Cell Growth and Division 1).

DNA wraps around proteins called

I. The Cell Cycle has four main stages histones 2). When loosely condensed called
A.The cell cycle is a regular pattern of growth, DNA chromatin
replication, and cell division in eukaryotic cells

B. Must be condensed to fit into cell nucleus

A. Chromosomes condense at start of mitosis

1. Chromosome - one long continuous thread of DNA
a. Consists of numerous genes
b. You have 46 chromosomes

d. Chromosome looks like “X” (each half is

identical DNA- called a chromatid)
e. Sister chromatids held together by centromere
f. Telomeres - found at ends of DNA molecules
and prevent DNA from coming apart

1. Originally divided into two stages

(observations were limited by microscopes at the
time)
 a. Interphase- cell appeared to be at rest
b. Mitosis- cell dividing
2. Improved techniques and tools later allowed
its nuclear DNA.
1). Synthesis means “the combining of
parts to make a whole.
2). By end of S stage, cell nucleus contains
two complete sets of DNA.

Parts of a Chromosome
Centromere - point where sister chromatids are joined.
P=short arm; upward
Q=long arm; downward
Telomere-tips of chromosome
scientist to identify 4 distinct stages

Mitosis (M) - Includes two processes 1).

Mitosis - Division of cell nucleus and its
contents.
2). Cytokinesis - Process that divides the
cell cytoplasm. Two identical daughter
cells produced.

a. Gap 1 (G1) - cell carries out normal

functions 1).Cell increases in size MITOSIS
2).Organelles increase in numbers Mitosis begins after G 2 and
ends before G 1

B. Cells divide at different rates

1. Rates of cell division vary widely
a. Prokaryotic cells typically divide
b. Synthesis (S) - Cell makes copy of
much faster than eukaryotic cells
 b. Rate at which cells divide linked to
body’s need for those cells.

2. In human cells, S, G2, and M stages
together usually take about 12 hours
a. Length of G1 stage differs most for
different cell types
b. Rate of cell division greater in
embryos and children
➢
Quiescence can be reversible or irreversible Plant cells
Reversible
Temporary – liver, kidney, stomach cells
Irreversible
Non-proliferative (non dividing) cells
E.g. nerve cells, osteoclasts, heart muscles
Stop dividing when they reach maturity.

G0 – Gap zero or Quiescence phase

Cells is neither dividing nor preparing to divide.
Reproductively resting but functional
“Post mitotic phase”
E.g. Hepatocytes (except for injury to the liver)
C. Cell size is limited
1. Cells have upper and lower size limits a. Must be big
enough to “hold”
everything
b. Upper limit due to ratio of cell
surface area to volume.

To maintain suitable cell size, growth and cell

division must be coordinated.

Importance of Checkpoints
-The checkpoint control cell cycle;
-Reliability of DNA is assessed at G1
checkpoint -Proper chromosome duplication is
assessed at G2 checkpoint
-Attachment of each kinetochore to a
spindle fiber is assessed at M checkpoint

The Three Checkpoints

Evaluate the state of the genetic information.
The G1/Restriction or Start
checkpoint/Major checkpoint
Mechanism of Cell Division
The G2/M checkpoint
The Metaphase/Spindle checkpoint Mitosis and Cytokinesis

Mitosis
-Division of nucleus
-Same full set of DNA
-Somatic cells, except sex cells
-Divided into four phases:
-Prophase
-Metaphase
-Anaphase
-Telophase

a. Prophase - DNA condenses into tightly

coiled chromosomes. Nuclear envelope
breaks down. Centrioles move to poles and
spindle fibers form.
4. The spindle
 apparatus forms
and attaches to
the centromeres
of the
chromosomes

b. Metaphase - Spindle fibers attach to each

chromosome. Chromosomes align along
cell equator (middle)

Prophase
The Cell begins the division process
1, The nucleolus disappears,
2. The nuclear membrane breaks apart

Metaphase
The Second Phase of Mitosis

The Nuclear Membrane is completely gone

2. The duplicated chromosomes line up

3. The chromosomes
become visible
along the cell's equator.
 Anaphase

The third phase of Mitosis

Diploid sets of daughter chromosomes separate
They are pushed and pulled toward opposite poles of the
cell by the spindle fibers

c. Anaphase - Chromatids separate to opposite

sides of cell
d. Telophase - Nuclear membrane starts to form.
Chromosomes begin to uncoil, and spindle fibers fall
apart The Cell Plate begins to form
The Cell prepares for finial division

Telophase The nuclear membrane and nucleoli

(nucleus) reform. Cytokinesis is nearly complete, 4. Cytokinesis - division of cytoplasm. Different in
animal and plant cells.

Cytokinesis – The final stage of Mitosis The

cytoplasm, organelles, and nuclear material are
evenly split and two new cells are formed.
Regulation of Cell Cycle
Internal and external factors regulate cell division.

External factors:
Include physical and chemical factors.
Once a cell touches another cell, it stops dividing
(contact inhibition).
Stops dividing when detached from culture dish
(anchorage dependent).
Many cells release chemical signals (growth factors) that
trigger cell growth.

Regulation of Cell Cycle

2. Internal factors

External factors trigger internal factors that affect

cell cycle
Two of the most internal factors are;
Kinases – enzymes that transfer phosphate group from
one molecule to target molecule.
Cyclins- group of proteins that activates kinases.
Destroyed to continue G1 to M stage
 B. Cell division is uncontrolled in cancer.

1. Cancer - common name for class or diseases

characterized by uncontrolled cell division
a. Form from disorganized clumps called tumors

3. Apoptosis - programmed cell death (signals activate

genes producing self-destructive enzymes

b. Two types of tumors

 1). Benign - cancer cells typically remain
clustered together.

2. Cancer cells come from normal cells that have

suffered damage to genes that make proteins involved in
cell division

b. Cancer can be treated with both radiation and

chemotherapy.(these typically kill both
cancerous and healthy cells)
 a. damage from radiation, inherited, chemicals,
ultraviolet radiation

b. Carcinogens - Substances know to cause

cancer

Goodluck