation or gene that confers resistance to an antimicrobial substance, bacteria are able to
survive or grow in higher antimicrobial concentrations than most other bacterial strains of the same species.

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INTERPRET DATA RELATING TO THE INCIDENCE AND PREVALENCE OF INFECTIOUS DISEASE IN POPULATIONS,
FOR EXAMPLE:
MOBILITY OF INDIVIDUALS AND THE PORTION THAT ARE IMMUNE OR IMMUNISED
MALARIA OR DENGUE FEVER IN SOUTH EAST ASIA

INCIDENCE AND PREVALENCE OF A DISEASE

The type of data that must be collected includes:
- Incidence and prevalence of the disease- determines the pool of pathogens already present in a
population
- Mobility of the population: determines how easy it is for the pathogen to spread
- Percentage of the population that is immunised against infectious disease: determines what proportion of
the population are vulnerable and may act as carries for the pathogen

The incidence of an infectious disease is the number of new cases occurring during a specified time. It can also be
thought of as the infection rate, or the probability (risk) of contracting the disease. It can be expressed as a
percentage or as a number per 100,000 of the population.

To calculate the incidence of a disease as a percentage:

Number of new cases during a specific time
x 100
Size of the population at start of the monitoring period

The prevalence of a disease is the proportion of the population that has the disease at a particular point in time.
Whereas incidence refers only to new cases, prevalence refers to all cases, both previous and current.

The prevalence of a disease can be calculated using the following equation:

All new and previous cases during a period of time
x 100
Population during the time period

The mobility of a population is an important factor in the assessment of potential disease outbreaks.
- Mobility increases the contact between humans and vectors
(e.g.) tourism and migration bring humans who are more susceptible and have no immunity to
vector-borne diseases (such as malaria)

The rate of immunisation of a population is a key factor in analysing data relating to infectious diseases. The
Australian Government’s immunise Australia program aims to promote and inform people about the value of
immunisation in reducing disease transmission through the community. When a significant proportion of the
population has been immunised, this creates herd immunity.

Herd immunity relies on high numbers of individuals being vaccinated, to reduce the chances of unvaccinated
individuals coming into contact with the disease-causing microbe.

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INVESTIGATE AND EVALUATE ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AND QUARANTINE METHODS USED TO

CONTROL AN EPIDEMIC OR PANDEMIC

EBOLA VIRUS
- A severe disease that is extremely contagious and causes rapid death
- Considered as an epidemic
- Single stranded virus with many subtypes
- Spread when people have close direct contact with body fluids and mucous membranes from infected
individuals, including sexual transmission
- 1976: first appeared in Africa. Transmission is most likely through close human contact with wild animals
(apes, antelope, fruit bats) that are reservoirs of the virus (i.e. by consuming their meat)
- The incubation period is between 2 and 21 days
- SYMPTOMS: starts as fever and tiredness, headache and sore throat. Progresses to vomiting, a rash,
diarrhoea and oozing of blood from the mucous membranes
- Management of the diseases is supportive with intravenous (oral fluids) to replace losses and maintain
circulating blood volume, broad-spectrum antibiotics to manage potential secondary infections.

Environmental and quarantine measures were implemented to control the transmission of the pathogen.
Environment and engineering controls include:
- Provision of facilities for barrier nursing (providing care in strict infection control conditions)
- Workspaces
- Water and hygiene controls
- Hand hygiene and safe waste management (leak-proof bags, covered bins, ventilation control, sterilisation
of patient care equipment and linen)
Another important aspect was the provision and maintenance of personal protective equipment (PPE) i.e. gowns,
gloves, face shields.

QUARANTINE BORDER CHECK POINTS REDUCING HUMAN TO HUMAN

TRANSMISSION

- Isolating patients in a single - Established with armed - Good hygiene

room or otherwise
providing a space of at least
three metres patient beds
- Visitors were restricted,
except for parents of a child
guards tp prevent
movement of people in and
out of the quarantine area
- Long term measures
include reducing wildlife to
human transmission by
ensuring that meat is
cooked thoroughly
- Environmental control
procedures during and after
infections (vital)
- Reducing the risk of sexual
transmission through the
use of safe sex and hygiene

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SUMMARY:
- Managing the environment during an epidemic reduces the pool of available pathogens
- Quarantine measures are designed to reduce the possibility of transmission of pathogens from infected
to non-infected hosts.
- Planning is part of epidemic and pandemic management and includes education and training for all staff
involved.
- Successful management of a pandemic requires goodwill and cooperation between the population and
health workers.

EVALUATE HISTORICAL, CULTURALLY DIVERSE AND CURRENT STRATEGIES TO PREDICT AND

CONTROL THE SPREAD OF DISEASE

HISTORICAL CULTURAL

- Very little understanding of the cause of - Different cultures have different

diseases and therefore minimal knowledge on understandings about diseases = different
how to prevent, treat or control them strategies to prevent and control their spread
- Innclude religous and cultural beliefs regarding
The earliest mathematical modelling of the spread of health, health care, disease and vaccinations.
diseases was carried out in 1766 by Daniel Bernoulli. He
created a model to predict increased life expectancy if
a population was inoculated (vaccinated) against small
pox).

INVESTIGATE THE CONTEMPORARY APPLICATION OF ABORIGINAL PROTOCOLS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF

PARTICULAR MEDICINES AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY IS IMPORTANT, FOR EXAMPLE:
BUSH MEDICINE
SMOKE BUSH IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA

Many indigenous cultures around the world have used traditional methods to treat infectious and non-infectious
diseases. Substances from plants such as oils, latex and alkaloids were used for medicine.

The plant material was usually crushed and infused with

water to drink. Animal fat was often incorporated into the
plant material. This increased the fat solubility of the plant
substance and increased absorption rates into the tissues.

Native plants have been used as bush medicine by

Aboriginal people for generations. Many plants contain
antibacterial and anti-inflammatory compounds that are
known to Western medicine. As they contain antimicrobial

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properties they are considered useful in managing certain infectious diseases.

The smoke bush has very big woolly white flowers that resemble drifting smoke. Indigenous people have used the
smoke bush for healing. Scientists have now investigated the properties of this plant and its potential use against
cancer and HIV/AIDs. It was found to destroy the HIV virus.

Indigenous people are concerned that they have not received any acknowledgment for their role in discovering the
healing properties of smoke bushes. Therefore they are concerned that their traditional knowledge is being
exploited.

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