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UNIT 6 SHORT ESSAY 9741558295

1.EXPLAIN FEATURES OF TABULATION?
percentage and not an absolute number.

●Totals can be placed at the bottom of the

columns.
● It conserve space and reduces explanatory and
descriptive statement to a minimum ●Explanatory cues can be placed directly
beneath the table for any explanatory footnotes.
● It facilitate the process of comparison.
●Two or three small tables are to be preferred to
● It facilitate the summarization of item and
one larne one
detection of errors and omissions.
●Items should be arranged either in
●statistical computations that may be carried
alphabetical, chronological or geographical
the A table is a tabular representation of
order or according to size.
statistical data. ●Tabulation is the first step
before datacan be used for further statistical 2.EXPLAIN METHOD OF PRESENTATION OF THE
analysis and interpretation. DATA?

● The tabulation means the systematic DATA PRESENTATION

presentation of the information contained in the
data in rows and columns in
●It provides a basis for various statistical
computation.
Tables and graphs share some common features,
but for any specific situation, one is likely to be
more suitable than the other.methods of data
presentation

●.The table should be precise, 1.tables 2 graphs. 3 diagram

understandable,and self-explanatory.
TYPES OF TABLES
●.Every table should have title, which is placed at
1. Frequency distribution tables
the top of the table. The title must describe the
content clearly and precisely. 2. Contingency tables

●Items should be arranged alphabetically or 3. Multiple response tables

according to size, importance, and causal
4. Miscellaneous tables
relationship to facilitate comparison.
1.FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLES
.●Rows and columns are to be compared with
one another, and should therefore have similar To distribute frequency and percentage of
arrangement. information Keep the class interval constant. (10
20, 21-30)Ex. Demographic data of the
●The contents of the table, as a whole as well as
participants
item-wise in each column and row should be
defined clearly and fully. 1.a.One Way Frequency Table

●The unit of measurement must be clearly 1.b.Two-Way Frequency Tables

stated.
In these tables two or more than two variables
●Percentage can be given in parenthesis or can are represented
be worked out to one decimal figure to draw the
reader attention to the fact that the figure is a 2.Contingency Tables
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◆Tables report the frequency distribution of Representation
two nominal variables simultaneously and
a. Scatter plot
include the totals
b. Stem and leaf plot
◆Known as cross tabs that present two or more
variables. C. Box plot

d. Kaplan Meier plot

◆Shows the relationship or association
between variables. e. ROC

◆Can be prsent as 2x2,2x3,3x3 base the number GRAPHS VERSUS TABLES

of variables and used in chi square test.
●Advantages
3. Multiple Response Tables
Simplicity, clarity
The various responses of the participants can be
Easily remembered visual image
depicted in the form of table
Picture of complex relationships
4. Miscellaneous Tables
Emphasis
These tables are used to present data other than
frequency or percentage such as mean, median, Popular
mode, range, SD etc.
●Disadvantages
GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF DATA
Lack of precision
◆Diagramatic
Lack of flexibility
Representation
ADVANTAGES OF DIAGRAMS AND CHARTS
a. Bar diagram
It gives Bird's Eye view
b. Pie diagram
Easy to understand
c. Pictogram
Easy for comparison
d. Cartogram
Aniket Easy to memorize

◆Graphic 9741558295 Common man can also understand

Representation No need of Mathematical knowledge

a. Histogram Attractable & Reachable to audience

b. Frequency Save time and labor

polygon Comparing to textual & tables, charts and graphs

are better
C. Frequency
TYPES OF DIAGRAM
curve
1. Bar Diagram
◆Plot
Simple, Multiple, Proportional, Inverted and Mesokurtic curve:

Percentage 4. Scattered or Dotted Diagrams

2. Pie chart It is a graphic presentation to show correlation

between two variables. Ex: height and weight in
3. Histogram
men aged 20yrs. It is also called correlation
4. Scatter diagram diagram.

5. Line graph 5. Line graph

6. Pictogram & Cartogram It is presented in lines. Its used when data are
collected over a long period. On x axis values of
7. Others
independent variable and in axis values of
1. Bar Diagram dependent variables.

To represent nominal and ordinal data. It's the 5. Cumulative Frequency Curve Or Ogive
easy method to compare the magnitude of
Represents cumulative frequency. The
different frequencies. It can be vertical or
cumulative frequency are plotted corresponding
horizontal bars.
to upper limit if the classes
2. Pie Diagram
6. Pictogram
To present discrete data of qualitative
A method to impress the frequency of
characteristics Complete circle is the entire data
occurrence of event to a common people such as
100% Only percentage of data must be used to
attacks, death, accidents, admissions etc.
prepare pie diagram.
6. Cartogram or Map Diagram
3. Histogram
to show geographical distribution of frequency
It represent grouped frequency distribution.
of characteristics.
Variable are indicated on a horizontal line and
frequencies in vertical line. 7.a. Stem and Leaf Displays

3.a. Frequency polygon 7.b. Box Whisker Plot

It's a curve obtained by joining the midpoints of 7.c. ROC Curve

the top of rectangle in a histogram by straight
7.d. Kite Diagram:
line.
LIMITATIONS OF GRAPHS
3.b. Frequency Curves
Limited Application:
3.c. Symmetrical and Skewed Curves
Symmetrical curves: Asymmetrical or Skewed subjective
curves:
Lack of Accuracy:
3.d. Kurtosis
Misleading Conclusions:
Playkurtic curve:

Leptokurtic curve:
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3.EXPLAIN INTERPRETATION OF THE DATA? ●Interpretation is one of the most essential tasks
in a research process to frame the
Definition
recommendations of a research study, so that
Interpretation is the process of making sense of empirical evidences generated through research
numerical data that has been collected, process can be used during implementation
analyzed, and presented .The activity of phase of the research study.
analyzing and interpreting data in order to make
● Interpretation is a very subjective activity; it is
predictions is known as inferential statistics.It is
not guarded with the scientific methods and
important to select appropriate statistical tool to
procedures.
make useful interpretation of the data
● Therefore,it is liable to bias and errors such as
●Ater the data are analysed using descriptive
publication bias or reporting bias (selective
and inferential statistics, results are described in
reporting of results).
light of the statistical tindings and statistical
principles. ●To present this adverse consequence,
researcher must be very careful and critical while
●The next step is the interpretation of data,
examining the study results to draw the
which is written in a separate section as
interpretations .
'Discussion'.
●Interpretations must be based on the study
●After interpretation of results in Discussion
results only, so that chances of
section ot research report, finally conclusion is
misinterpretations or over-interpretations of the
drawn and recommendations are are made
unstudied facts can be avoided.
●In research reports (thesis or research paper),
●Each part, aspect, and segment of the analysed
Discussion' is written as a separate sec on after
result must receive close attention, so that
analysis of data or "Results' section, which is
misrepresentation can be avoided.Stratogies for
written in logical sequence including synthesis
effective interpretations:
and interpretation of res ults, description of
study limitations, statistical and clinical ◆Interpretations must be made in light of
significance, conclusion and recommendation of research problem, objectives, conceptual
study. framework, hypotheses, and assumptions.

●Interpretation of data reters to the critical

◆Critical examination of each element of study
examination of the analysed study results to
results before framing the interpretations.
draw inferences and conclusions.
◆Careful consideration and recognition of the
●Interpretation of the research findings of a
limitations of the research study so that
study involves a search for their meaning in
inappropriate interpretation can be avoided.
relation to the research problem, objectives,
conceptual frame-work, and hypotheses. Essential elements

●This is an activity of critical thinking, which is ●Major findings of the study in concurrence with
done carefully through brainstorming to inter objectives, hypothesis and conceptual
the condensed and statistically computed data, framework of the study
so that research questions can be answered and
●Meaning and importance of study findings
hypothesis can be tested.
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●Comparison and contrasting with prevous
research findings
●Alternative explanation of the study findings
●Clinical relevance of study findings Limitations
of study (i.e. posing major threat to internal and
external validity)
●Recommendations of further research
4.DESCRIBE THE TYPES OF BAR GRAPH?
Bar Graph :-The bars drawn are of uniform width
and the variable quantity is represented on one
of the axes. Also, the measure of the variable is
depicted on the other axes. ◆The heights or the
lengths of the bars denote the value of the
variable and these graphs are also used to
compare certain q uantities. ◆The frequency
distribution tables can be easily represented
using bar charts which simplify the calculations
and understanding of data. ◆The bar graphs
can be vertical or horizontal. ◆The primary
feature of any bar graph is its length or height.◆
If the length of the bar graph is more, then the
values are greater of any given data.
The types of bar graph
1. Vertical bar chart
2. Horizontal bar chart
3. Multiple Bar Diagram
a) Vertical Bar Graphs:-When the grouped data
are represented vertically in a graph or chart
with the help of bars, where the bars denote the
measure of data, such graphs are called vertical
bar graphs.◆The data is represented along the
y-axis of the graph and the height of the bars
shows the values.
.(b) Horizontal Bar Graphs
When the grouped data are represented
horizontally in a chart with the help of bars, then
such graphs are called horizontal bar graphs,
where the bars shows the measure
data.◆The data is depicted here along the x-
axis of the graph and the length of the bars
denote the values.
C)A multiple bar graph
shows the relationship between different values
of data. Each data value is represented by a
column in the graph. In a multiple bar graph,
multiple data points for each category of data
are shown with the addition of columns... Create
a multiple bar graph to display the data.
5.EXPLAIN THE CLASSIFICATION OF DATA?
DEFINITION
"Classification is the process of arranging
things(either normally or notionally) in groups or
classes according to their resemblances and
affinities and give expressions of the unity
attributes that may subsist amongst a diversity
individualsS" Conner
FUNCTIONS OF CLASSITFICATIONS
◆Bulk of the data
◆Simplifies of the data
◆Facilitates comparison of characteristics
◆Renders the data for statistical analysis
◆Simplifies and makes data more
comprehensible
◆Condense the data
◆Brings out the points of similarity and
dissimilarity
◆Comparison of characteristics
◆Brings out the cause and effect relationship
◆Prepare the data for tabulation
of
 classified according to weight as follows:

CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASSIFICATION ALPHABETICAL CLASSIFICATION

◆Unambiguous. ◆Stable ◆Flexible. When the data are arranged according to

alphabetical order, it is called alphabetical
◆Exhaustiveness◆Mutually exclusive
classification. For example state-wise density of
OBJECTIVES OF CLASSIFICATIONS population in India is depicted in an alphabetical
order below;
◆To condense the mass of data◆To prepare
the data for tabulation◆To study the relationsh 6.LIST ANY 5 PRINCIPLE OF TABULATION?
ips◆To facilitate comparison
TABULATION OF DATA
TYPES OF CASSIFICATIONS
The process of placing classified data into tabular
◆Geographical (or spatial) classification form is known as tabulation. A table is a
symmetric arrangement of statistical data in
◆Chronological classification
rows and columns.
◆Qualitative classification
PRINCIPLES
◆Quantitative classification
◆Precise, comprehensive and self explanatory.
◆Alphabetical classification
◆A title must be on the top explaining the
GEOGRAPHICAL (OR SPATIAL) CLASSIFICATION
content clearly.Table should suit the size of
When the data classified according to paper and, therefore, width of the column
geographical location or region (like states, should be decided before hand.
cities, regions, zones , areas etc) It is called a
◆Follow a sequence in arranging the
geographical classification. For example, the
items.Items should be arranged either in
production of food grains in INDIA may be
alphabetical, chronological or geographical
presented state- wise in following manner
order or according to size.
CHRONOLOICAL CLASSIFICATION
◆Rows and columns must have similar
When data are observed over a period of time content.Number of columns and rows should be
the type of classification is known As neither be too large not too small.
chronological classification Various the serious
such as figures annual output of National income ◆State the unit clearly. Unit must be either in
wheat monthly expenditure of a house hold daily the caption/stubs.
consumptions of milk, etc. Are some examples of
◆Write the foot notes at the bottom of the
chronological classification.
table.As far as possible figures should be
QUANTTTATVE CLASSIFICATION approximated before tabulation. This would
reduce unnecessary details
Quantitative classification is refers to the
classification of data according to some 7.
characteristics that can be measured, such as
height, weight ,income, sales profit, production,
etc. For example, the student of a college may be

8.EXPLAIN THE PROCESS OF COMPILING DATA?
DATA COMPILATION
1.Data Entry
2. Data Cleaning
3.Data Security and Analysis
4.Data handling
1.Data Entry
◆For small projects enter data manually in
paper or enter into Microsoft Excel or directly
into SPSS
◆For large projects, create a database with
Microsoft Access
◆ Keep variables names in the first row, with
«=8 characters, and no internal spaces
◆Enter as little text as possible and use codes
for categories, such as 1=male, 2=female
2.Data Cleaning
◆Routine checks
◆Verify computer file entries against data
sheets.
◆Eliminate values for measurements that are
known to be invalid
◆Replace missing data from a backup data
◆Adjust measurement values unit changes. e.g.
cm to meter
◆Document the changes made to the data.
3. Data Security
◆Primary data sets storage
◆Backup copy at all data transfer points
◆Off-site storage
◆Storage medium can be read or accessed
when needed
◆Make sure documentation is understandable
and stored with and separately from data
4. Data Handling and Analysis
◆Analysis:
Prepare preliminary plan of data analysis
◆Documentation:
Other researchers should be able to confirm
results based on data analysis
9 . DESCRIBE THE METHOD OF PRESENTING THE
COMPILED DATA? SAME ANS 8 TH
10
11.STEPS IM DATA ANALYSIS?
1. Data Preparation: Cleaning and organizing the
data for analysis
2.Describing the Data: Using descriptive statistics
3. Testing Hypotheses: Using inferential statistics
1.Data Requirements Specification
it consist following steps
Data Collection
Data Processing
Data Cleaning
Data Analysis
Communication
◆.DATA REQUIREMENTS SPECIFICATION
The data required for analysis is based on a
question or an experiment.•Based on the
requirements of those directing the analysis, the
data necessary as inputs to the analysis is
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identified (e.g., Population of people).•Specific
variables regarding a population (e.g., Age and
Income) may be specified and obtained.•Data
may be numerical or categorical.
◆ DATA COLLECTION
Data Collection is the process of gathering
information on targetedvariables identified as
data requirements.• The emphasis is on ensuring
accurate and honest collection of data.• Data
Collection ensures that data gathered is accurate
such that the related decisions are valid. •Data
Collection provides both a baseline to measure
and a target to improve. •Data is collected from
various sources ranging from organizational
databases to the information in web pages.• The
data thus obtained, may not be structured and
may contain irrelevant information. •Hence, the
collected data is required to be subjected to Data
Processing and Data Cleaning.
◆.DATA PROCESSING
The data that is collected must be be processed
or organized for analysis. •This includes
structuring the data as required for the relevant
Analysis Tools. •For example, the data might
have to be placed into rows and columns in a
table within a Spreadsheet or Statistical
Application. •A Data Model might have to be
created.
◆.DATA CLEANING
The processed and organized data may be
incomplete, contain duplicates, or contain
errors.•Data Cleaning is the process of
preventing and correcting these errors.• There
are several types of Data Cleaning that depend
on the type of The process might require
additional Data Cleaning or additional Data
Collection, and hence these activities are
iterative in nature.
◆ COMMUNICATION
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The results of the data analysis are to be
reported in a format as required by the users to
support their decisions and further action.• The
feedback from the users might result in
additional analysis. •The data analysts can
choose data visualization techniques, such as
tables and charts, which help in communicating
the message clearly and efficiently to the users.•
The analysis tools provide facility to highlight the
required information with colour codes and
formatting in tables and charts.
2 Describing the Data
This is done by using descriptive statistics, which
are used to describe the basic features of the
data in a study and provide summaries about the
sample and the measures in simple terms.• They
form the basis of almost every quantitative
analysis of data.
3 Testing Hypotheses
This is done by using inferential statistics. •These
are concerned with population and use the data
to make inference about a population. Examples
are finding differences, relationships, and
association between two or more variables.
SHORT ANSWER UNIT 6
1,2,5,6,10,12 repeated
3.DEFINE FOOTNOTE?
A footnote is a reference placed at the bottom of
a page or footer. When writing your research
paper, you would use a footnote to cite sources
of facts or quotations. Footnotes are referenced
in the text in the same way as a citation.
4.DEFIBE SUMMARIZATION?
It is the processes of representing the collected
data in an accurate and compact way without
losing any information, it also involves getting a
information from collected data.
Ex: Display the data as a graph and get the mean, important to select appropriate statistical tool to
median, mode etc. make useful interpretation of the data

7.DEFINE INCLUSIVE METHOD OF

CLASSIFICATION?

In the inclusive method, the upper limit of a class

interval is included in the class itself. (1) When
the upper limit of the class is excluded from the
class and is included in the next class, it is called
exclusive method.

8.DEFINE EXCLUSIVE METHOD OF

CLASSIFICATION?

Exclusive Method: This method is useful whether

the value is complete number or in decimals. In
case of exclusive series, value of the upper limit
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of a class is included in the lower limit of the next
class interval. Value of the upper limit of the class 9741558295
is included in that very class interval.

9.DEFINE CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY?

Cumulative Frequency (Ogive): It is the running

total of frequencies, that is, the total of a
frequency and all frequencies below it in a
frequency distribution. Cumulative frequency
gives the total number of events that occurred
up to some value and is used extensively in risk
or reliability analysis to determine the chances
for an event to occur. For example, in an
objective test for a class of 50 students, the
maximum score assigned is 100. The scores
obtained by th e students fall in the range of 0 to
98. The raw data aranged from lower to higher
scores

11.DEFINE INTERPRETATION OF DATA

Interpretation is the process of making sense of

numerical data that has been collected,
analysed, and presented. The activity of
analysing and interpreting data in order to make
predictions is known as inferential statistics. It is