1 HISTOLOGY LAB
CELL CYCLE
- Represents a self-regulated sequence of events
that controls cell growth and cell division – 2
types: meiosis and mitosis
- The study of such procedures were done by
autoradiography by the administration of
radiolabeled thymidine
- Throughout the cycle, several internal quality
control mechanisms or checkpoints represented
by biochemical pathways control transition
between cell cycle stages
- Production of new cells
- 2 phases:
o Mitosis – partition of the genome
o Interphase – represents the continuous
growth of the cell
▪ Gap 1
▪ Synthesis
▪ Gap 2
- 2 phases: Mitosis & interphase
- Mitosis is only going to comprise a short period
of the cell cycle in which majority is occupied by
interphase
- The interphase is having 3 sub phases G1,
synthesis, and G2.
GAP 1
- the longest and the most variable phase of the
cell cycle
- begins right after the end of mitosis
- cell is going to gather nutrients and synthesize
RNA and proteins particularly enzymes
necessary for DNA synthesis and chromosome
replication
- cell is also going to back to its normal size
MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS 02/10/2021
- The duration of the interface is going to vary
form one cell to another depending on its mitotic
activity but most often, it is going to range
between 24 to 36 hours
Synthesis
- The is DNA replication
- DNA is doubled and new chromatids are formed
that will become obvious at prophase or
metaphase of the mitotic division
G2
- Time where cell prepares for cell division
- Cell is going to examine the replicated DNA in
preparation for mitosis
- Period wherein the cell growth and the
organization of cytoplasmic organelles before
entering the mitotic cycle
- G2 and mitosis is only going to last 2-3 hours
G0
- Time when the cell is going to have quiescence
or differentiation period
- The differentiating cells in goring tissues may
have very long G1 periods in which at this
period, cells are said to be in G0]
- May last longer than the usual cycle duration in
which it may actually take days
G1
- Going to prepare for the synthesis of DNA in
which it is going to produce enzymes necessary
for DNA replication
- Organelles of the cell are going to double itself in
order to prepare for mitosis
 2 HISTOLOGY LAB
Synthesis
- Replication of DNA do that the total cells after
cell division is going to have the same number of
chromosomes as the parent cell
G2
-last phase of interphase
-reorganization of the cytoplasmic organelles
before entering the mitotic cycle
- The cell is going to produce proteins as well as
enzymes that could aid in the cell division
- 2 proteins: cyclins & cyclin dependent kinases –
proteins that would help power the cell through
the checkpoints of the cell cycle division to
ensure that mitosis is going to go smoothly
MITOSIS
- Highly regulated cellular process intended for
growth of cells in tissues as well as for damage
repair
- Growth and repair cell damage
- Somatic cells
- Each cell must have a complement of the
genetic material
- Prior to cell division, the DNA needs to be
replicated so that each daughter cell reaches an
exact copy
- Then the chromosome condense in the nucleus
of the cell
- DNA condenses by wrapping around cores of
HISTONE proteins forming nucleosomes
o Beads-on-a-string structure is called –
chromatin
o Replicated chromosomes – sister
chromatids
MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS 02/10/2021
- from being a double stranded helix, it is going to
wound itself on specialized proteins known as
histones, in which once mag wound siya it is
now going to be described as having the beads
on the string formation, which is known as
nucleosomes.
- Nucleosomes are going to condense further to
become chromatin fiber, in which it is now
known as chromosome.
- Since it is replicated, u have sister chromatids
which are conjoined together in the middle with a
centromere.
(Nucleosome)
- formed by the wounding of genetic material
around histone proteins
- 5 types of histone proteins
1. H2A –
2. H2V
3. H3
4. H4
5. H1
- H2A, H2B, H3, H4 are found In the core of the
nucleosome (where genetic material is going to
wound up)
- H1 – found outside the core, in which it is going
to function as the stabilizer of nucleosome in the
form of H1 histone protein
PROPHASE
- Nucleolus disappears
- Chromosomes condense and become visible
o 2 sister chromatids held together by
proteins known as cohesins at the
centromere
- Centrioles migrate to opposite poles (going to
form (MTOC) Microtubule organizing center) –
bridge of microtubules called SPINDLE
APPARATUS
 3 HISTOLOGY LAB MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS 02/10/2021

- Once there is attachment of mitotic spindle.

They are going to allow the movement of
chromosomes within the cell
METAPHASE
- Complete migration of centrioles on the
opposite poles
- chromosomes aligned at the center of the cell

- LATE PROPHASE: (prometaphase)

o Nuclear envelopes break down
- End: chromosomes attach by protein in their
centromere called KINETOCHORE to
microtubules from each plate moving the
chromosome toward the equator of the cell.
- LATE PROPHASE:
o Nuclear envelopes break down
- End: chromosomes attach by protein in their
centromere called KINETOCHORE to
microtubules from each plate moving the
chromosome toward the equator of the cell.
- Kinetochore – highly specialized protein complex
that appear on each chromatid opposite to the
centromere; where mitotic spindles are going to
attach

- alignment of chromosomes in the middle of the

cell known as equatorial plate/metaphase plate
- 3 types of microtubules formed by microtubule
organizing center
1. Astra/asters – hair like fibers which
are formed around each centrosome
(short radiating spindles)
2. Polar microtubules – not attached
to the kinetochore of the
- Break down of nuclear membrane
chromosomes but they are going to
- Formation of mitotic spindles
interdigitate/connect with the polar
- Chromatids are dispersed in the cytoplasm
microtubules from the opposite pole
3. Kinetochore microtubules – the
ones that are attached to the
kinetochore of sister chromatids
- Kinetochore are protein complexes which are
attached to a specific DNA sequence found in
your chromosomes, which are known as
satellite DNA

ANAPHASE
- Initial separation of the sister chromatids
- Begins by degradation of proteins (cohesins)
- By the end of prophase, mitotic spindles that are that hold sister chromatids together, freeing
produced by centrioles are now attached to the individual chromosomes
kinetochore of the sister chromatids
 4 HISTOLOGY LAB
- Free chromosomes are pulled by kinetochore to
opposite poles
- The chromatids begin to separate and will be
pulled to the opposite poles of the cell by the
molecular motors known as dyneins, sliding the
kinetochore towards the MTOC
- Separation of sister chromatids which is made
possible by the degradation of proteins that
binds them together in the centromere known as
your cohesins
- Interdigitating polar microtubules which are not
attached to the kinetochore but going to connect
with the polar microtubule that is formed from
the opposite pole
- They are going to push the spindle poles apart,
which is made possible by your motor proteins
known as Dynenins pushing them further apart
so that each chromatid is going to travel to the
opposite pole
TELOPHASE
- End stage of karyokinesis
- CLEAVAGE FURROW forms in the center of
the cell
o Cleavage furrow which is the
constriction of the plasma membrane
midway form the post of the mitotic
spindle
- Reconstruction of the nuclear envelope around
the chromosomes of each pole
- Less condensed chromosomes = indistinct in
which they are also going to uncoil
- Reappearance of nucleoli
MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS 02/10/2021
- Chromosomes cluster at opposite poles and
begin decondensing, nuclear envelope
reforms
- Spindle apparatus disassembles;
microtubules broken down into tubulin
monomers
- END: CYTOKINESIS
- Formation of cleavage furrow
- Reconstruction of nuclear envelope and
reappearance of nucleoli
CYTOKINESIS
- Animal cells
o completed by extending cleavage furrow
to completely separate newly formed
daughter cells
- The cleavage furrow is made possible by the
contractile rings consisting of a very thin array of
actin filaments in which is positioned around the
perimeter of the cell
- The total constriction of the plasma membrane is
because of the interaction of another protein
known as myosin, which are assembled into
small filaments that interaction with actin
molecules causing a ring to contract
- As the ring is going to tighten, the cell is going to
be pinched into 2 newly formed daughter cells
- Plant cells
o can’t be constricted by actin fibers –
vesicles form an expanding membrane
partition called the CELL PLATE
 5 HISTOLOGY LAB
CHECKPOINTS
- the product of mitosis is 2 new daughter cells
that are genetically identical
MEIOSIS
n the INTERPHASE
MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS 02/10/2021
- Mitosis is the only portion of the cell cycle that
can be distinguished with the use of light
microscope
- It is the condensation of chromsomes that allow
it to be
1. G 1 /S
o primary point at which cell cycle
continues or stops
o external signals & growth factors that
influence cell cycle and affect progress
at or before this critical checkpoint
o check if the cells have duplicated
properly or if the cell is able to produce
the necessary proteins and enzyme that
is needed for the synthesis of DNA
2. G 2 /M
o allows cells that have successfully
completed all three phases to begin
mitosis
3. Spindle checkpoint/ Metaphase Anaphase
checkpoint
o ensuring all chromosomes have
attached to the spindle in preparation for
anaphase
- The cell division cannot go further if the needs of
the checkpoints are not met
- Check if the mitotic spindle are properly attached
to the kinetochore of the sister chromatids.
- If one is not attached, there will be no separation
and 1 daughter cell will have 3 chromosomes
that are the same – the case of having Trisomy
21 = down syndrome
- Generates gametes for reproduction
- Germ cells -> gonads
- Haploid cells are produced from a diploid cell
- Genetically unique cells -> half the number of
chromosomes as the original cell
- 2 rounds of division – successful reduction in
the number of chromosomes in new haploid
daughter cells
- Begins after a cell has successfully completed
 6 HISTOLOGY LAB MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS 02/10/2021

- Synapsis of sister chromatids

S PHASE - Recombination or crossing over
- DNA is replicated; 2 copies of each chromosome
= SISTER CHROMATIDS
- Paired centrioles duplicate -> extending
microtubule that will form MEIOTIC SPINDLE
- Sister chromatid = remain attached at the
centromere and condense -> Prophase1

Meiosis: PROPHASE 1
- Homologous pair of sister chromatids lie side
by side – SYNAPSIS
o Forms a TETRAD/ BIVALENT
- Homologous chromosome share similar but not
necessarily identical genes (1 is from mother, Meiosis: PROMETAPHASE1
1 is from father)
- Paired centriole in place, meiotic spindle is fully
- CROSSING OVER
formed
o also known as recombination
- Sister chromatids attach to the spindle fibers by
o physical exchange between
their KINETOCHORES
chromosome segments of nonsister
- Homologous chromosomes remained aligned –
chromatid occurs = increases diversity
pair of sister chromatids is attached to ONE
o Homologous chromosomes are held
POLE by kinetochore microtubules
together by chiasmata – these are the
newly formed junctions between
chromosomes in which the presence of
chiasmata is going to indicate the
occurrence of crossing over
- Concludes with the fragmentation of the
nuclear envelope as the duplicated centriole
pairs move to opposite poles of the cell
- Disappearance of nucleoulus

Meiosis: METAPHASE 1
- Bivalents randomly align along the metaphase
plate
o Independent assortment – alignment
is random and adds to genetic diversity

- Similar to the prophase of mitosis however,

some events occur in the prophase 1 of meiosis
that does not occur in mitosis
 7 HISTOLOGY LAB MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS 02/10/2021

Meiosis: PROPHASE 2
- The chiasmata that hold the homologous - there is no DNA replication
together are now cleaved during the late - Sister chromatids condense while the spindle
metaphase starts to form as the nuclear envelope
disappears.
Meiosis: ANAPHASE 1
- Homologous chromosomes separate and move
toward opposite poles

- After meiosis 1, the cells will quickly enter

- quite the same as the mitosis, except that there
is no separation of the sister chromatids
- Sister chromatids are still held together by
cohesin proteins in their centromere
- What is being separated now is the homologous
pair of sister chromatids in which the chiasmata
that holds them together is now being cleaved
right before anaphase – Late metaphase
- Pulling apart of homologous of sister chromatids
meiosis 2 without passing synthesis phase
- Disappearance of nuclear envelope
- Traveling of centrioles toward the opposite pole
Meiosis: PROMETAPHASE 2
- Sister chromatids attach to spindle by
kinetochore tubules with sister chromatids
attached to opposite poles
- Complete migration of centrioles towards the
opposite pole

Meiosis: TELOPHASE 1
- Chromosome decondense and nuclear envelope
reforms
- Cytokinesis
o separates cytoplasmic material and the
2 daughter cells are separated by a
cleavage furrow
- product is two haploid cells
o meiosis 2 begins without the
chromosomes going through another
round of DNA replication.

Meiosis: METAPHASE 2
- Spindle aligns the sister chromatids along the
metaphase plate
 8 HISTOLOGY LAB MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS 02/10/2021

Meiosis: ANAPHASE 2
- Sister chromatid separate
- individual chromosomes move toward the pole
- separation is made possible by the cleaving of
the cohesin complexes between the sister
chromatids which is made possible by a
proteinase enzyme known as separase enzyme
- Separase enzyme allows the separation of the
sister chromatids during anaphase 2 and moved
to the opposite poles of the cell
- Separase is not just occurring in anaphase 2 but
also occurs in the anaphase of the mitosis

Karyotyping is done during the metaphase of a dividing

cell.
FISH – Florescence In Situ Hybridization

Meiosis: TELOPHASE 2
- Chromosome decondense and the nuclear
envelope reforms
- Cytokinesis
o cleavage furrow separate the two
daughter cells into 4 haploid cells
o specialized into gametes

(Plant cell)

Meiosis vs Mistosis
- Meiosis leads the formation of genetically unique
cells
- Mitosis is going produce identical cells
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