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Investigation on the Curvature Correction Factor of Extension Spring

Article in Materials · September 2020

DOI: 10.3390/ma13184199

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 materials
Article
Investigation on the Curvature Correction Factor of
Extension Spring
P. S. Tan 1 , Ali Akhavan Farid 1, *, Atefeh Karimzadeh 2, * , Seyed Saeid Rahimian Koloor 2, *
and Michal Petrů 2
1 Department of Mechanical, Materials and Manufacturing Engineering, University of Nottingham
Malaysia Campus, Semenyih 43500, Malaysia; PengSam95@hotmail.com
2 Institute for Nanomaterials, Advanced Technologies and Innovation, Technical University of Liberec,
Studentska 2, 46117 Liberec, Czech Republic; michal.petru@tul.cz
* Correspondence: Ali.Farid@nottingham.edu.my (A.A.F.); a.karimzadeh.66@gmail.com (A.K.);
s.s.r.koloor@gmail.com (S.S.R.K.)




Received: 10 July 2020; Accepted: 14 September 2020; Published: 21 September 2020


Abstract: The curvature correction factor is an important parameter in the stress calculation
formulation of a helical extension spring, which describes the effect of spring wire curvature
on the stress increase towards its inner radius. In this study, the parameters affecting the curvature
correction factor were investigated through theoretical and numerical methods. Several finite element
(FE) models of an extension spring were generated to obtain the distribution of the tensile stress in
the spring. In this investigation, the hook orientation and the number of coils of the extension spring
showed significant effects on the curvature correction factor. These parameters were not considered
in the theoretical model for the calculation of the curvature correction factor, causing a deviation
between the results of the FE model and the theoretical approach. A set of equations is proposed
for the curvature correction factor, which relates both the spring index and the number of coils.
These equations can be applied directly to the design of extension springs with a higher safety factor.

Keywords: extension spring; finite element method; curvature correction factor; hook orientation;
spring index; number of coils

1. Introduction
Extension springs are extensively used in many industrial applications, such as in several parts
and instruments in automotive, aerospace, robotics and machinery industries, in which spring failure
could cause the failure of a whole system [1–4]. Extension springs are a part of the helical spring family.
They are easily recognizable by the hooks on the ends of their body. Also known as tension springs,
extension springs are used for tension applications to provide pulling force when extended. The hooks
on the end of an extension spring’s body facilitate the transferring of tension loads to the body of the
spring. Knowing the distribution of stress in the spring coil is necessary for the design of this part.
The stress in the coils of a loaded spring can be found through the calculation of shear stress due to
torsion, which was described in a book by Wahl [5]. Before the introduction of Wahl’s equation, another
method known as the approximate theory was used to calculate shear stress in the spring coil [5].
However, this method underestimates the stress on the inner side of the coil because of the rough
assumptions about spring curvature [6]. Over the years, the effect of spring curvature on the shear
stress augmentation has been studied through experimental methods [5,7–9], which led to proposing
the curvature correction factor. The curvature factor acts as a design correction factor to increase the
precision of the prediction of the stress required to cause spring failure under shear loading.

Materials 2020, 13, 4199; doi:10.3390/ma13184199 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials
Materials2020,
2020,13,
13,xx 22 of
of 14
14
Materials 2020, 13, 4199 2 of 14
increase
increase the
the precision
precision of
of the
the prediction
prediction ofof the
the stress
stress required
required toto cause
cause spring
spring failure
failure under
under shear
shear
loading.
loading.
Wahl’s equation depicted the curvature effect (Figure 1) as the increase in stress levels of the wire
Wahl’s
Wahl’s equation
equation depicted
depicted the
the curvature
curvature effect
effect (Figure
(Figure 1)
1) as
as the
the increase
increase in
in stress
stress levels
levels of
of the
the
towards the inner radius [5]. The effect is described to be dependent on two parameters of the spring:
wire
wire towards
towards the
the inner
inner radius
radius [5].
[5]. The
The effect
effect is
is described
described to to be
be dependent
dependent on on two
two parameters
parameters ofof the
the
the spring diameter (D) and the wire diameter (d). Springs with a larger D-to-d ratio will have a less
spring:
spring: the
the spring
spring diameter
diameter (𝐷)
(𝐷) and
and the
the wire
wire diameter
diameter (𝑑).
(𝑑). Springs
Springs with larger 𝐷-to-𝑑
with aa larger 𝐷-to-𝑑 ratio
ratio will
will
prominent curvature effect as opposed to springs with smaller D-to-d ratio.
have a less prominent curvature effect as opposed to springs with smaller
have a less prominent curvature effect as opposed to springs with smaller 𝐷-to-d ratio. 𝐷-to-d ratio.

Figure
Figure 1.
1. The
The effect
effect of
of spring
spring index
spring index toward
index toward distribution
toward distribution of
distribution of stress:
of stress: (a)
stress: (a) small
(a) small index,
index, (b)
index, (b) large
(b) large index.
large index.
index.

Wahl
Wahldid did not
didnot mention
notmention stress
mentionstress correction
stresscorrection
correction for
for the
for the hook
hook
the hook ofof
ofan
an extension
extension
an extension spring
spring in
inhis
in his
spring his1944
1944 publication
publication
1944 [5].
publication
[5].
In aIn a
more more recent
recent publication,
publication, Budynas
Budynas et et al.
al. [8][8] and
and the
the “Spring
“Spring Research
Research Association”
Association”
[5]. In a more recent publication, Budynas et al. [8] and the “Spring Research Association” [7] described [7]
[7] described
described
another
another expression
another expression
expressionfor for
thethe
for curvature
curvature
the curvature correction
correction
correctionfactorfactor
knownknown
factor as
as the
the Bergsträsser
as the Bergsträsser
known factor (KBfactor
Bergsträsser ). ((𝐾𝐾 ).).
According
factor
According
to
According to
to these
these researchers, these researchers, extension
extension springs
researchers, extension havesprings have
have two
two critical
springs critical
points
two points
on the
critical on
on the
spring
points the spring
hooks, onehooks,
spring due toone
hooks, the
one
due
shear to the
due tostress, shear
located
the shear stress, located
at section
stress, located at
B, at
andsection
one due
section B, and
B, toand one
theone due
bending to the
due tostress, bending stress,
located at
the bending located
pointlocated
stress, A (Figureat point A
2) [7,8].
at point A
(Figure
Point
(Figure 2)
B 2) [7,8].
of [7,8]. Point
the hook B of
PointinB the the
of the hook
study in the
hookofinBudynasstudy of Budynas
the studyetofal.Budynas et al.
was notetshown was not
al. wasclearlyshown
not shown clearly
[8]. clearly [8].
Therefore, Therefore,
point B is
[8]. Therefore,
point
point BB is
assumed istoassumed to
be the point
assumed to beof the
be the point
the arc of
of the
section
point arc
arc section
between
the between
the body
section and the
between the body
bodyatand
thehook which
and the hook
hook at
themaximum at which
shear
which
maximum
stress
maximum occurs. shear stress occurs.
shear stress occurs.

Figure
Figure 2.
2. Extension
Extension spring
spring critical
critical points.
points.
Figure 2. Extension spring critical points.

In
In the
In the case
the case of
case of extension
of extension springs,
extension springs, the
springs, the orientation
the orientation of
orientation of the
the top
the top and
top and bottom
and bottom hooks
bottom hooks has
hooks has generally
has generally not
generally not
not
been
been discussed
discussed sufficiently
sufficiently in
in previous
previous publications
been discussed sufficiently in previous publications [10–13].publications [10–13].
[10–13]. Illustrations
Illustrations often
often show
show that
that the
the two
two
two
hooks
hooks are
hooks are in
are in opposing
in opposing directions
opposing directions [5,14].
directions [5,14]. The
[5,14]. The position
position ofof the
the hooks
hooks is is the
the relative
relative offset
offset angle
angle between
between
the
the two
the two hooks.
twohooks. Some
hooks.Some manufacturers
Somemanufacturers
manufacturersoffer offer
offer extension
extension
extension springs
springs
springs where
where
where hookshooks
are are
hooks are aligned,
aligned,
aligned, but
but usually
but usually usually
they
they
they are
are in
in random
random positions.
positions. In
In theory,
theory, the
the hook’s
hook’s orientation
orientation should
should
are in random positions. In theory, the hook’s orientation should not have any effect on the stress not
not have
have any
any effect
effect on
on the
the stress
stress
distribution.
distribution. However,
distribution. However, one one of
of the
the hypotheses
hypotheses is is that
that orientation
orientation of of the
the hooks
hooks in in the
the same
same plane
same plane will
plane will
will
have
have an
have an adverse
anadverse effect
adverseeffect on
effectonon the
thethe stress
stress
stress distribution
distribution
distribution (lopsided
(lopsided
(lopsided stressstress
stress distribution),
distribution),
distribution), resulting
resulting
resulting in
in higher
in higher higher
stress
stress
stress values
values values [15].
[15]. Previous
[15]. Previous Previous publications
publications
publications [9–13,16–18]
[9–13,16–18]
[9–13,16–18] have not have
have not
not mentioned
mentioned mentioned the
the correlation
correlation
the correlation between between
between
hook
hook orientation
hook orientation
orientation and theand
and the number
the number
number of
of coilsof(N)coils
coils (𝑁) against
(𝑁) against
against the stress
the stress
the stress correction
correctioncorrection factor.
factor.factor.
Numerical
Numerical methods,
Numerical methods,
methods,such such
suchas as the
asthe finite
thefinite element
finiteelement method,
elementmethod,
method,have have
have been
been
been applied
applied
applied inin
in previous
previous
previous research
research
research to
to design
to design
design helical
helical
helical springs
springs
springs that
thatthat eliminate
eliminate
eliminate the limitations
the limitations
the limitations of the theoretical
of theoftheoretical
the theoretical and experimental
and experimental
and experimental methods methods
methods
in the
in
in the
the calculation
calculation and and measurement
measurement of of the
the maximum
maximum stressstress in in the
the different
different sections
sections of of the
the spring
spring [19–[19–
Materials 2020, 13, 4199 3 of 14

calculation and measurement of the maximum stress in the different sections of the spring [19–21].
In these methods, the effects of various physical and mechanical parameters are studied using a valid
simulation of the problem without spending much time on the testing of each parameter. In the review
performed by Shimoseki et al. [22], it was also mentioned that the geometrical parameters of the
springs have not been considered in the theoretical methods.
The difference between the resulting stress obtained through various equations proposed for the
curvature correction factor and the lack of numerical works on the effect of geometrical parameters
such as hook orientation on this factor are the main motivations of this study. Therefore, the purpose
of this study is to investigate the effects of hook orientation and the number of coils on the stress
distribution in the spring. For this purpose, the curvature correction factor was determined for various
hook orientations and different numbers of coils through several finite element (FE) simulations
of an extension spring under static structural conditions in ANSYS Workbench 17.2. The values
obtained through the FE simulations were then compared to the theoretical methods published by
mainstream texts.

2. Methods
The shear stress (τmax ) in an extension spring was described by Wahl [5] as

8FD
τmax = K × (1)
πd3
where K is the curvature correction factor, which accounts for the curvature effect of a helical spring.
K is described by Wahl as KW with the following equation [5]:

4C − 1 0.615
KW = + (2)
4C − 4 C
where C is known as the spring index and obtained from D/d. The curvature correction factor proposed
by Budynas et al. [8] and the “Spring Research Association” [7], which is known as the Bergsträsser
factor, KB , is expressed as
4C + 2
KB = (3)
4C − 3
Their publication also describes the stress calculation for point A and point B in Figure 2. Point A
of the hook experiences combined loading of bending and axial loading, which is expressed by Budynas
et al. [8] in the following form:
16D 4
 
σa = F (K)a 3 + 2 (4)
πd πd
whereby the curvature correction factor about point A, (K)a is expressed as

4C21 − C1 − 1 2r1
(K )a = , C1 = (5)
4C1 (C1 − 1) d

Point B of the hook experiences torsional stress, where

8FD
τb = (K)b (6)
πd3

whereby the curvature correction factor about point B, (K)b , is expressed as

4C2 − 1 2r2
(K )b = , C2 = (7)
4C2 − 4 d

Hook orientation is a subset of multiple spring parameters including mean spring diameter (D),
arc transition radii (r1 , r2 ) and the length of the body coil [23]. The body coil length is a subset of
Materials 2020, 13, 4199 4 of 14

two parameters: wire diameter (d) and number of coils (N) [23]. The definition of hook orientation in
this report will be based on the difference in the angle of the hooks’ planes, as depicted in Figure 3,
whereby offset is defined as degrees of rotation of the top hook relative to the bottom hook. If the
planes of the top and bottom hooks are coplanar and the hooks face opposing directions, the spring is
said to be at 0◦ offset. The spring model used for this study is a right-handed helix.
Materials 2020, 13, x 4 of 14
Materials 2020, 13, x 4 of 14

Figure3.3.Hook
Hook orientationswith
with varying degrees
degrees of offset
offset (a) 0°,
0◦ , (b)
(b) 90°,
90◦ ,(c)
(c)180°,
180◦ ,and
and(d)
(d)270°;
270◦the
Figure 3. Hookorientations
Figure orientations with varying
varying degrees of
of offset (a)
(a) 0°, (b) 90°, (c) 180°, and (d) 270°; ; the
the
bottom hook was taken as reference.
bottom hook was taken as reference.
bottom hook was taken as reference.

To investigate the effects of hook orientation and number of coils on the curvature correction
To investigate the effects of hook orientation and number of coils on the curvature correction
factor, two sets of simulation, hook orientation analysis
analysis (HOA)
(HOA) and
and spring
spring length
length analysis
analysis (SLA),
(SLA),
factor, two sets of simulation, hook orientation analysis (HOA) and spring length analysis (SLA),
were The two analyses shared the same CAD model geometry and
were performed,
performed, as
as shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 4.
4. The two analyses shared the same CAD model geometry and
meshing methods and were applied with the same boundary conditions
conditions in the
the simulation model.
model.
meshing methods and were applied with the same boundary conditions in in the simulation
simulation model.

Figure 4. Methodology flow chart.

Figure
Figure 4.
4. Methodology
Methodology flow
flow chart.
chart.
2.1. CAD
CAD Modeling
Modeling
2.1. CAD Modeling
The modeling of the extension spring was based on illustrations
illustrations by
by Budynas
Budynas et et al.
al. [8] of a full
The modeling of the extension spring was based on illustrations by Budynas et al. [8] of a full
twisted loop spring and
spring and were
and were performed
were performed
performed in in PTC
in PTC CREO
PTC CREO 3.0.
CREO 3.0. CAD
3.0. CAD (Las
CAD(Las Vegas,
(LasVegas, NEV,
Vegas,NEV, USA)
NEV, USA) modeling.
USA) modeling.
modeling.
twisted loop spring
In this model,
this model,
model,thethe spring
thespring body
springbody and
bodyandandspires were
spires modeled
were modeled as an integrated
as an part,
integrated in
part, which the
in which body was
the body
In this spires were modeled as an integrated part, in which the body was
created
was as a as
created constant-pitch helical
a constant-pitch curve
helical curvebased onon
based a given
a givenspring
springparameter,
parameter,where
wherethethe pitch
pitch was
created as a constant-pitch helical curve based on a given spring parameter, where the pitch was
equivalent
equivalent to
to the
the diameter
diameterofofspring
springwire.
wire.A 3D
3Dcurve
curvewith ananupwards curvature radius 𝑟 and
of of a
equivalent to the diameter of spring wire. AA3D curve with
with upwards
an upwards curvature
curvature radius
radius of 𝑟 rand
2 and
a
circular radius of 𝑟 were then sketched to form the arc (Figure 5), which leads to the hook of the
circular radius of 𝑟 were then sketched to form the arc (Figure 5), which leads to the hook of the
spring, starting from where the helical curve ends. The line was then extended to resemble a hook,
spring, starting from where the helical curve ends. The line was then extended to resemble a hook,
with a radius of 𝐷/2. Using the sweep function, the line was then extruded with a uniform circular
with a radius of 𝐷/2. Using the sweep function, the line was then extruded with a uniform circular
cross-section of diameter d along all the sketched lines; thus, the CAD model was formed.
cross-section of diameter d along all the sketched lines; thus, the CAD model was formed.
Materials 2020, 13, 4199 5 of 14

a circular radius of r1 were then sketched to form the arc (Figure 5), which leads to the hook of the
spring, starting from where the helical curve ends. The line was then extended to resemble a hook,
with a radius of D/2. Using the sweep function, the line was then extruded with a uniform circular
cross-section ofxdiameter d along all the sketched lines; thus, the CAD model was formed.
Materials 2020, 13, 5 of 14
Materials 2020, 13, x 5 of 14

Figure 5. CAD modeling parameters for hook’s arc.

Figure 5. CAD modeling parameters for hook’s arc.
Figure 5. CAD modeling parameters for hook’s arc.
2.2. FE Simulation
2.2. FE Simulation
The CAD model was simulated using commercially available ANSYS Workbench 17.2 software
The CAD model
(Pennsylvania.,
(Philadelphia, USA),
PA, was
USA), simulated
in in
which using
whicha astatic commercially
staticstructural availablemodel
structuralsimulation
simulation ANSYS
model wasWorkbench
used. The17.2 software
mechanical
mechanical
(Pennsylvania.,
properties of
properties USA),steel
ofstainless
stainless in which
steelwere a static to
wereassigned
assigned structural
tothe simulation
thespring,
spring, ofwhich
of model
whichthe was
thevalues
values ofused.
of Themodulus
the shear
the shear mechanical
modulus and
and
properties of stainless
Young’s modulus are steel
are shown
shownin were assigned
inTable
Table1.1. to the spring, of which the values of the shear modulus and
Young’s modulus are shown in Table 1.
Table 1.
Table 1. Material parameter—A227 hard
hard drawn
drawn wire
wire [8].
[8].
Table 1. Material parameter—A227 hard drawn wire [8].
ShearModulus,
Shear Modulus, 𝐺 (GPa)
G (GPa) 80.0
80.0
Shear Modulus,
Young’s Modulus, 𝐺 𝐸(GPa)
(GPa) 80.0
197.9
Young’s Modulus, E (GPa) 197.9
Young’s Modulus, 𝐸 (GPa) 197.9
The resultant meshed model (Figure 6) had about 175 k nodes and 40 k elements for a spring
The resultant
The resultant meshed
meshed model
model (Figure 6)6) had
had about
about 175 kk nodes
nodes and 40 40 k elements
elements for
for a spring
model with hook-to-hook length of(Figure
34.5 mm and with 𝐶175 = 8 and 𝑑 =and 1.5 mm.k The numbers aofspring
nodes
model with
model with hook-to-hook
hook-to-hook length
length of
of 34.5
34.5mm
mmand with 𝐶
andwith C= and d𝑑 == 1.5
88 and
=such mm. The numbers of of nodes
nodes
and elements changed according to spring parameters, as 𝑁 1.5
andmm.𝐷. The
The numbers
sweep method is
and elements
elements changed
changed according
accordingtoto
spring parameters,
spring parameters, as Nasand
suchsuch 𝑁 D.
and 𝐷.
The sweep
The methodmethod
sweep
perfect for a curved section with constant cross-section; thus, it was implemented onto the model.
is perfect
is
for a curved
perfect section section
for a curved with constant cross-section;
with constant thus, it was
cross-section; thus,implemented onto theonto
it was implemented model.
the model.

Figure 6. Meshed model.

Figure
Figure 6.
6. Meshed
Meshed model.
model.
A set of boundary conditions (BCs) was defined in the spring model (Figure 7), as listed in Table
A BCs
2. The set ofwere
boundary conditions
conditions
applied (BCs)
such that(BCs) wasdefined
was
the bottom defined in
side ofin the
the
the springwas
spring
spring model
model (Figure
(Figure
fixed 7),asaslisted
7),
to prevent listed
any ininTable
Table
movement 2.
2.
TheThe
BCsBCs were
were applied
applied such
such that
that the
the bottom
bottom side
side ofof the
the spring
spring was
was fixed
fixed toto prevent
prevent
while the rotation parameters were free, while the loading was applied as displacement (not force).any movement
while the rotation
This research was aparameters
numerical were
parameters study,free, while thedisplacement
considering loading
loading was applied
appliedofas
wasinstead displacement
asforce
displacement (not
(not force).
to apply deformation force).
This research was a numerical study, considering displacement instead of force to apply
results in a smooth convergence, as the FE-based model initially calculated deformation of the deformation
results
structurein and
a smooth convergence,
subsequently computed as the
the FE-based model initially
force parameters. Such an calculated
assumptiondeformation
was considered of the
in
structure and subsequently computed the
many basic studies in the literature [24–26]. force parameters. Such an assumption was considered in
many basic studies in the literature [24–26].
Materials 2020, 13, 4199 6 of 14

results in a smooth convergence, as the FE-based model initially calculated deformation of the structure
and subsequently computed the force parameters. Such an assumption was considered in many basic
studies in the literature [24–26].
Materials 2020, 13, x 6 of 14

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Boundary
Boundary conditions.
conditions.

Table 2. Boundary
Table 2. Boundary conditions
conditions applied
applied for
for all
all simulations.
simulations.

Remote
RemoteDisplacement
Displacement TopHook
Top Hook Bottom
Bottom Hook
Hook
X-Component
X-Component (mm)
(mm) 00 0 0
Y-Component
Y-Component (mm)
(mm) 1.5d
1.5𝑑 0 0
Z-Component (mm)
Z-Component (mm) 0 0 0 0
Rotation X Free Free
Rotation X Free Free
Rotation Y Free Free
Rotation
Rotation Z Y Free
Free FreeFree
Rotation Z Free Free

Remote displacement was chosen instead of the regular displacement condition to allow the part
Remote displacement was chosen instead of the regular displacement condition to allow the part
to rotate freely about the Y axis (Figure 7). This was done to be able to mimic a real case of an extension
to rotate freely about the Y axis (Figure 7). This was done to be able to mimic a real case of an extension
spring under tension load, where the rotation about its axis is not constrained.
spring under tension load, where the rotation about its axis is not constrained.
In the finite element method, the equilibrium equations should be solved to obtain the unknown
In the finite element method, the equilibrium equations should be solved to obtain the unknown
displacements at each node. In the stress analysis, the general equation is
displacements at each node. In the stress analysis, the general equation is
[[𝐹] = [[𝐾][𝑢]
F] = K][u] (8)
(8)
where[u]
where [u]isisthethe displacement
displacement vector,
vector, [K] is[K]
theisstiffness
the stiffness
matrix matrix and
and [F] is the[F] isvector.
load the loadThevector. The
variational
variational method was used to obtain the optimum values of constants by satisfying
method was used to obtain the optimum values of constants by satisfying the internal compatibility the internal
compatibility
and boundary and boundary
conditions. conditions.
In the elasticityIn the elasticity
problems, problems,
the total theenergy
potential total potential energyshould
of the structure of the
structure should be stationary with respect to the finite variations of displacement,
be stationary with respect to the finite variations of displacement, expressed as follows:
expressed as
follows:
∂W
𝜕𝑊 = 0
=0 (9)
(9)
∂a
𝜕𝑎i
where W
where W is
is the
the potential
potential energy, andaai i is
energy,and is ith
ith degree
degreeof
offreedom
freedomincluding
includingdisplacement
displacementor
orrotation.
rotation.
𝑊==U𝑈+
W +ΩΩ (10)
(10)
where U is the strain energy, and Ω is the load system’s potential. The strain energy is described as
where U is the strain energy, and Ω is the load system’s potential. The strain energy is described as
1
𝑈 = Z {𝜀} [𝐸]{𝜀}𝑑𝑉 (11)
12
U= {ε}T [E]{ε}dV (11)
where [E] is the matrix of the elastic constant,2 which describes the relation of stress and strain:
{𝜎} = [𝐸]{𝜀} (12)
in which {𝜎} and {𝜀} are stress and strain tensors, respectively. The load system potential is defined
by

Ω = −{𝑢 } {𝐹 } (13)
Materials 2020, 13, 4199 7 of 14

where [E] is the matrix of the elastic constant, which describes the relation of stress and strain:

{σ} = [E]{ε} (12)

in which {σ} and {ε} are stress and strain tensors, respectively. The load system potential is defined by

Ω = − ue T Fe
 
(13)

By substituting Equations (11) and (13) into Equation (10), the total potential energy would be
Z
1
{ε}T [E]{ε}dV − ue T Fe
 
W= (14)
2

The vector of displacement in an element, {u}, is related by a shape function, [N], to the nodal
displacement vector, {ue }.
{u} = [N ] ue

(15)

Therefore, the strain can be obtained from

( ) " #
du dN  e
{ε} = = u (16)
dx dx

The stress is then calculated by substituting the strain tensor into Equation (12). More information
about the shape functions and the numerical methods for solving the above equations can be found
in [27].

2.3. Simulation Analyses

One of the parameters that was varied through the simulations is spring index. For the purpose
of simplification, D was kept constant, while d was varied, to produce the values of C between 4 and
12. In addition to that, the arc radii r1 and r2 were kept as the same value as D/2, which maintained a
constant hook orientation angle.

2.3.1. Hook Orientation Analysis (HOA)

Analysis of the effects of hook orientation against the curvature factor was done by changing the
hook orientation from 0◦ to 360◦ in small increments. The modification of orientation was performed
by increasing the number of coils in the body (N) from 10 to 11, in increments of 0.0625, which equates
to increments in orientation of 22.5◦ , as shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Simulation parameters for HOA.

Spring Parameter HOA

C 8
D (mm) 12
d (mm) 1.5
N From 10 to 11
Number of Steps 17 (0◦ , 22.5◦ , . . . , 360◦ )
Orientation Increment (◦ ) 22.5 per step

2.3.2. Spring Length Analysis (SLA)

Analysis of the effects of the N against the curvature correction factor was done by changing N
from 3 to 16 in increments of 1. Since C is one of the known variables for the curvature correction factor,
the analysis of the spring length was performed in the preferred range of C from 4 to 12, indicated
in Table 4.
Materials 2020, 13, 4199 8 of 14

Table 4. Simulation parameter for SLA.

Spring Parameter SLA

C From 4 to 12
Number of Steps 2 (C = 4, 6, 8, . . . , 12)
D (mm) 12
d (mm) 1.5
N From 3 to 16
Number of Steps 14 (N = 3, 4, 5, . . . , 16)
N Increment 1 per step

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Simulation Validation

The parameters obtained from the simulations are the maximum shear stress, bending stress and
normal stress, directional deformation and reaction force. The maximum shear stress was measured
for the body section and section B, while the bending and normal stresses were measured for the
hook at section A. The measurement of these stresses was obtained by reading the maximum value
from the data bar scale. The data bar scale range was limited to the area of interest only. For instance,
the maximum stress value at the body section had its data bar coverage limited to the spring body.
These maximum values were firstly noted down in a spreadsheet.
The FE correction factors for these three locations were obtained by substituting the maximum
shear stress in the body and section B as well as the combination of bending and normal stresses into
Equations (1), (4) and (6). The corresponding correction factors of the spring body and points A and B
were then calculated by using Equations (3), (5) and (7), respectively. The FE simulation model was
validated by comparing the computed correction factors obtained through the FE method with the
values obtained through the theoretical method.

3.2. Results of Hook Orientation Analysis

The locations of maximum stress in the loaded extension spring body, point A and point B are
shown in Figure 8. The locations of maximum stress from the FE simulation are validated by the
research of Budynas et al. [8].
The curvature correction factor (K) was calculated at the locations shown in Figure 8 for different
hook orientations, and the results are presented in Figure 9 in comparison with the results predicted by
the theory. Based on the graphs plotted for HOA, the correction factor obtained from the FE simulation
appears to have a sinusoidal pattern over a period of one revolution of a coil. The sinusoidal pattern
carries a peak-to-peak value of about 0.005 for all three curvature correction factors calculated for the
spring body, point A and point B.
values obtained through the theoretical method.

3.2. Results of Hook Orientation Analysis

The locations of maximum stress in the loaded extension spring body, point A and point B are
shown 2020,
Materials in Figure
13, 41998. The locations of maximum stress from the FE simulation are validated by
9 ofthe
14
research of Budynas et al. [8].

Materials 2020, 13, x 9 of 14

simulation appears to have a sinusoidal pattern over a period of one revolution of a coil. The
sinusoidal pattern carries a peak-to-peak value of about 0.005 for all three curvature correction factors
calculated forFigure
the spring body, of
8. Locations point A andstress
maximum pointinB.(a) the body, (b) point B and (c) point A.
Figure 8. Locations of maximum stress in (a) the body, (b) point B and (c) point A.

The curvature correction factor (K) was calculated at the locations shown in Figure 8 for different
hook orientations, and the results are presented in Figure 9 in comparison with the results predicted
by the theory. Based on the graphs plotted for HOA, the correction factor obtained from the FE

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 9.
Figure 9. Effect
Effect of
ofhook
hookorientation
orientationon
onKK FE measured at (a) the spring body, (b) point B and (c) point
FE measured at (a) the spring body, (b) point B and (c) point A;
A; (d) the percentage of difference between the correction
(d) the percentage of difference between the correction factors
factors obtained
obtained through
through themethods
the FE FE methods
and
and the theoretical approach.
the theoretical approach.

AA deviation of about 0.025 to to 0.1

0.1 was
was observed
observed inin the
thecorrection factorsofof 𝐾Kb,FE
correctionfactors , ,, (𝐾)
(K)b,FE
, and
and
((𝐾)
K)a,FE
, , , which
which was
was computed
computed on
on the
the basis
basis of
of the
the FE
FE method
method as compared to the theoretical model.
Higher values
Higher valuesofofcorrection
correction factor
factor indicate
indicate thatthat
the the theoretical
theoretical equation
equation underestimated
underestimated the levels
the stress stress
levels
in in the extension
the extension springs.springs. Such deviation
Such deviation leads us toleads us tothat
suspect suspect that there
there would would
be some be some
other other
parameters
parameters affecting the values of the curvature correction factor. The initial assumption would be
the length of the spring body, which identifies by the number of coils (N).
According to Figure 9d, the correction factor calculated from the FE approach for the arc section,
i.e., (𝐾) , , has a higher percentage of difference than other sections of the spring. The reason for
the difference between the correction factors obtained from the FE simulation and the theory could
Materials 2020, 13, 4199 10 of 14

affecting the values of the curvature correction factor. The initial assumption would be the length of
the spring
Materials 2020,body,
13, x which identifies by the number of coils (N). 10 of 14
According to Figure 9d, the correction factor calculated from the FE approach for the arc section,
size (Kthe
i.e., of )b,FEmesh,
, has abut
higher percentage
would come at the of difference than processing
cost of longer other sections
time. of The
the spring.
graphs The reason
plotted for the
in Figure
10c–e show an observable trend, whereby with the change in 𝑁, the corresponding value of the
difference between the correction factors obtained from the FE simulation and the theory could be
explainedfactor
curvature by thechanges.
incompatibility
The trend of the theoretical
proves equations
that there with athe
is indeed type of hook
correlation 𝑁 and the
end condition.
between
curvature factor. This brings the problem of calculation of the curvature correction factor to a
3.3. Resultsequation
functional of Springwith
Length
twoAnalysis
independent variables, namely 𝑁 and 𝐶, which could be represented
as a surface plot, as opposed
The results of the SLA, which to the theoretical 2D curve
analyzed spring of N 𝐶
where
coils = 3~16
is theand = 4~12 (Figure
onlyCvariable. The data can
10a,b),
be
arepresented
shown in well Figureas10c–e.
a surface
The plot equation,
results whereby
agreed with the hook , (𝐾)
𝐾 , orientation
, and (𝐾)
analysis, ,wherebyis a function of
deviations
two
were independent
smaller for K variables,
b,FE and ( 𝑁
K ) and
a,FE
𝐶,
for forming
the lower 𝐾 (𝑁,
spring𝐶). Moreover,
indexes and using
larger Matlab’s
for ( K ) curve-fitting
b,FE . As tool,
discussed in
we could effectively formulate the function by importing the simulated data. The
the previous section, the larger value of (K)b,FE deviation could be due to the incompatibility of the surface plots and
their equations
theoretical are described
equation with the in the next hook
particular section.
end condition that was modeled.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)
Figure 10. Change of parameter from (a) 𝑁 = 3, 𝐶 = 4 to (b) 𝑁 = 16, 𝐶 = 12; effects of spring index
Figure 10. Change of parameter from (a) N = 3, C = 4 to (b) N = 16, C = 12; effects of spring index and
and number of coils against (c) 𝐾 , , (d) (𝐾) , , (e) (𝐾) , .
number of coils against (c) Kb,FE , (d) (K)b,FE , (e) (K)a,FE .

3.4. Surface Fitting

The data collected from the SLA were drawn as surface plots, as shown in Figure 11, in which
surface plot equations with a degree of 2 for both 𝑁 and 𝐶 were fitted. The corresponding equations
are
Materials 2020, 13, 4199 11 of 14

Interestingly, there are considerably more anomalies in Figure 10e, which threw off the overall
trend of the linear shape of the curve. Such anomalies could be eliminated by reducing the element size
of the mesh, but would come at the cost of longer processing time. The graphs plotted in Figure 10c–e
show an observable trend, whereby with the change in N, the corresponding value of the curvature
factor changes. The trend proves that there is indeed a correlation between N and the curvature factor.
This brings the problem of calculation of the curvature correction factor to a functional equation with
two independent variables, namely N and C, which could be represented as a surface plot, as opposed
to the theoretical 2D curve where C is the only variable. The data can be presented well as a surface
plot equation, whereby Kb,FE , (K)b,FE and (K)a,FE is a function of two independent variables, N and
C, forming Kx (N, C). Moreover, using Matlab’s curve-fitting tool, we could effectively formulate the
function by importing the simulated data. The surface plots and their equations are described in the
next section.
Materials 2020, 13, x 11 of 14
3.4. Surface Fitting
The data , (𝑁, 𝐶) =
𝐾 collected 1.831
from the−SLA
0.005755𝑁 − 0.1157𝐶
were drawn + 0.0001845𝑁
as surface + 0.000111𝑁𝐶
plots, as shown in Figure 11, in which
(17)
+ 0.005043𝐶
surface plot equations with a degree of 2 for both N and C were fitted. The corresponding equations are
(𝐾) , (𝑁, 𝐶) = 1.715 + 0.004355𝑁 − 0.1059𝐶 − 7.956 × 10 𝑁 − 0.0001973𝑁𝐶
Kb,FE (N, C) = 1.831 −+0.005755N 2 2 (18)
0.007481𝐶− 0.1157C + 0.0001845N + 0.000111NC + 0.005043C (17)

(K)b,FE (N, C) (𝐾) , (𝑁,

= 1.715 + 𝐶) = 1.459−−0.1059C
0.004355N 0.0001791𝑁 −×
− 7.956 0.06373𝐶
10−5 N2 −+0.0001973NC
1.609 × 10 +
𝑁 0.007481C2 (18)
(19)
− 4.568 × 10 𝑁𝐶 + 0.002807𝐶
−5 2 −5 2
(K)a,FE (N, C) = 1.459 − 0.0001791N − 0.06373C + 1.609 × 10 N − 4.568 × 10 NC + 0.002807C (19)

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure
Figure11.
11.Surface
Surfaceplot
plotbased
basedon
onSLA
SLAresults
resultsfor
for(a)
(a)K_(b,FE),
K_(b,FE),(b)
(b)(K)_(b,FE)
(K)_(b,FE)and
and(c)
(c)(K)_(a,FE).
(K)_(a,FE).

The R-squared values for the generated function equations (Equations (17)–(19)) have a
minimum value of 0.9685, which could be improved by increasing the degree of polynomial for the
two variables 𝑁 and 𝐶 but would introduce many terms into the equations.
The proposed surface plot equations were mapped on the basis of the data collected from the FE
Materials 2020, 13, 4199 12 of 14

The R-squared values for the generated function equations (Equations (17)–(19)) have a minimum
value of 0.9685, which could be improved by increasing the degree of polynomial for the two variables
N and C but would introduce many terms into the equations.
The proposed surface plot equations were mapped on the basis of the data collected from the
FE simulation as described in the methodology section. Therefore, the limits of these equations are
bounded by the range of parameters used during the simulation, where N = 3~16 and C = 4~12.
Table 5 shows a set of extension springs with the same geometry and hook end condition
undergoing static structural finite element analysis as described in the methodology section. The set of
parameters in Table 5 has random values for N, C, D and d, which serves the purpose of validating
the surface-fitted equation. The results show less than a 1% difference for most of the data that are
within the limits of the functions. Hence, a higher degree of polynomial is not necessary. However,
the equations may not be applicable for springs with the end condition different than the one described
in the methodology (i.e., side loop, over-center loop, etc.). For example, the difference was above 5%
for the spring with N = 6 and C = 15, which is out of the range of selection. Another set of analyses that
involves other hook end conditions would have to be performed in order to formulate an appropriate
set of equations for those particular conditions.

Table 5. Difference between curvature correction factor (K) obtained through FE method against
surface-fitted equation.

Percentage of Difference (%)

Spring Parameter
Kb,FE (K)b,FE (K)a,FE
N = 8, C = 7.5
−0.04 −0.30 −0.12
D = 18 mm, d = 2.4 mm
N = 15, C = 7.5
−0.30 −0.35 −0.19
D = 18 mm, d = 2.4 mm
N = 6, C = 15
−7.97 −8.73 −5.08
D = 18 mm, d = 1.2 mm
N = 6, C = 11.5
0.20 0.12 −0.04
D = 23 mm, d = 2.0 mm
N = 9.5, C = 6.5
−1.20 −0.88 −0.52
D = 9.75 mm, d = 1.5 mm
N = 5.25, C = 10.75
0.25 1.11 0.36
D = 15.05 mm, d = 1.4 mm

4. Conclusions
The effects of the hook orientation and the number of coils of a helical extension spring on the
curvature correction factor were investigated by using the theoretical and finite element simulation
methods. The results indicated fluctuation in the values of the curvature correction factor as the
hook’s orientation changed from 0◦ to 360◦ . Further analysis of the influence of the number of coils
indicated that there was a correlation between this parameter and the curvature correction factor, which
was not mentioned in the previous research. A set of surface-fitted equations of two independent
variables, the number of coils (N) and the spring index (C), was then proposed to be used in place
of the theoretical equation for the calculation of the curvature correction factor for the three critical
points of an extension spring. The proposed equations calculated the curvature correction factor of the
extension springs more accurately than the classic equation, which can be applied to the precise design
of the extension springs.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, P.S.T., A.A.F., and A.K.; methodology, P.S.T. and A.A.F.; software,
P.S.T. and A.A.F.; validation, P.S.T., A.A.F., A.K., and S.S.R.K.; formal analysis, A.A.F., A.K., S.S.R.K., and M.P.;
investigation, P.S.T., A.A.F, A.K., and S.S.R.K.; resources, A.A.F., S.S.R.K., and M.P.; data curation, A.A.F., A.K.,
and S.S.R.K.; writing—original draft preparation, P.S.T., and A.A.F.; writing—review and editing, P.S.T., A.A.F,
Materials 2020, 13, 4199 13 of 14

A.K., S.S.R.K., and M.P.; visualization, A.A.F, A.K., and S.S.R.K.; supervision, A.A.F., A.K., S.S.R.K.; project
administration, A.A.F., S.S.R.K., and M.P.; funding acquisition, S.S.R.K., and M.P. All authors have read and agreed
to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This study was supported by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic and the
European Union (European Structural and Investment Funds—Operational Programme Research, Development
and Education), Reg. No. CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_025/0007293, as well as the financial support from internal grants
in the Institute for Nanomaterials, Advanced Technologies and Innovations (CXI), Technical University of Liberec
(TUL).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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