EARTH SCIENCE
What is the universe?
 Totality of everything that exists.
 Whole cosmic system of matter.
 Composed of tiny, hot particles mixed
with energy.
 Described as dense, hot, globules of
gas expanding rapidly outward.
 Contained nothing but hydrogen and a
small amount of helium.
 Created 15 billion years ago
Atom – to form stars with the presence of
gravity.
Gravity – pulls galaxies together.
Creation of Myth: Natural Creation
 A symbolic narrative of the beginning of
the world as understood by a culture.
 Supernatural, Neurological,
Philosophical, Scared
Scientific Theory
 Big Bang Theory – it is the currently
accepted scientific model of how the
universe, and everything in it, came into
existence.
 Alexander Friedman & George
Lemaitre – proposed the Big Bang
Theory
 Alexander Friedman – proposed the
idea that the universe expands from a
single point.
 George Lemaitre – proposed the idea
that the physical universe was initially a
single particle the primeval “super
atom”.
 Supported by research and studies.
THEORIES:
HUMAN USE RELIGION, TRADITIONS,
AND STRUCTURE
HEBREW BIBLE AND CHRISTIAN OLD
TESTAMENT (GENESIS) – the universe
was created by God.
HINDU TEXT (RIGVEDA)
 Described the universe as an oscillating
universe in which a “cosmic egg” or
Brahmada contains the universe
including the sun, moon, planets, etc.
 Bindu – expanding in singular
concentrating point.
 says “No death, nor immortality” -- no
biological life
ANAXAGORAS (“NOUS” OR MIND)
 Believes seeds (supermata) to create
the universe.
 Believes in primordial universe
 Infinite number of particles.
LEUCIPPUS AND DEMOCRITUS
 proposed the atomic universe.
 “Universe is nothing but a tiny atom.”
 Greek philosophers
 Very small and indestructible atoms.
PANSERMIA (SEED) – is the hypothesis
that life exists throughout the Universe.
 When atoms collide, it is called Fusion
ARISTOTLE AND PTOLEMY
(GEOMETRIC UNIVERSE)
 Earth center “The earth is the center of
it all”
 Motionless “earth” in heaven
 “earth being the center of all”
NICOLAUS COPERNICUS
 Theory of Heliocentrism
 Heliocentrism – the motions of celestial
objects without putting the earth at the
center.
 Geocentrism – the Earth is considered
to be the center of the solar system.
ISAAC NEWTON (1687)
 described the universe as a static,
infinite universe
 Without a center or an edge
 Gravitational balance but essentially
unstable.
RENE DESCARTES (GRAVITATIONAL
EFFECT)
 A French philosopher, his model
involved the system of a swirling
whirlpool of fine matter around the
vertex
 Vacuum space is not empty but full of
matter.
 The entire universe was filled with a lot
of elements.
 Elements: Lithium 70%, Hydrogen 70%,
Helium 25%
ALBERT EINSTEIN (GENERAL
RELATIVITY)
Steady-state Theory
 The universal is a static, dynamically
steady universe.
 Expanding and contracting.
ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE AND SOLAR
SYSTEM:
BIG BANG THEORY
 Expanding
 Describes the universe as expanding, and
originated in an infinitely tiny and dense
point around 14 billion years ago.
 There is no present matter but it has pure
energy that compresses in a single point
called singularity.
 The universe was extremely hot.
 Gravity attraction between bodies
 Electromagnetic force – atoms are binding.
 Strong nuclear force (protons and
neutrons) binds inside the nucleus.
 Weak nuclear force – breakdown of atoms
that produces radioactive decay.
 Started in a cataclysmic explosion of a
small primeval “super atom”
 George Lemaitre – formed the modern Big
Bang theory
 Edwin Hubble – discovered that the
universe expands. The universe is moving
apart.
Expanding Universe
 Increase in distance between any two given
gravitationally unbound parts of the
observable universe with time.
 The energy from the Big Bang theory drove
the universe to early expansion. Since then
gravitational and dark energy have
engaged in a cosmic tug: gravity pulls
galaxies closer together.
 Open: Continues to expand
 Flat
 Close: stop expanding
 Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold, Herman Bondi
(1984) – proposed this theory
 theoretical model in which the Universe is
constantly expanding but with a fixed
average density.
 Unchanging time and uniform space
 Matter was inserted into the universe as it
expanded in order to maintain a constant
density.
 Sir James Jean (1920) – was the first to
conjecture a steady-state cosmology based
on a hypothesized continuous creation of
matter in the universe.
INFLATIONARY UNIVERSE
 Alan Guth (1979) – found out the
positive energy false vacuum.
 Faster than Big Bang Theory, no
magnetic
 This theory suggests that the universe
underwent a phase of extraordinary
expansion.
THE ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
STAR SYSTEM
 Also known as “stellar”
 Small number of stars that orbit each
other, bound by gravitational attraction.
HYPOTHESIS/THEORY
NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS
 States that the entire solar system starts
as a large cloud of gas that contracted
due to self-gravity.
 1755: Immanuel Kant (German
philosopher)
 1796: modified by Pierre Laplace
 The most widely accepted model
 Solar system is formed from gas and
dust
ACCRETION THEORY
 Explains the process of small clumps of
dust gathering together to gradually form
planetesimals.
 Planetesimals: larger size of asteroids
 1944: Otto Schmidt
PROTOPLANET HYPOTHESIS
 The solar system began with a fragment
from an interstellar cloud composed
mainly of hydrogen, helium, and trace
amounts of light elements.
 William Mccrea
ENCOUNTER HYPOTHESIS
 About 5 GVA (billion years) a rouge star
passed close to the sun and stripped
materials. (hot gases)
 George Leclerc and Comte de Buffon
 Collision of passing star and sun.
MODELS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
GEOCENTRIC
 Geo means earth
 Debunked theory (exposed the
falseness or hollowness of myth, idea,
belief, etc.)
 The earth is the center of the universe
HELIOCENTRIC
 Cosmological model (mathematical
expression)
 Helio means sun
 In which the sun is the center and the
planets revolve around it.
ADDITIONAL INFO:
 100 million years ago, there were no
stars and planets
 Sun: about 4.49 billion years ago
 The universe is expanding rapidly
outward
 Telescope: Use to see stars
 Stars formed 100 million years ago
 300 million years ago, stars and
galaxies were formed. They are made
up of helium and hydrogen.
 Nebula – giant cloud and gas in space
 Supernova – explosion of a star
 Star – giant, hot ball of gas held by
gravity.
 Galaxy – a collection of stars, dusts, and
gases bound together by gravity
 Nobody knows the exact size of the
universe
 Observable Universe – part of the
universe that can be seen.
 The universe is a homogeneous.
The Earth and Earth Subsystems
SYSTEM
a set of interconnected components
that are interacting to form a unified whole.
stratosphere, the mesosphere, and
the thermosphere).
• The atmosphere reaches over 350
miles up from the surface of the
Earth.
• The atmosphere is primarily
composed of nitrogen (about 78%)
and oxygen (about 21%). Other
components exist in small quantities.

Energy Flow

Energy from the Sun is the driver of

many Earth System processes.

This energy flows into the Atmosphere and

heats Up this system. It also heats up the
Hydrosphere and the land surface of the
Geosphere, and fuels many processes in
the Biosphere.

FOUR SUBSYSTEMS

Biosphere

Includes all life forms, even organic matter

that has not yet decomposed.

Atmosphere

Is the mixture of gases that surround the

planet such as nitrogen, oxygen, argon,
carbon dioxide and water vapor. Geosphere
• The atmosphere consists of four
unique layers (the troposphere, the
It composed of naturally-occurring solid
aggregate of minerals, organic materials, or
natural glass
Hydrosphere
Is the totality of Earth’s water, including the
permanently frozen parts called cryosphere.
The crust is 5-35km thick beneath the land
and 1-8km thick beneath the oceans.
The crust of the Earth is broken into many
pieces called plates. The movement of
these plates causes earthquakes.

Earth is the only planet in the solar system

that contains water. The water in the
atmosphere is considered separate from
that in the hydrosphere, but they are
ultimately connected.

About 70% of the Earth is covered with

liquid water (hydrosphere) and much of it is
in the form of ocean water (Figure 3).

Only 3% of Earth's water is fresh: two-thirds

are in the form of ice, and the remaining
one-third is present in streams, lakes, and
groundwater.
The oceans are important sinks for CO2
through direct exchange with the
atmosphere and indirectly through the
weathering of rocks.
The Mantle
The mantle is the mostly solid bulk of
Earth's interior. The mantle lies between
Earth's dense, super-heated core and its
thin outer layer, the crust.
Mantles are made of rock or ices, and are
generally the largest and most massive
layer of the planetary body.

The mantle is divided into several layers:

the upper mantle, the lower mantle.

Earth’s Internal Structure

The Crust

The Earth’s crust is the outermost surface.

It is a very thin layer of solid rock. It is the

thinnest layer of the Earth.
The Core
Earth’s core is the very hot,
very dense center of our planet. The ball-
shaped core lies beneath the
cool, brittle crust and the mostly
solid mantle. The core is found about 2,900
kilometers (1,802 miles) below Earth’s
surface, and has a radius of about 3,485
kilometers (2,165 miles).
Another key element in Earth’s core is sulfur
—in fact 90 percent of the sulfur on Earth is
found in the core.
The core is made of two layers: the outer
core, which borders the mantle, and the
inner core. The boundary separating these
regions is called the Bullen discontinuity.
Earth System Science
Earth System Science is the study of how
the four spheres of the Earth system
interact continually, each affecting the
others.
System Interactions
Volcanoes erupt, sending ash and gases
into the air and sending lava and ash down
onto surrounding forests and human
habitations.
Geosphere – atmosphere – biosphere
Typhoons sweep across the ocean and
onto the land, damaging the dwellings of
people who live along the coast.
Atmosphere – hydrosphere, geosphere,
biosphere
Earthquakes can damage buildings which
may kill people, as well as cause fires which
release gases into the air. Earthquakes in
the ocean may cause a tsunami which can
eventually hit land and kill both animals and
people.
Geosphere – biosphere, atmosphere,
hydrosphere
EARTH MATERIALS (MINERALS AND
ROCKS)
MINERAL
A mineral is a naturally-occurring, inorganic
solid with a definite chemical composition
and an ordered internal structure.
Minerals are composed of elements such as
those found in the periodic table.
Minerals are the ingredients of rocks.
examples of mineral use in our
daily lives
 Halite (salt) for cooking.
 Graphite (pencil) for writing.
 Diamond and Gold as jewelry.
Physical Properties of Minerals
1. Crystal Form / Habit
Some minerals tend to form crystals
that aid in the identification of the
mineral.
2. Cleavage
The tendency of a Mineral to break
evenly along its weakest plane.
Fracture
Mineral breaks unevenly or
irregularly.
3. Luster
Describes the appearance of light as
it reflected off its surface.
4. Color
The most obvious mineral property.
5. Streak
Is the color of a mineral in its
powdered form.
6. Hardness
Is a measurement of the strength of
the chemical bonds in its structure.
Minerals resistance to being scratch.
7. Density
Specific gravity is a measure of the
density of a mineral.
Other Special Properties
1. Glow in the dark
These minerals glow in the dark.
2. Reaction to acid
The minerals in this rock react with acid
3. Magnetism
The particles of minerals of this rock act like
magnets
4. Taste
ROCKS
A rock is a naturally -occurring, coherent
aggregate of minerals such as natural glass
or organic matter.
THREE TYPES OF ROCKS
Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are “fire-born,” meaning that
they are formed from the cooling and
solidification of molten (melted) rock. The
word igneous derives from ignis, the Latin
word for “fire.”
TWO TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
1. Below the surface, from slowly
cooling magma- these results in the
formation of crystals that are visible
to the naked eye without the aid of
magnifying lens. These types of
 igneous rocks are called
INTRUSIVE or PLUTONIC.

Examples:

Granite Diorite syenite

2. On the surface, from rapidly cooling

Lava - this results in the formation of
very small crystals that may be Metamorphic rocks
visible without the use of a
magnifying lens. igneous rocks like Metamorphic rocks started out as some
these are called EXTRUSIVE or other type of rock, but have been
VOLCANIC. substantially changed from their original
igneous, sedimentary, or earlier
Examples: metamorphic form. Metamorphic rocks form
when rocks are subjected to high heat, high
Basalt andesite rhyolite pressure, hot mineral-rich fluids or, more
commonly, some combination of these
MAGMA factors.

the molten or semi-molten natural material form when pre existing or parent rocks
from which all igneous rocks are formed. (whether igneous, sedimentary or even
Magma is found beneath the surface of the metamorphic) altered by heat, pressure,
Earth and the chemical activity of fluids

LAVA

is molten or partially molten rock that has

been expelled from the interior of a
terrestrial planet or a moon onto its surface.

Sedimentary rocks
EARTH MATERIALS (Mineral Resources)
Sedimentary rocks are formed from pre-
Ores
existing rocks or pieces of once-living
organisms. They form from deposits that
accumulate on the Earth's surface. • are naturally- occurring materials
Sedimentary rocks often have distinctive can be profitably mined.
layering or bedding. • overall chemical composition.
• percentage of extractable resource
with respect to its total volume.
sedimentary rocks are the products of
• market value of a resource.
lithification of particles produced by the
weathering of other preexisting rocks.
What are the processes to locate ore?
Examples:
Hydrothermal Fluid Circulation
Sandstone shale rock salt rock
gypsum • The most common type of ore
deposition process.
 • Ore mineral precipitate from metal-
rich fluids that seep through cracks
and fissures in the earth’s crust.
• Ore deposits may also form from the
interaction of seawater and hot vents
on the seafloor.
• Rainwater percolating in hot rocks
can also transport metal ions and
deposit them in between the cracks
and pore spaces of the rocks where
they can accumulate over time.
• Tin, tungsten, copper, lead, zinc,
gold, silver and mercury are
example of ores that goes through
this process.
Metamorphic Process
• Ore deposits by lateral secretion are
formed by metamorphic reactions
during shearing.
• Shear is the response of a rock to
deformation usually by compressive
stress.
• Metamorphism- transformation of a
rock or mineral to dense and more
compact.
• Leads to alteration and
crystallization of minerals.
• Ore deposits related to
metamorphism in association with
burial and folding include those of
many industrial minerals such as
graphite, garnet, emery and
emerald.
Magmatic Process
• Ore minerals directly crystallize from
the magma rich in metallic elements.
• Chromite, magnetite, ilmenite
deposit is an example of deposit that
forms in this way.
• Magmatic ore deposits are derived
from accumulations of crystals
metallic oxide, sulfide or oxide fluids
that formed during the cooling and
crystallization of magma
MINING
Is the process of extracting mineral and rock
resources from the earth’s crust
MINING ORES
An intensive and sophisticated process that
varies based on the mineral depending
when they are excavated, stripped or
bought via tunnels and shaft.
STEPS IN MINING ORE
1. Prospecting or exploration
• Looking for the ore body- a deposit
that can yield a large amount of the
required ore Mineral.
2. Drilling
• A small part of the ore is extracted to
determine the resulting ore, ore
quality and the amount of ore
minerals (grade).
3. Modeling
• Determining the ore’s size, shape
and grade distribution throughout the
deposit to apply appropriate mining
method.
4. Identifying and assessing potential
impacts.
• Consideration on the social and
environmental aspects and finding
ways of mitigating ways of mitigating
any consequence of the mining
operation.
5. Designing and constructing the mine
• Engineers and scientist work hand in
hand to create the appropriate mine
and operational design and
proceeds with the construction once
all the necessary permits are
 acquired from the government and
local communities.

6. Ore extraction

• High grade ores are separated from

the rest of the deposit.

7. Milling

• The ore is crushed and

concentrated, waste materials
(tailings) are removed.
What are the processes to locate ore?
8. Mine site decommissioning
Geologic Process or Combination of
• Closure of the depleted mine, the
processes
mine site is cleaned up and
rehabilitated for other purposes.
 Ore bodies are unevenly distributed
throughout Earth’s Crust.

Hydrothermal Fluid Circulation

Mineral In My House
• The most common type of ore
mineral deposition process.

Metamorphic Process

• Leads to alteration and

crystallization of minerals

Magmatic Process

• Ore minerals are concentrated due

to premature recrystallization and
separation of magma.

Chemical Sedimentary Process

• Form evaporate deposits from

precipitation of saltwater minerals
and evaporation of lake water

3 possible extraction methods

• Sand and gravel extraction

• Extraction from buried ore bodies
• Ore processing
Mineral Resources
• We get mineral ores in great depths
by subsurface mining
BIOMINING
the process of extracting metals from ores
or waste by using microorganisms to oxidize
the metals, producing soluble compounds.
Bacteria or microorganisms are used to
separate the waste product from the
minerals.
Sulfuric Acid – important substance for the
growth of bacteria in biomining, source of
energy of bacteria
PLACERMINING
the practice of separating heavily eroded
minerals like gold from sand or gravel.
Process of removing top soil
HUMUS
Plant and animal decay
ENERGY RESOURCES
Energy
Simply defined as the capacity to do work
while resource is the general term referring
to any item which is used for a specific
purpose.
Renewable Energy Resources
Energy generated from natural sources
such as sunlight, wind, water, various forms
of biomass and geothermal heat. Also
known as alternative or clean energy
sources, renewable sources of energy can
be replenished faster that fossil fuels and
have a lower environmental degrading
impact.
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
The word geothermal comes from the Greek
words geo (earth) and therme (heat).
heat within the earth
HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY
harnessed the power of water to generate
electricity. A hydraulic turbine converts the
energy of flowing water into mechanical
energy.
WIND ENERGY
use the power of wing to generate
mechanical power or electricity. Wind
turbines convert the kinetic energy in the
wind into mechanical power.
SOLAR ENERGY
energy from the sun that converted to
thermal or electrical energy. Solar energy is
the cleanest and most abundant renewable
energy source available.
BIOMASS
organic material that comes from plants and
animals which are used as fuel to produce
electricity or heat. Examples are wood,
energy crops and waste from forests, yards,
or farms.
Non-Renewable Energy Resources
are named as such because the rate of their
formation is so slow that no one could be
formed over the course of human history.
Aside from this, these resources are finite
and once extracted, depletion may follow
 3. Deforestation & Mining

4. Developmental & Expansion

Gemstone - colorful mineral, glassy luster

NATURAL GAS

formed from fossil remains; it is formed

when layers of decomposing organic
material are exposed to higher
temperatures and pressures generated
within Earth.

PETROLEUM

is a liquid fossil fuel; it comes from the Latin

words pera means “rock” and oleum which
means “oil”. It is a naturally-occurring liquid
composed of complex hydrocarbons, and is
found in geological formations underneath
Earth’s surface.

NUCLEAR ENERGY

Nuclear power is the use of nuclear

reactions to produce electricity. Energy
released during fission or fusion to generate
electricity.

Erosion

- pagguho ng lupa. process of wearing away

or the gradual destruction of land surfaces,
typically by the action of natural forces such
as water, wind, ice, and gravity.

Sources of Erosion

1. Agricultural depletion - poor farming

practices

Ex. Too much water for the plants, Too

much insecticides

2. Overgrazing Animals