University of Engineering and Technology

Lahore

Lab Manual:
Engineering Mechanics Lab
Submitted To:
Mr. Umair Ashraf Khokhar
Submitted By:
Awais Ahmad
Reg. No.:
2022-ME-17

Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Experiment No.1

Title:
To study Slider-Crank Mechanism, and illustrate its Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration graphs.

Objectives:
 To study how the rotary and translating motions of crank shaft and slider (respectively) are inter-
convertible through slider-crank mechanism.
 To plot the displacement, velocity and acceleration graphs of this convertible motion, with respect to the
angle by which the crankshaft is rotated.

Apparatus:
 Slider-Crank Apparatus
 Lubricating Oil
 Meter Rod

Experimental Setup:
Take the slider-crank setup and clean it appropriately. Apply the lubricating oil to the movable parts of the
apparatus to avoid any friction between its parts. Set the apparatus as given below in the procedure and start the
experiment.
Procedure:
 Take the specified apparatus and clean it properly.
 Lubricate the moving parts of apparatus to avoid any friction between them.
 Now rotate the crank of the apparatus by an angle of 10° and note the corresponding displacement of the
slider, with the help of the provided linear scale.
 Go on repeating the experiment, until one complete revolution (360°) of the crank is accomplished.
 From the investigational calculations, sketch a graph between displacement and degree of rotation.
 After plotting the graph, it is obvious that tangents at every point along the graph will provide the
specific velocity at that point. Hence, we can calculate the velocities at each point by the formula of
slope at any point:
�2−�1
v = θ2−θ1

 Now, we can plot these points to get a graph between velocity and degree of rotation.
 Similarly, we can also draw a graph between acceleration and degree of rotation:
�2−�1
a = θ2−θ1
 Observations and Calculations
(Velocity)

Angle of rotation Displacement Velocity

(degrees) (inches) (inches/degree)
0 0 0

20 0.2 0.01

40 0.75 0.0275

60 1.5 0.0375

80 2.4 0.045

100 3.25 0.0425

120 4 0.0375

140 4.55 0.0275

160 4.9 0.0175

180 5 0.005

200 4.9 -0.005

220 4.5 -0.02

240 3.95 -0.0275

260 3.15 -0.04

280 2.3 -0.0425

300 1.4 -0.045

320 0.65 -0.0375

340 0.2 -0.0225

360 0 -0.01
Graphs
 Calculations and Observations
(Acceleration)

Angle of Rotation Displacement Velocity Acceleration

(degrees) (Inches) (Inches/degree) (Inches/degree2)
0 0 0 0

30 0.45 0.015 0.0005

60 1.5 0.035 0.000667

90 2.85 0.045 0.000333

120 4 0.038333 -0.00022

150 4.825 0.0275 -0.00036

180 5 0.005833 -0.00072

210 4.75 -0.00833 -0.00047

240 3.9 -0.02833 -0.00067

270 2.75 -0.03833 -0.00033

300 1.45 -0.04333 -0.00017

330 0.4 -0.035 0.000278

360 0 -0.01333 0.000722

Linkage:
Linkage, in mechanical engineering, is a system of solid, usually metallic, links associated to two or more other
links by pin joints, sliding joints, or ball-and-socket joints so as to proceed a closed chain or a series of closed
chains. When one of the links is immovable, the possible movements of the other links comparative to the fixed
link and to one another will depend on the number of links and the number and types of joints. With four pin-
connected links, for instance, the links all move in parallel planes, and irrespective of which link is fixed, the
other links have constrained motion; i.e., they move in a immobile and determinate way relative to the fixed
link. By fluctuating the relative lengths of the links, this four-bar linkage becomes a beneficial mechanism for
converting uniform rotary to non-uniform rotary motion or incessant rotary to oscillatory motion; it is the most
frequently used linkage mechanism in machine construction.

Slider-Crank Mechanism:
Slider-crank mechanism is a prearrangement of mechanical parts designed to convert straight-line motion to
rotary motion, as in a reciprocating piston engine, or to alter rotary motion to straight-line motion, as in a
reciprocating piston pump.
The rudimentary nature of the mechanism and the relative motion of the parts can be unsurpassably described
with the aid of the accompanying figure, in which the moving parts are lightly shaded. The darkly shaded part 1,
the fixed frame or block of the pump or engine, comprises a cylinder, depicted in cross section by its
walls DE and FG, in which the piston, part 4, slides back and forth. The small circle at A epitomizes the main
crankshaft bearing, which is also in part 1. The crankshaft, part 2, is revealed as a straight member extending
from the main bearing at A to the crankpin bearing at B, which connects it to the connecting rod, part 3. The
connecting rod is depicted as a straight member extending from the crankpin bearing at B to the wristpin
bearing at C, which attaches it to the piston, part 4, which is shown as a rectangle. The three bearings shown as
circles at A, B, and C certificate the connected members to rotate freely with respect to one another. The
pathway of B is a circle of radius AB. When B is at the point h, the piston will automatically be in the
position H. And when B is at point j, the piston will be in position J. In a gasoline engine, the head part of the
cylinder is at EG. The pressure fashioned by the explosion will push the piston from position H to
position J; reoccurrence motion from J to H will require the rotational energy of a flywheel attached to the
crankshaft and rotating about a bearing collinear with bearing A. On a reciprocating piston pump the crankshaft
would be obsessed by a motor.

Application:
The applications of a slider crank mechanism are:

 Reciprocating engine
  Rotary engine
 Oscillating cylinder engine
 Hand Pump
 Scotch Yoke
 Oldham's coupling
 Elliptical Trammel
 Inversion of a 4-bar chain mechanism
 The Slider Crank Mechanism is frequently utilized in undergraduate engineering courses to investigate
machine kinematics and resulting dynamic forces. The position, velocity, acceleration and shaking
forces generated by a slider-crank mechanism during operation can be determined analytically.
 Slider Crank Mechanism is used in piston cylinder assembly in combustion engine, and converts
reciprocating motion in circular motion and vice versa.

Comments:
 Displacement and degree of rotation are directly proportional to each other up to 180° and vice versa.
 The velocity-angle of rotation graph is sinusoidal graph.
 The acceleration-angle of rotation is cosine curve from 00 to 3600.
 The experiment shows the inter-convertibility of rotary and translating mechanisms.

References:
1. (https://www.britannica.com/technology/linkage-machine-component)

2. (https://www.britannica.com/technology/slider-crank-mechanism)
 Experiment No.2
Title
To study the quick return slider-crank mechanism and to plot a graph for displacement, velocity and
acceleration of the slider.
Objectives
 To study the inter-conversion of rotary and translational motions of Whitworth’s Quick Motion
Return Mechanism.
 To plot the displacement, velocity and acceleration graphs of this convertible motion.

Operates
 Quick Return Slider crank apparatus.
 Lubricating oil.
 Graph paper and Pencil.
Experimental Setup
Take the quick return setup and clean it appropriately. Apply the lubricating oil to the movable parts of the
apparatus to avoid any friction between its parts. Set the apparatus as given below in the procedure and start
the experiment.
Procedure
a) I cleaned the apparatus by lubricating with oil to diminish the friction effects.
b) I attuned the angular rotation to 0° and scale was at 0 inch.
c) I took difference of 10° and observed the rectilinear reading of scale.
d) I continued the process till one complete rotation of 360° was achieved.
e) The displacement with negative sign has opposite direction in accordance to reference zero.
f) I drew the graph of displacement-angular rotation.
g) I calculated slope of this graph at every 10° and that gave me velocity at each point by:
�2−�1
v = θ2−θ1

h) I drew velocity-angular rotation graph.

i) Then, I calculated the slope of that graph at every 10°. This gave me acceleration by:
�2−�1
a = θ2−θ1

j) Finally, I drew the graph between acceleration and angular rotation.

Observations and Calculations

Angle Displacement velocity Acceleration

0 0 0 0
10 0.1 0.01 0.001
20 0.2 0.01 0
30 0.45 0.025 0.0015
40 0.75 0.03 0.0005
50 1.15 0.04 0.001
60 1.65 0.05 0.001
70 2.2 0.055 0.0005
80 2.8 0.06 0.0005
90 3.45 0.065 0.0005
100 4.05 0.06 -0.0005
110 4.6 0.055 -0.0005
120 5.1 0.05 -0.0005
130 5.55 0.045 -0.0005
140 6.05 0.05 0.0005
150 6.4 0.035 -0.0015
160 6.75 0.035 -9.0206E-18
170 6.9 0.015 -0.002
180 7 0.01 -0.0005
190 6.95 -0.005 -0.0015
200 6.85 -0.01 -0.0005
210 6.6 -0.025 -0.0015
220 6.3 -0.03 -0.0005
230 5.9 -0.04 -0.001
240 5.4 -0.05 -0.001
250 4.9 -0.05 0
260 4.25 -0.065 -0.0015
270 3.6 -0.065 4.16334E-18
280 3.05 -0.055 0.001
290 2.4 -0.065 -0.001
300 1.9 -0.05 0.0015
310 1.4 -0.05 0
320 0.95 -0.045 0.0005
330 0.6 -0.035 0.001
340 0.35 -0.025 0.001
350 0.15 -0.02 0.0005
360 0.05 -0.01 0.001
 Theory

Whitworth’s Quick Return Mechanism

The Whitworth quick return mechanism alters rotary motion into reciprocating motion, but contrasting the
crank and slider, the forward reciprocating motion is at a dissimilar rate than the backward stroke. At the
bottom of the drive arm, the peg only has to pass through a few degrees to bend the arm from left to right,
but it takes the remainder of the revolution to bring the arm back. This mechanism is most frequently seen as
the drive for a shaping machine.

The Whitworth quick return motion also consists of a slotted link and sliding block as shown in figure under.
This mechanism is utilized on planning machine, which is quite huge and on slotting machine, which are
small. With the slotting machines, a single point tool is fixed to the forward-facing of the slider and is used
for cutting fine grooves and key-ways. With planning machines, the slider is the worktable on which the
workpiece is protected. This travels with slow forward and quick return motion underneath a stationary
single point cutting tool.

The driving gear which comprises the sliding block rotates at a constant speed. The sliding block roots the
slotted link to rotate but because it has a different center of rotation, its speed is not continual. As we can
be seen from figure above, the angle through which the driving gear and slotted link rotate on the forward
stroke is larger than the angle through which they rotate on the return stroke. This conveys the slow
forward and quick return motion to the slider.

Application
At the bottom of the slotted arm, the peg only has to travels through a few degrees to sweep the arm from
left to right, but it takes the remnants of the revolution, and consequently more time, to bring the arm back.
This mechanism is most frequently seen as the drive for a Shaping Machine.
A Quick Return Mechanism is used where there is a need to convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion.
As the disc rotates the black slide moves forwards and backwards. Many machines have this type
of mechanism. Shaping Machine is the best example.

Comments
This mechanism is quick-return, which brings improvement in machining productivity, and has advantage
over slider-crank and scotch-yoke mechanisms.
 Experiment No.3

Title:
To determine the moment of inertia of a flywheel

Objectives:
 To determine Moment of Inertia of Flywheel.
 To study the working and applications of Flywheel.

Apparatus:
 Flywheel apparatus (a flywheel fixed on two roller bearings, and a pulley attached)
 Thread
 Weight Hanger
 Slotted weights
 Stopwatch
 Meter rod

Procedure:
The picture of the flywheel apparatus is shown. It is a metallic solid cylinder of a large radius but comparably
small height. In the center of this cylinder on both sides, two cylinders of much smaller radius but of more
length are fixed. These smaller cylinders act as journals to attach the flywheel to the frame. Two roller bearings
are also used to reduce effects of friction. A small pulley is attached to the frame. The flywheel also has a small
hook on one of its journals.
 A lightweight and inextensible thread is hooked into the slot given on the journal and is passed over the
pulley. A weight hanger is hanged on the other side of this thread. The length of the thread is measured and
noted as height of the hanged mass. To begin the experiment, the thread is rotated around the journal of the
flywheel. Ten rotations are sufficient. Afterwards, the hanged weight is allowed to fall. Once the thread unhooks
from the journal, start the stopwatch. Note the time taken for ten rotations of the flywheel. The angular velocity
is assumed to be average of the ten rotations.

Note the mass hanged in the hanger. Use these values to calculate the experimental value of moment of inertia.
Finally, measure the mass and radius of the flywheel and calculate its theoretical moment of inertia. Compare
the two results.

Observations and Calculations

Weight of flywheel: 68.5 lbs.

Radius of wheel: 6.7 inches.

Radius of spindle: 0.5 inches.

g=32.2inch/s2

Introduction
This experiment is an introduction to fundamental concepts and facts of rotational dynamics. A fairly realistic
analysis of the motion of a flywheel can be made, assuming only that the net frictional torque on the rotating
flywheel is constant. In performing this experiment, we develop the understanding of rotational dynamics,
evaluation of errors in measurements that may be difficult to obtain and comparing experimental value of mass
moment of inertia with theoretical value of mass moment of inertia. For ages flywheels, have used to achieve
smooth operation of machines. The early models consisting of only a stone wheel attached to an axel.
 Theory

Flywheel
It is a mechanical device to store rotational kinetic energy. It resists change in rotational speed by its moment of
inertia. Its common uses are smoothing power output of an energy source where energy output is not continuous,
for e.g.: they are used in reciprocating engines.

Figure 1: Modern Flywheel

The moment of inertia of a body depends on mass and geometrical shape of body. In case of flywheel, � =
1 1
( )��2 , where r is radius from central axis. The Rotational Kinetic Energy, �� = ( )��2 , where w is angular
2 2

velocity. From this equation it is clear that rotational kinetic energy �� is directly proportional to moment of
1
inertia � = ( 2 )��2 .

Types of Flywheel
High Speed Flywheels and the Low Speed Flywheels are the two types of flywheels commercially available in
the market.

High Speed (RPM) Flywheels

These Flywheels have an angular velocity ranging between 30 to 60 krpm with potential limit adjustable up to
100 krpm. These are comparatively lighter so as to satisfy the needs of high power and it stores the energy by
high spinning velocity. High Speed Flywheels come with complete magnetic levitation and lower periodic
maintenance. Other attributes include light weight, small foot prints, easy commissioning and easy startups as
well as shutdown.i

Figure 2: High Speed Flywheels

Low Speed (RPM) Flywheels

These flywheels have an angular velocity of 10krpm and high-power energy requirement of heavy and bulky
steel flywheels. It needs maintenance from time to time and the mechanical bearings also have to be replaced
regularly. These types of flywheels require specially constructed and specified concrete slab installations and
are prone to more parasite energy losses.ii

Applications
There are following applications of
Flywheel:

i. A typical automotive engine will

have four strokes, only one of
which generates power. All the
other three strokes take power
away from the crankshaft. So,
while in theory, the engine will
run because of compression and
de-compression, the energy to
keep it going is generated only during one Figure 3: Automotive Engine
 cycle, that's the power stroke. What a flywheel does is, it stores this energy, and keeps the engine going
through the other strokes by providing the energy back.
Diesel engines require more energy through the other strokes owing to higher compression ratios. That's
why they have larger flywheels. And hence, diesel engines typically have greater amount of torque as
compared to similar sized petrol engines.

ii. A momentum wheel is a type of flywheel useful in satellite pointing operations, in which the flywheels
are used to point the satellite's instruments in the correct directions without the use of thrusters.

iii. Shipbuilding - Moment of Inertia has a big impact on shipbuilding. A ship may sink by rolling, but a
ship will never sink by pitching. The reason is, the Moment of Inertia over pitching axis is significantly
huge compared to that over rolling axis. In battleships, the Moment of Inertia is high in order to reduce
the time period of oscillation as a result of any disturbance. In this application, the Moment of Inertia is
increased by just placing the significant amount of mass away from the axis of rotation or oscillation.

Possible Errors
The difference in the values of moment of inertia of Flywheel may be due to following reasons:

i. Human error
ii. Error in stop watch
iii. Parallax Error.
iv. Error in measuring the Time of the fall.
v. Friction.
vi. Involvement of an initial force.

Possible Solutions
i. Repeat the experiment and take the mean time.
ii. Calibrate the stopwatch, by comparing each second with that of a standard watch or clock.
iii. Make sure to mark the initial point well.
iv. Keep the apparatus smooth, and remember to oil the pulley to ensure frictionless experiment.
v. To avoid any external acceleration, hold the flywheel stationary and then release it without imparting
any initial velocity.

References
i
"Flywheel Energy Calculator". Botlanta.org. 2004-01-07. Archived from the original on 2011-07-25. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
Flywheel Rotor and Containment Technology Development, FY83. Livermore, Calif: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory,
ii

1983. pp. 1–2

 Experiment No. 04

Title
Determining the Reactions on a Simply Supported Beam.

Objectives:
 To determine the Reactions Forces acting on a Simply Supported Beam.
 To calculate the Mean Percentage Error by comparing the experimental values with the theoretical reaction
forces.

Apparatus:
 Simply Supported Beam apparatus
 Meter Rod
 Hanger
 Weight Balance
 Loads

Procedure:
 a) Take the simply supported beam apparatus and clean it properly.
b) Take two spring balance and attach their one ends to the beam.
c) Tie the other ends to the beam support apparatus.
d) Measure the total distance L between the two supports.
e) Tie three hangers with the beam at some distances L1, L2 and L3 respectively.
f) Add weights to the hangers and note the reactions from the two spring balances.
g) Repeat the experiment by adding different weights to the hangers.
h) Note the reactions for all of them.
i) Now, calculate the theoretical reaction forces from the following equations:

Ra + Rb = W1 + W2 + W3
&
Rb x L = (W1 x L1) + (W2 x L2) + (W3 x L3)

From these equations, we can calculate the theoretical values of Ra and Rb.
j) After calculating these experimental and theoretical values.
k) Determine the percentage errors in these values.
l) Find the mean percentage error.

Observations:
Total Length L = 24.1 inches

L1=5 inches

L2=15inches

Error in Ra = 3.30%

Error in Rb = 1.88%

No. of W1(lb) W2(lb) Observed load(lb) Calculated load(lb) %age Error

observations Ra Rb Ra Rb Ra Rb
1 1 1 1 1.1 0.83 1.17 -1.77% 1.23%
2 2 1 1.3 1.97 1.03 1.97 -20% 0%
3 1 3 2 2.1 2.07 1.93 5.3% -4.23%
4 3 2 1.8 3 1.86 3.14 3.2% 2%
 Theory

Beams
“Beams are horizontal structural components used to support lateral loads.”

OR

“A beam is a structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally to the beam's axis. Its mode of
deflection is primarily by bending. The loads applied to the beam result in reaction forces at the beam's support
points. The total effect of all the forces acting on the beam is to produce shear forces and bending
moments within the beam, that in turn induce internal stresses, strains and deflections of the beam. Beams are
characterized by their manner of support, profile (shape of cross-section), length, and their material.”

Historically beams were squared timbers but are also metal, stone, or combinations of wood and metal such as
a flitch beam. Beams can carry vertical gravitational forces but are primarily used to carry horizontal loads (e.g.,
loads due to an earthquake or wind or in tension to resist rafter thrust as a tie beam or (usually) compression as
a collar beam). The loads carried by a beam are transferred to columns, walls, or girders, which then transfer the
force to adjacent structural compression members and eventually to ground. In light frame
construction, joists may rest on beams. In carpentry, a beam is called a plate as in a sill plate or wall plate, beam
as in a summer beam or dragon beam.
Beams are traditionally descriptions of building or civil engineering structural elements, but any structures such
as automotive automobile frames, aircraft components, machine frames, and other mechanical or structural
systems contain beam structures that are designed to carry lateral loads are analyzed in a similar fashion.

On the basis of Geometry:

On the basis of geometry, there are following types of beams

Straight Beams
“Beams with straight profile are called straight beams.”
Tapered Beams
“Beams with tapered cross section are called tapered beams.”

Curved Beams
“Beams with curved profile are called curved beams.”
On the basis of Equilibrium Positions:
On the basis of equilibrium conditions, there are two types of beams:

a) Statically Determinate Beam

“Statically determinate beams are those beams whose reactions can be determined using equilibrium
conditions.”

b) Statically Indeterminate Beam

“Statically indeterminate beams are those beams whose reactions cannot be determined using equilibrium
conditions alone.” i
On the basis of Loads:
On the basis of geometry, there are following types of beams:

a) Simply Supported Beam

“A beam supported on the ends which are free to rotate and have no moment resistance is called simply
supported beam.”

OR

“A simply supported beam is a type of beam that has pinned support at one end and roller support at the other
end. Depending on the load applied, it undergoes shearing and bending. It is the one of the simplest structural
elements in existence.”

b) Overhanging Beam

“A simple beam extending beyond its support on one end is called overhanging beam.”

OR

“An overhanging beam is a beam that has one or both end portions extending beyond its supports. It may have
any number of supports. If viewed in a different perspective, it appears as if it is having the features of simply
supported beam and cantilever beam.”
 c) Cantilever Beam

“A projecting beam fixed only at one end is called cantilever beam.”

OR

“A cantilever beam is fixed at one end and free at other end.”

d) Continuous Beam

“A beam extending over more than two supports is called continuous beam.”

OR

“A continuous beam has more than two supports distribute d throughout its length.”

e) Fixed Beam

“A beam supported on both ends and restrained from rotation is called Fixed beam.”
OR

“As the name suggests, fixed beam is a type of beam whose both ends are fixed.” ii

Possible Errors:
1. Human error accrued, while setting the apparatus.
2. Apparatus error i.e. faulty calibration of the weight balances, or Zero error.
3. Miscalculations of loads.
4. Parallax error.
5. Sometimes spring balance can also show more than actual weight which can then result in negative
percentage error in reaction forces. This is due to the sagginess of the spring.

6. The error may look small, but it may increase with an increase in the value of the applied load. Thus, at
higher values of loads (of the order of kNs), which are observed in real life problems, the error
percentage will play a significant role.

Possible Solutions:
1. Repeating the experiment for the same load, several times.
2. Proper calibration of the instruments, before performing the reaction.
3. Changing the weight lots each time.
4. Making the meter rod light and rigid, to avoid any bent or restoring force in case of hanging weights.
 5. The spring can be replaced, or it can be made sure not to hang heavier weights that may ruin the
elasticity of the spring. The spring should be uniform, and should be free of any stress or bent.

6. Using lighter loads, to observe a decline in percentage error of the reaction forces.

Applications:

1. Most of the bridges we come across in our daily are simply supported. While the beams of regular
housing buildings and apartment buildings are not
truly simply supported as they have partial fixity. The
decks of bridges and precast structures are primarily
supported by simply supported beams.

2. Simply supported beams are easy to design &

sometimes overlook critical factors (i.e. indeterminacy)
which continuous beam includes. Hence, they allow free expansion, reduced cost, reduced calculations
and easy erection procedure. They also reduce redundancy, that makes them practically useful in some
structures.

3. The Beam apparatus can be used for an almost limitless number of experiments, such as the
determination of the Elastic Modulus for beams of different materials.

References

i
The American Architect and Building news, Vol. XXII. Boston: James R. Osgood & Co. 1888. P. 154
ii
Ramsay, Angas. “NAFEMS Benchmark Challenge number 7”. ramsay-maunder.co.uk. Retrieved 7 May,2017
______________________
 Experiment No.5

Title
To Determine the Coefficient of Friction of Flat Belt.

Objectives
 To determine the co-efficient of friction of flat belt.
 To determine the co-efficient of friction of v belt.

Apparatus
 Belt and Pully Apparatus
 Spring Balance
 Flat Belt
 V Belt
 Hanger
 Weights

Procedure
Flat Belt

a) Put the Flat Belt on the apparatus and make the angle of the pully equal to 30◦.
b) Put a weight on the hanger and calculate the tension corresponding to that weight.
c) Repeat the experiment for another weight.
d) Repeat the experiment for third weight such that you three values of tension at three different values for
weights for a same value of angle.
e) Repeat the procedure for other angles up to 150 with the step size of 30◦.
f) Weight is also acting as a tension T1 and corresponding tension is T2.
g) Now calculate the coefficient of friction at each value of angle using this formula:

µ = (1/θ) * ln(T1/T2)

V Belt

a) Put the V Belt on the apparatus and make the angle of the pully equal to 30◦.
b) Put a weight on the hanger and calculate the tension corresponding to that weight.
c) Repeat the experiment for another weight.
d) Repeat the experiment for third weight such that you three values of tension at three different values for
weights for a same value of angle.
e) Repeat the procedure for other angles up to 150 with the step size of 30◦.
f) Weight is also acting as a tension T1 and corresponding tension is T2.
g) Now calculate the coefficient of friction at each value of angle using this formula:

µ = (sinα/θ) * ln(T1/T2)

Observations

Flat Belt:
Sr. No. Angle Tensions(lb) Coefficient
of
Friction(µ)
Degree Radian T1 Mean T2 Mean
1 30 0.524 1.5 2 1.2 1.75 0.1335
2.5 2.3
2 60 1.047 1 1.5 0.5 1.2 0.223
2 1.9
3 90 1.571 0.75 1 0.3 0.75 0.287
1.25 1.2
4 150 2.094 2 2.5 1.7 2.15 1.162
3 2.6

V Belt:
B1=0.03048inches

B2=0.01778inches

H=0.01778inches
Sr. No. Angle Tensions Coefficient
of Friction
Degree Radian T1 Mean T2 Mean
1 30 0.524 2 1.75 2.2 1.95
1.5 1.7
2 60 1.047 2.5 1.75 2.7 1.9
1 1.1
3 90 2 2.5 2 2.5
1.571
3 3
4 150 2.094 2.25 1.625 2.1 1.5
1 0.9

Introduction
In this lab report we will study briefly about a mechanical belt, what are the materials they are made of, types of
belts, types of belt drivers, slip of belts and the creep of belt. After that we will study calculate the co-efficient
of friction of the given type of mechanical belt.

Theory

Belts:

“A belt is a loop of flexible material used to link two or more rotating shafts mechanically, most often parallel.
Belts may be used as a source of motion, to transmit power efficiently or to track relative movement. Belts are
looped over pulleys and may have a twist between the pulleys, and the shafts need not be parallel.”

In a two-pulley system, the belt can either drive the pulleys normally in one direction (the same if on parallel
shafts), or the belt may be crossed, so that the direction of the driven shaft is reversed (the opposite direction to
the driver if on parallel shafts). [1]

Types of Belts:
There are following types of Belts:

i. Flat Belt
ii. V Belts
iii. Round Belts
iv. Multi Groove Belts
v. Ribbed Belts
vi. Film Belts
vii. Timing Belts
1) Flat Belts:
“Flat belts are designed for light-duty power transmission and high-performance conveying. They are best-
suited for applications with smaller pulleys and large central distances. Flat belts can connect inside and outside
pulleys and can come in both endless and jointed construction. They have a high-power transmission efficiency,
are cost effective, and are easy to use and install.” [2]

Figure: Flat Belt [3]

Advantages of Flat Belts:

The small bending cross-section of the flat belt causes little bending loss. The frictional engagement on the
pulley outer surface requires only a small cross-section and makes flat belts very flexible, resulting in negligible
energy loss. A flat belt does not require grooves, minimizing the energy loss and wear from the belt wedging in
and pulling out from the grooves. Additional benefits of flat belts include energy savings, a long service life of
belts and pulleys, less down time and high productivity, and low noise generation from a smooth belt operation.
Flat belts can be installed simply and securely. Belts are tensioned to the calculated initial tension by means of
simple measuring marks to be applied to the belt. There is a constant tension on the belt so the belt will not need
to be re-tensioned.

Disadvantages of Flat Belts:

A disadvantage of flat belts is their reliance on belt tension to produce frictional grip over pulleys. This high
belt tension required to transmit power often shortens bearing life. Another disadvantage is their failure to track
properly since they tend to climb towards the higher side of the pulley, which is why V-belts have grown in
popularity.

Applications of Flat Belt:

They are used in
 i. Countless Farming
ii. Mining
iii. Logging applications such as
 Bucksaws
 Sawmills
 Threshers
 Silo blowers
 Conveyors for filling corn cribs or haylofts
 Balers
 Water pumps (for wells, mines, or swampy farm fields)
 Electrical generators.

2) V Belts

“V belts (also style V-belts, vee belts, or, less commonly, wedge rope) solved the slippage and alignment
problem. It is now the basic belt for power transmission. They provide the best combination of traction, speed
of movement, load of the bearings, and long service life. They are generally endless, and their general cross-
section shape is roughly trapezoidal (hence the name "V").”

Figure: V Belt

The "V" shape of the belt tracks in a mating groove in the pulley (or sheave), with the result that the belt cannot
slip off. The belt also tends to wedge into the groove as the load increases—the greater the load, the greater the
wedging action—improving torque transmission and making the V-belt an effective solution, needing less width
and tension than flat belts. V-belts trump flat belts with their small center distances and high reduction ratios.
The preferred center distance is larger than the largest pulley diameter, but less than three times the sum of both
pulleys.

For high-power requirements, two or more V-belts can be joined side-by-side in an arrangement called a multi-
V, running on matching multi-groove sheaves. This is known as a Multiple-V-belt drive (or sometimes a
"classical V-belt drive").

Advantages of V Belts:
i. High power transmission capacity because V-grooves provide excellent grip.
ii. The functioning of the belt and the pulley is smooth and quiet.
iii. The V-belt drive provides compactness due to the small distance between the centers of the pulleys.
iv. Slip between the belt and the pulley is negligible.
v. The axis can be horizontal, vertical or inclined.
vi. They can dampen vibration.

Disadvantages of V Belts:
i. The V-belt drive cannot be used for long distances due to greater weight per unit of length.
ii. They are not applicable to the synchronous machines because they are not free from creep.
iii. The centrifugal tension prevents the use of belts at speeds below 5 m/s and above 50 m/s.
iv. The construction of pulleys for v-belts is more complicated than the flat belt.

3) Round Belts:
“Round belts are a circular cross section belt designed to run in a pulley with a 60-degree V-groove.”

Round grooves are only suitable for idler pulleys that guide the belt, or when (soft) O-ring type belts are used.
The V-groove transmits torque through a wedging action, thus increasing friction. Round belts are generally
made of rubber. This type of belt is generally used for light loads, such as in a sewing machine or a vacuum
cleaner. [4]

Figure: Round Belts [5]

4) Multi Groove Belts:
A multi-groove, V-Ribbed, or polygroove belt is made up of usually between 3 and 24 "V" shaped
sections alongside each other. This gives a thinner belt for the same drive surface, thus it is more
flexible, although often wider. The added flexibility offers an improved efficiency, as less energy
is wasted in the internal friction of continually bending the belt. In practice this gain of efficiency
causes a reduced heating effect on the belt, and a cooler-running belt lasts longer in service. Belts
are commercially available in several sizes, with usually a 'P' (sometimes omitted) and a single
letter identifying the pitch between grooves. The 'PK' section with a pitch of 3.56 mm is commonly
used for automotive applications. [8]

Figure: Multi Groove Belt [9]

5) Ribbed Belts:
“A ribbed belt is a power transmission belt featuring lengthwise grooves. It operates from contact between the
ribs of the belt and the grooves in the pulley.”

Its single-piece structure is reported to offer an even distribution of tension across the width of the pulley where
the belt is in contact, a power ranges up to 600 kW, a high speed ratio, serpentine drives (possibility to drive off
the back of the belt), long life, stability and homogeneity of the drive tension, and reduced vibration.

The ribbed belt may be fitted on various applications: compressors, fitness bikes, agricultural machinery, food
mixers, washing machines, lawn mowers, etc. [10]
 Figure: Ripped Belt [11]

6) Film Belts:
Though often grouped with flat belts, they are actually a different kind. They consist of a very thin
belt (0.5–15 millimeters or 100–4000 micrometers) strip of plastic and occasionally rubber. They
are generally intended for low-power (less than 10 watts), high-speed uses, allowing high
efficiency (up to 98%) and long life. These are seen in business machines, printers, tape recorders,
and other light-duty operations. [12]

Figure: Film Belts [13]

7) Timing Belts:
Timing belts (also known as toothed, notch, cog, or synchronous belts) are a positive transfer belt and can track
relative movement. These belts have teeth that fit into a matching toothed pulley.

They are often used in lieu of chains or gears, so there is less noise and a lubrication bath is not necessary.
Camshafts of automobiles, miniature timing systems, and stepper motors often utilize these belts. Timing belts
need the least tension of all belts, and are among the most efficient. [14]
 Figure: Timing Belts [15]

Possible Errors:
 Parallax Error.
 Zero error of spring balance.
 Frictional and heat losses.
 If belts are under tensioned, they can slip. Slippage generates heat and will result in cracking and belt
failure.
 If belts are over tensioned, belt and bearing life can be reduced.

Solutions:
 Keeping belts tight
 Taking up slacks of belts
 Running in new belts
 Dressing belts
 Rotate the drive two or three revolutions by hand and check the belt tension.
 To obtain the greatest amount of power from belts, the pulley should be covered with leather.
 Rotate the pulley not very fast because it will unbalance the pulley and the apparatus will not work
properly.
 The belt should be installed on the pulley with maximum care as to give moderate strain on the pulley.
 The leather in the belt should be pliable, of fine close fiber, solid in its appearance, and of smooth
polished surface
 To increase the driving power of belts, the circumference of pulleys should be increased.

References:
[1] Needham (1988), Volume 5, Part 9, 207–208
[2] "Flat Belt Pulleys, Belting, Splicing". Hit N Miss Enterprises. Archived from the original on 17 March 2010.
Retrieved 2010-04-04.

[3] https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/flat-belts-16198743673.html

[4] Robert Grimshaw, Drive for Power Transmission Cassier's Magazine Vol. II, No. 9 (July 1892); pages 219–
224.

[5] https://www.gamut.com/c/power-transmission/round-belt-pulleys-idlers

[6] https://me-mechanicalengineering.com/belt-drives/

[7] "Belt lacing patterns" (PDF). North Dakota Statue Univ.

[8] A Modern Cement Plant Installation, Power and Transmission. Vol. XVIII, No. 1 (Oct. 1902); pages 17–19
and 29. Note: This journal is the house organ of the Dodge Manufacturing Company and is mostly devoted
rope-power systems.

[9] http://doeparts.com/belts/

[10] Editorial staff (1916-04-15), "S.A.E. divisions exhibit activity", Horseless Age, 37 (8): 322.

[11] https://www.aliexpress.com/item/Rubber-Ribbed-belt-top-quality-pj406-pj432-pj457-pj483-pj533-pj508-
pj559-pj584-pj610-pj635-pj660/32838371974.html

[12] John J. Flather, Rope-Driving: A treatise on the transmission of power by means of fibrous ropes, Wiley,
New York, 1895.

[13] http://www.hitbelt.com/index.php?m=content&c=index&a=show&catid=55&id=40

[14] Automotive Handbook (3rd ed.). Robert Bosch GmbH. 1993. p. 304. ISBN 0-8376-0330-7.
 Experiment No.6
Title
To determine the Radius of Gyration of a Disc on an Inclined Plane

Objectives:
 To study about the radius of gyration of objects.
 To determine radius of gyration on disc rolling on an inclined plane.

Apparatus:
 Inclined Plane
 Vernier caliper
 Meter rod
 Stop Watch

Procedure:
a) Set the apparatus for measurement of radius of gyration.
b) Check the level of the inclined plane. If necessary, adjust the level with the help of leveling screws.
c) Measure the heights of both the ends of the inclined plane as h1 and h2 using a meter rod.
d) Measure the length of the inclined plane L using meter rod.
e) Now using a digital Vernier caliper, find radius of the disc R and radius of its spindle r.
f) The actual distance travelled by the disc will be;

S = L − 2R

g) Now roll the disc from the top of the inclined plane.
h) Start the stopwatch at the same time and note the time t for the disc to reach the bottom of the inclined
plane.
i) Take three readings of time and find mean value tavg.
j) Now calculate angular velocity using the formula;

ω = 2S/Rt

k) Now calculate the radius of gyration of the disc with the help of the formula as follow;

Ke = [2g(h1 − h2)]1/2/ω

l) Repeat the experiment two more times with changed heights of the inclined plane.
m) Calculate the value of radius of gyration theoretically using the formula;

Kt = 0.707R

n) Compare the experimental and theoretical values of the radius of gyration and find percentage deviation.
Observations:
Disc Radius = R = 4 inches
Inclined Length = L = 68inches
Distance travelled by the disc = S = L - 2R = 60inches
Time taken by disk Angular Radius of
No. of Initial Final velocity(rad/s Gyration(inches
Observation Height(inches Height(inches ) )
s ) ) t1 t2 t3 tavg Kexp Kt
1 5.2 3.3 35. 33. 32. 33.46 0.896 12.34 2.84
1 2 1 7
2 6.3 3.3 21. 23. 23. 22.63 1.325 10.49 2.83
6 1 2
3 8 3.3 17. 17. 17. 17.5 1.713 13.29 2.83
5 3 7

Introduction:
This experiment will enable us to understand the rotational motion and its applications and properties. It will
also make us able to understand about the moment of inertia of rotating objects. In the end, it will enable us
to calculated the radius of gyration of a disc rolling down an inclined plane.
 Theory:

Disc:
“A flat, thin circular object is known as Disc.”

Figure: Disc

Radius of gyration:
“Radius of gyration of a body about an axis of rotation is defined as the radial distance of a point from the
axis of rotation at which, if whole mass of the body is assumed to be concentrated, its moment of inertia
about the given axis would be the same as with its actual distribution of mass. It is denoted by "k".”

“Mathematically the radius of gyration is the root mean square distance of the object's parts from either
its center of mass or a given axis, depending on the relevant application. It is actually the perpendicular
distance from point mass to the axis of rotation.”

Figure: Radius of Gyration

Moment of Inertia:
“The Moment of Inertia, otherwise known as the angular mass or rotational inertia, of a rigid body is
a tensor that determines the torque needed for a desired angular acceleration about a rotational axis; similar
to how mass determines the force needed for a desired acceleration.”

It depends on the body's mass distribution and the axis chosen, with larger moments requiring more torque
to change the body's rotation. It is an extensive (additive) property: for a point mass the moment of inertia is
just the mass times the square of perpendicular distance to the rotation axis. The moment of inertia of a rigid
composite system is the sum of the moments of inertia of its component subsystems.

When a body is rotating, or free to rotate, around an axis, a torque must be applied to change its angular
momentum. The amount of torque needed to cause any given angular acceleration (the rate of change
in angular velocity) is proportional to the moment of inertia of the body. Moment of inertia may be
expressed in units of kilogram meter squared (kg·m2) in SI units and pound-foot-second squared (lb·ft·s2)
in imperial or US units.

Figure: Moment of Inertia

Rigid body:
If a mechanical system is constrained to move parallel to a fixed plane, then the rotation of a body in the
system occurs around an axis k̂ perpendicular to this plane. In this case, the moment of inertia of the mass in
this system is a scalar known as the polar moment of inertia. The definition of the polar moment of inertia
can be obtained by considering momentum, kinetic energy and Newton's laws for the planar movement of a
rigid system of particles.

Moment of Inertia for different mechanical things:

Rod:
Rod of length L and mass m, rotating about its center.

�
�= ���
��

This expression assumes that the rod is an infinitely thin (but rigid) wire. This is a special case of the thin
rectangular plate with axis of rotation at the center of the plate, with w = L and h = 0.
Figure: Rod

Thin circular hoop:

Thin circular hoop of radius r and mass m.

� = ���

This is a special case of a torus for a = 0 (see below), as well as of a thick-walled cylindrical tube with open
ends, with r1 = r2 and h = 0.

Figure: Thin Circular Hoop

Disc
Thin, solid disk of radius r and mass m.

�
�= ���
�

This is a special case of the solid cylinder, with h = 0.

Figure: Disc

Cylinder:
Thin cylindrical shell with open ends, of radius r and mass m.

�
�= ���
�
This expression assumes that the shell thickness is negligible. It is a special case of the thick-walled
cylindrical tube for r1 = r2.

Figure: Cylinder

Tetrahedron
Regular tetrahedron of side s and mass m

�
�= ���
��

Figure: Tetrahedron

Octagon:
Regular octahedron of side s and mass m.

Figure: Octagon

Hollow sphere:
Hollow sphere of radius r and mass m.

� = ���
A hollow sphere can be taken to be made up of two stacks of infinitesimally thin, circular hoops, where the
radius differs from 0 to r (or a single stack, where the radius differs from -r to r).

Figure: Hollow Sphere

Solid sphere
Solid sphere (ball) of radius r and mass m.

�
�= ���
�

A sphere can be taken to be made up of two stacks of infinitesimally thin, solid discs, where the radius
differs from 0 to r (or a single stack, where the radius differs from -r to r).

Figure: Solid Sphere

Cone
Right circular cone with radius r, height h and mass m

�
�= ���
��

Figure: Cone
Applications
 It is actually the perpendicular distance from point mass to the axis of rotation. One can represent a
trajectory of a moving point as a body. Then radius of gyration can be used to characterize the typical
distance travelled by this point.
 The radius of gyration is used to compare how various structural shapes will behave under compression
along an axis. It is used to predict buckling in a compression member or beam.
 To find rotational dynamic quantities of any irregular shaped body. Radius of gyration can be used as
center of mass in simple words about the point where whole mass is assumed to be concentrated. So, we
can use it to find rotational kinetic energy.
 Practically used in airplanes and other automobiles which need a balance but have irregular shape. So,
they use radius of gyration for its calculations.

Possible Errors
 The observations and results show that there is some error or deviation of the experimental values from
the theoretical ones.
 This may be due to imbalance of inclined plane, improper rolling of the disc, slip factor of the disc or
some human negligence.
 It may be due to friction and inappropriate use of stopwatch.

Solutions
 By proper lubrication and precise use of stopwatch, we can reduce the chances of errors.
 Further, the deviation decreases with increase in the height of the inclined plane.
 This can probably be because of better and easy rolling down of the disc from a higher position as
compared to a lower one.

References
 www.3dmax-tutorials.com
 https://www.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2
 Winn, Will (2010). Introduction to Understandable Physics: Volume I - Mechanics. AuthorHouse. p.
10.10.
 Fullerton, Dan (2011). Honors Physics Essentials. Silly Beagle Productions. pp. 142143.
 Mach, Ernst (1919). The Science of Mechanics. pp. 173187. Retrieved November 21, 2014.
 Euler, Leonhard (1765).Rostock and Greifswald (Germany): A. F. Rse. p. 166.
 Grosberg AY and Khokhlov AR. (1994) Statistical Physics of Macromolecules (translated by Atanov
YA), AIP Press. Hanaor, D.; Gan, Y.; Einav, I. (2016). "Static friction at fractal
interfaces" (PDF). Tribology International. 93: 229–238
 http://salesbox.com/disc-model-sales-process/
 Beer, Ferdinand P.; Johnston, E. Russel, Jr. (1996). Vector Mechanics for Engineers (Sixth ed.).
McGraw-Hill.
 https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-radius-of-gyration-and-its-physical-significance-in-detail
 Ruina, Andy; Pratap, Rudra (2002). Introduction to Statics and Dynamics (PDF). Oxford University
Press
 https://www.scienceabc.com/nature/universe/how-to-calculate-the-moment-of-inertia-of-a-rod.html

Chatterjee, Sudipta (2008). Tribological Properties of Pseudo-elastic Nickel-titanium (Thesis). University of

California.

This mechanism is quick return which brings improvement in machining

productivity and has advantage over slider crank and scotch yoke
 Experiment No.7

Title
To Determine the Mechanical Advantage of Duplex Screw Jack.

Objectives:
 To study the construction and working of Duplex Screw Jack.
 To find the Mechanical Advantage of Duplex Screw Jack.

Apparatus:
 Duplex Screw
 Hangers
 Weights
 Ropes
 Vernier Caliper

Procedure:
a) Position the apparatus so that the load is acted upon square threads.
b) Apply the load of 1.5 lbs. Now gradually add weights on increasing increments until it slides down.
c) Note the value at that moment.
d) Now increase the load on 0.5 increments and keep on repeating the same procedure.
e) Gather at least 3 values of loads and effort for square tee
f) Now position the apparatus so that the load is acted upon the vee tee.
g) Apply the load of 1 lbs. to the apparatus. Now gradually add weights to increase the effort until it slides
down.
h) Note the value of effort at that particular load.
i) Now increase the load on 0.5 increments and keep on repeating the same procedure.
j) Gather at least 3 values of loads and effort for vee tee.
k) Now after all the values are noted, find the experimental value of mechanical advantage by the formula;
Load/Effort.
l) Find the mean of three values and find theoretical value of mechanical advantage by the formula:
�( ��� � − � ��� �)
�� ( ��� � + � ��� �)

m) Find the percentage error by the formula:

���������� ��������� �����������−���������� ��������� ������������
���������� ��������� �����������
x 100
Observations:
Pulley Radius R = 10.5 cm
Mean Screw Radius rm = 3 cm
Coefficient of Friction = 0.45
Pitch P = 0.4 cm
Helix Angle α = (tan-1P)/(2πm) = 1.216°

Experimental
Mechanical Theoretical Mean
Types of No. of Load W Effort P
Advantage Mechanical Percentage
Threads Obs. (lbs.) (lbs.)
Mean Advantage Error
MAexp
MAexp
1. 1.5 0.35 4.29
Square
2. 2.5 0.37 5.41 5.22 7.44 29.8%
Threads
3. 3.5 0.4 5.95
1. 1.5 0.32 4.29
Vee
2. 2.5 0.35 5.41 5 7.44 32.8%
Threads
3. 3.5 0.45 5.32
Introduction:
In this experiment, we will learn how to find the mechanical advantage of Duplex Screw Jack. We will also
learn the uses of Screw Jacks, their types as well as their applications. This experiment will also help us to
get knowledge of Threads, types of threads, Nut and Bolt and terms related to that.

Theory:

Screw Jack:
“A jackscrew, or screw jack, is a type of jack that is operated by turning a leadscrew. It is commonly used to
lift moderately heavy weights, such as vehicles. More commonly, it is used as an adjustable support for
heavy loads, such as the foundations of houses or large vehicles.”

Screw jack is used in applications where linear motion is required. A jackscrew is operated by turning a lead
screw. It is a device which is used to lift heavy loads like foundation of a house and large vehicles. It works
on the principle of inclined plane. The load usually acts centrally upon it. A horizontal rotational force
is applied to the lever or handle provided at the top. This force will move the spindle upwards and hence the
object will be lifted up. As the force on the handle is removed the object will not come down because of
Self-locking. [1]

Types of Screw Jack:

There are following types of Screw Jack:

i. Simple Screw Jack

ii. Differential Screw Jack

Simple Screw Jack:

“It consists on one spindle externally threaded.”

In a single start thread, when we give one rotation to the lever, the spindle will move upward equal to one
pitch of the thread. In double start, it will move twice the pitch.

�������� ����� �� � ���

�������� ����� = =
�������� ����� �� � �

Where

P = Horizontal force applied

W = Load on screw jack
l = distance from lever end to spindle axis
p = pitch [2]
 Figure: Simple Screw Jack [3]

Differential Screw Jack:

“It consists of two spindles ‘A’ and ‘B’, ‘B’ externally threaded and ‘A’ both internally and externally
threaded.”

The internal threads of spindle A meshes with internal threads of spindle B. Spindle A is screwed to fixed
base. When the lever is rotated such that spindle A rises, spindle B also rotates and it will come down. [4]

�������� ����� �� ������ ���

�������� ����� = =
�������� ����� �� ���� �� − ��

Figure: Differential Screw Jack [5]

Coefficient of Friction:
“A Coefficient of Friction is a value that shows the relationship between the force of friction between two
objects and the normal reaction between the objects that are involved. It is a value that is sometimes used
in physics to find an object's normal force or frictional force when other methods are unavailable.”

The Coefficient of Friction is given by the formula:

��
�=
�

Where Ff is the frictional force and N is the Normal Reaction.

The coefficient of static friction is the friction force between two objects when neither of the objects is
moving. The coefficient of kinetic friction is the force between two objects when one object is moving, or if
two objects are moving against one another.

The coefficient of friction is dimensionless, meaning it does not have any units. It is a scalar, meaning the
direction of the force does not affect the physical quantity. [7]

Table: Coefficient of Friction of Different Materials [8]

Thread:
“A screw thread, often shortened to thread, is a helical structure used to convert between rotational and
linear movement or force. A screw thread is a ridge wrapped around a cylinder or cone in the form of a helix,
with the former being called a straight thread and the latter called a tapered thread. A screw thread is the
essential feature of the screw as a simple machine and also as a fastener.”

OR

“A thread is a ridge of uniform section in the form of a helix on the internal or external
surface of a cylinder (IFI description) or it could be described as a sloping plane curled
around a cylinder.”

External threads are on bolts or screws.

Internal threads are on nuts. [9]

Types of Threads:
There are following types of Threads:

i. ISO-metric screw threads

ii. Acme (trapezoidal) threads

iii. Bicycle thread

iv. Buttress thread

v. Pipe thread

vi. Square thread

vii. Whitworth thread

Applications of Thread:
Screw threads have several applications:

i. Fastening:
a. Fasteners such as wood screws, machine screws, nuts, and bolts.
b. Connecting threaded pipes and hoses to each other and to caps and fixtures.
 ii. Gear reduction via worm drives

iii. Moving objects linearly by converting rotary motion to linear motion, as in the leadscrew of a jack.

iv. Measuring by correlating linear motion to rotary motion (and simultaneously amplifying it), as in
a micrometer.

v. Both moving objects linearly and simultaneously measuring the movement, combining the two
aforementioned functions, as in a leadscrew of a lathe.

vi. In all of these applications, the screw thread has two main functions:

vii. It converts rotary motion into linear motion.

viii. It prevents linear motion without the corresponding rotation.

Applications:
The large area of sliding contact between the screw threads means jackscrews have high friction and low
efficiency as power transmission linkages, around 30%–50%. So, they are not often used for continuous
transmission of high power, but more often in intermittent positioning applications.

In heavy-duty applications, such as screw jacks, a square thread or buttress thread is used, because it has the
lowest friction and wear.

Possible Errors:
 As we can see, the error between the theoretical and experimental Mechanical Advantage varies a lot.
There can be a lot of reasons for this.
 Frictions in the pulley and Effort being pulled suddenly can be major sources of error.
 The efficiency of the experiment is not constant due to the different loading condition and the frictional
forces induced between the screw and the threaded base.
 Alignment error between the scale rule and the rope or cord.
 Faulty weight lots.

Solutions:
 Lubricate the screw before starting the experiment.
 Trapping should be done after adding the weight in the effort hanger.
 Overlapping of string should not be there.
References:
[1] Reynolds, Francis J., ed. (1921). "Jackscrew". Collier's New Encyclopedia. New York: P.F. Collier & Son
Company

[2] http://www.mechanical-engineering-assignment.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/53.png

[3] http://www.allsubjects4you.com/images/simple-screw-jack.jpg

[4] M.M. Lanz & Betancourt, translated from the original French (1817). Analytical essay on the
construction of machines. London: R. Ackermann. pp. 14–15, 181 Plate 1 fig D3.

[5] https://www.transtutors.com/homework-help/mechanical-engineering/friction/screw-jack-with-square-
threads.aspx

[6] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackscrew

[7] Hibbeler, R. C. (2007). Engineering Mechanics (Eleventh ed.). Pearson, Prentice Hall. p. 393. ISBN 0-
13-127146-6.

[8] https://physics.ucf.edu/~saul/01-Spr_2048C/04-Forces/FrictionCoeffs.html

[9] Bhandari, V B (2007), Design of Machine Elements, Tata McGraw-Hill, ISBN 978-0-07-061141-2.

___________________________________

This mechanism is quick return which brings improvement in machining

productivity and has advantage over slider crank and scotch yoke
 EXPERIMENT NO. 1
VERIFICATION OF TRIANGLE LAW & PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF FORCES
1. OBJECTIVE
To verify triangle and parallelogram law of forces with the help of Gravesand’s apparatus
2. Apparatus Required
Gravesand’s apparatus, paper sheet, weight, thread, pans, set square, pencil, drawing pin etc.
3. Theory
The “triangle law of force” states that if three coplanar forces acting on a particle can be represented in
magnitude and direction by the three sides of the triangle taken in order, the force will be in equilibrium.
This law can also be stated as: If two forces acting on a particle represented in magnitude and direction by
the two sides of the triangle taken in order then their resultant will be given by the third side of the triangle
taken in opposite direction. “Parallelogram law of forces” states that if a particle is acted by the two forces
represented in magnitude and direction by the two sides of a parallelogram drawn from a point then the
resultant is completely represented by the diagonal passing through the same point.
4. PROCEDURE
Refer to fig. 1.1

A. Fix the paper sheet with drawing pin on the board set in a vertical plane such that it should be parallel to
the edge of board.
B. Pass one thread over the pulleys carrying a pan at its each end. Take a second thread and tie its one end
at the middle of the first thread and tie a pan at its other end.
C. Add weights in the pan in such a manner that the small knot comes approximately in the centre.
D. Displace slightly the pans from their position of equilibrium and note if they come to their original
position of rest. This will ensure the free movement of the pulleys.
E. Mark lines of forces represented by thread without disturbing the equilibrium of the system and write the
magnitude of forces i.e. Pan Weight + Added Weight.
F. Remove the paper from the board and produce the line to meet at O.
G. Use Bow’s notation to name the force P, Q, R as AB, BC, and CA.
H. Select a suitable scale and draw the line ab parallel to force P and cut it equal to the magnitude of
P. From b draw the line bc parallel to force Q and cut it equal to the magnitude of Q (Fig. 1.2). Calculate
the magnitude of ca i.e., R1 which will be equal to the third force R which proves the triangle law of
forces.
If R1 differs from original magnitude of R, the percentage error is found as follows: Percentage error
=( R−R1)/R∗ 100
1.1 TRIANGLE LAW OF FORCES
Graphical Method
Fig. 1.2(b), draw ab parallel to force P in suitable scale with the use of set square and then from b draw bc
parallel to force Q. The closing side of triangle represents the force R1 which should be equal to force R.
Note, the difference in R1 and R shows the graphical error.
Analytical Method
Measure angles α, β and γ and by using Lami’s theorem check the following relation

1.2 PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF FORCES

Graphical Method
Fig. 1.3, cut OA=P and OB=Q in suitable scale. From A draw AC’ parallel to OB and BC’ parallel to OA.
R1 represents the resultant of force P and Q. As the system is in equilibrium it must be equal to R. Note
that R and R1 are in opposite direction.
6. PRECAUTIONS
A. Pans/weights should not touch the vertical board
B. There should be only one central knot on the thread which should be small
C. While calculating the total force in each case the weight of the pan should be added to the weight put into
the pan
D. Make sure that all the pans are at rest when the lines of action of forces are marked
E. All the pulleys should be free from friction