Exercise 5: Muscular System
• Structure of Skeletal Muscle
o Connective tissue coverings
▪ Epimysium – muscle
▪ Perimysium – fasciculus
▪ Endomysium – muscle
fiber
o Sarcomere – basic unit of a
myofibril
o Muscle Fiber filaments
▪ Actin – thin filament
▪ Myosin – thick filament
o Organelles
▪ Sarcolemma – cell
membrane in muscle
▪ Sarcoplasm – cytoplasm
in muscle
▪ Sarcoplasmic reticulum –
releases calcium ions
o Striations
▪ A band – appears thicker
due to actin-myosin
overlap
▪ I band – appears thinner
due to absence of myosin
▪ Z disk – boundary
between sarcomeres
• Steps in Muscle Contraction
o Generation of Action Potential
from CNS
o Action potential reaches the nerve
end, releasing neurotransmitter
(acetylcholine)
o Acetylcholine binds to a receptor in
sarcolemma
o Gated sodium ion channel opens;
influx of sodium ions
o Depolarization triggers release of
calcium ions
o Calcium binds to troponin
o Troponin-tropomyosin moves away
from myosin-binding site
o ATP hydrolysis forms cross bridges
o Actin and myosin pull each other
• Phases of Muscle Contraction (Skeletal
Muscles)
o Latent Phase
o Contraction Phase
o Relaxation Phase
Exercise 6: Nervous System
• Brain
o Cerebrum – the largest part of the
brain
▪ Frontal lobe – emotions,
voluntary movements
▪ Parietal lobe – sensations
▪ Occipital lobe – vision
▪ Temporal lobe – auditory,
smell, memory
o Cerebellum – coordination of
movement, posture, balance, fine
motor movement, motor learning
o Brainstem – life sustaining
functions; most primitive part
▪ Midbrain
▪ Pons – movement
coordination
▪ Medulla oblongata –
breathing, heartbeat; most
caudal structure
o Diencephalon
▪ Epithalamus – emotional
and visceral response to
odors
▪ Thalamus – influences
moods and detects pain
▪ Hypothalamus – controls
pituitary gland
Exercise 7: Peripheral Nervous System
• Somatic Senses – single receptors embedded
in skin or muscle tissue
o Thermoreceptors – detect hot, cold,
and changes in the temperature
o Propioceptors – sense the
contraction or tension of a muscle
organ
• Special Senses – involve elaborate sense
organs
o Photoreceptors – light sensitive
receptors found inside the eye
o Chemoreceptors – sensitive to odor
and taste and can be found in
olfactory bulb and taste buds
Exercise 8: Blood, the Endocrine, and Lymphatic
Systems
• Erythrocytes (RBC) – carries gases using
hemoglobin; last for 120 days
• Leukocytes (WBC) – immunity against
diseases
o Granulocytes
▪ Eosinophil – involved in
immunity against parasitic
infections
▪ Neutrophil – first line of
defense for bacterial
infection
▪ Basophil – releases
histamine
o Agranulocytes
▪ Lymphocytes – present in
viral infections; involved
in adaptive immunity
▪ Monocytes – important in
chronic infection; turns
into macrophages after
diapedesis occurs
• Thrombocytes – needed for clotting process
• Endocrine Glands
o Pituitary Gland – master gland;
secretes hormones to control other
glands
o Thyroid Gland – found in the
throat; secretes thyroxine and
calcitonin
o Parathyroid Gland – four glands
found in the posterior of the thyroid
gland; secretes parathormone
o Adrenal Gland – found in the
superior portion of the kidneys;
secretes epinephrine
o Pancreas – found in the abdominal
area posterior to stomach; secretes
insulin and glucagon
o Thymus Gland – found in the chest
anterior to the heart; secretes
thymosine
o Pineal Gland – found in the middle
of the brain; secretes melatonin
• Hormones
o Antidiuretic hormone – constrict
the blood vessels and decrease
urine
o Oxytocin – stimulates uterine
contraction during labor
o Luteinizing hormone – stimulates
cells that produces testosterone and
progesterone
o Follicle-stimulating hormone –
initiates development of ova
o Prolactin – initiates milk secretion
o Thyroxine – regulates body
metabolism
o Calcitonin – decreases calcium
level in the blood
o Parathormone – maintains or
increases the calcium level in the
blood
o Aldosterone – increase sodium
levels and decreases potassium
levels in the blood
o Melatonin – regulates the body’s
circadian rhythm
o Insulin – decreases sugar level in
the blood by converting glucose to
glycogen
o Glucagon – increases sugar level in
the blood by releasing stored
glycogen
o Testosterone – responsible for male
secondary sex characteristics
o Estrogen – responsible for female
secondary sex characteristics
o Progesterone – stimulates secretion
of nutrients for early zygote
• Lymphatic Structures
o Lymphatic Vessels – structures that
collect lymph from different parts
of the body
o Lymph Nodes – small, round
organs found along lymphatic
vessels that filters the lymph
o Tonsils – structures found in the
throat that can fight infections.
o Thymus – location of maturation of
the immune cells T cells
o Spleen – structure in the left
hypochondriac region responsible
for destroying worn out RBCs