LS-DYNA Theory Manual Material Models

where λ and μ are Lamé’s constants.

When the trial stress is within the yield surface, the strain increment is elastic and the
stress update is completed. Otherwise, for the plastic plane stress case, secant iteration is used to
solve Equation (19.3.16)ҏfor the normal strain increment ( Δε 33 ) required to produce a zero
normal stress:

3GΔε effp ξ 33
i

σ =σ −
i *
(19.3.19)
Λ
33 33

Here, the superscript i indicates the iteration number.

The secant iteration formula for Δε 33 (the superscript p is dropped for clarity) is

Δε 33
i
− Δε 33i −1
Δε 33
i +1
= Δε 33
i −1
− σ 33i −1 (19.3.20)
σ 33 − σ 33
i i −1

where the two starting values are obtained from the initial elastic estimate and by assuming a
purely plastic increment, i.e.,

Δε 33
1
= − ( Δε11 − Δε 22 ) (19.3.21)

These starting values should bound the actual values of the normal strain increment.
The iteration procedure uses the updated normal stain increment to update first the
deviatoric stress and then the other quantities needed to compute the next estimate of the normal
stress in Equation (19.3.19). The iterations proceed until the normal stress σ 33i
is sufficiently
small. The convergence criterion requires convergence of the normal strains:

Δε 33
i
− Δε 33
i −1

< 10−4 (19.3.22)

Δε i +1
33

After convergence, the stress update is completed using the relationships given in Equations
(19.3.16) and (19.3.17)

Material Model 4: Thermo-Elastic-Plastic

This model was adapted from the NIKE2D [Hallquist 1979] code. A more complete
description of its formulation is given in the NIKE2D user’s manual.
Letting T represent the temperature, we compute the elastic co-rotational stress rate as

σ ij∇ = Cijkl ( εkl − εklT ) + θij dT (19.4.1)

where

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Material Models LS-DYNA Theory Manual

dCijkl
θij = −1
Cklmn σ mn (19.4.2)
dT

and Cijk " is the temperature dependent elastic constitutive matrix:

ª1−υ υ υ 0 0 0 º
« υ 1−υ υ 0 0 0 »
« »
«υ υ 1−υ 0 0 0 »
« »
E « 0 1−2υ
Cijk " = 0 0 0 0 » (19.4.3)
( )( )«
1+υ 1−2υ « 2 »
»
1−2υ
« 0 0 0 0 0 »
« 2 »
« 1−2υ »
«¬ 0 0 0 0 0
2 »¼

where υ is Poisson’s ratio. The thermal strain rate can be written in terms of the coefficient of
thermal expansion α as:

εijT = α T δ ij (19.4.4)

When treating plasticity, we use a procedure analogous to that for material 3. We update
the stresses elastically and check to see if we violate the isotropic yield function

σ (T )
2
1
φ = sij sij − y (19.4.5)
2 3

where

σ y (T ) = σ o (T ) + E p (T ) ε effp (19.4.6)

The initial yield, σ o , and plastic hardening modulus, E p , are temperature dependent. If the
behavior is elastic we do nothing; otherwise, we scale back the stress deviators by the factor f s :

sijn +1 = f s sij∗ (19.4.7)

where
σy
fs = 1 (19.4.8)
2
§3 * *·
¨ sij sij ¸
©2 ¹

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LS-DYNA Theory Manual Material Models

and update the plastic strain by the increment

1
2
3
(1 − f s ) §¨ sij∗ sij∗ ·¸
Δε effp = ©2 ¹ (19.4.9)
G + 3 Ep

Material Model 5: Soil and Crushable Foam

This model, due to Krieg [1972], provides a simple model for foam and soils whose
material properties are not well characterized. We believe the other foam models in LS-DYNA
are superior in their performance and are recommended over this model which simulates the
crushing through the volumetric deformations. If the yield stress is too low, this foam model
gives nearly fluid like behavior.
A pressure-dependent flow rule governs the deviatoric behavior:

φ s = sij sij − ( a0 + a1 p + a2 p 2 )
1
(19.5.1)
2

where a0 , a1 , and a2 are user-defined constants. Volumetric yielding is determined by a

tabulated curve of pressure versus volumetric strain. Elastic unloading from this curve is
assumed to a tensile cutoff as illustrated in Figure 19.5.1.
Implementation of this model is straightforward. One history variable, the maximum
volumetric strain in compression, is stored. If the new compressive volumetric strain exceeds the
stored value, loading is indicated. When the yield condition is violated, the updated trial
stresses, sij∗ , are scaled back using a simple radial return algorithm:

1
2
§ ·
¨ a 0 + a1 p + a 2 p 2 ¸ ∗
sijn +1 =¨ ¸ sij (19.5.2)
1
¨ sij sij ¸
© 2 ¹

If the hydrostatic tension exceeds the cutoff value, the pressure is set to the cutoff value and the
deviatoric stress tensor is zeroed.

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