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Preface vii
Giangreco, Stacy Dymond, and Karrie Shogren introduces readers to students with
severe disabilities by exploring definitions of severe disabilities and how these defini-
tions and societal perceptions affect the lives of these individuals and their families.
These authors offer us a historic retrospective of where we’ve been, how far we’ve come,
and where we need to be heading. Finally, Giangreco and his colleagues help us to un-
derstand what is meant by appropriate education for students with severe disabilities.
Students grow up as members of families, and families are most often the primary
advocates for their children throughout life. In Chapter 2, Kathleen Kyzar, Nina Zuna,
and Ann and Rud Turnbull explore the factors that make successful partnerships be-
tween home and school. Two such factors are ongoing, reciprocal communication
between home and school and interactions that reflect and respect families from di-
verse cultural backgrounds.
Chapters 3, 4, 5, and 6 are core chapters that set forth the basic strategies and tools
that educators use in concert with other team members to plan, teach, and monitor
the progress of their students. Chapter 3, a new chapter, is written by Diane Browder,
Leah Wood, Jenny Root, and Caryn Allison. Chapters 4, 5, and 6 are written by the edi-
tors, with Rachel Janney as first author of Chapter 6. All other chapters build on the
foundations set forth in these chapters. Four key words sum up the content of this
section: assessment, teaching, evaluation, and implementation.
In Chapter 7, a new chapter, Robert O’Neill and Matthew Jameson set forth the
principles of positive behavior support. Using comprehensive case examples, these
authors describe how the process of functional behavioral assessment is conducted
and used to design effective behavioral support plans that are based on the values of
self-determination, respect, and inclusion.
In Chapter 8, Donna Lehr and Nancy Harayama describe health care procedures
required by some students during the school day. This chapter explains how to incor-
porate special health care procedures into the school day and how educators can
contribute to the prevention of related health problems and conditions.
In the new Chapter 9, Mary Jane Rapport, Amy Barr, and Maria Jones teach us
about the impact of motor disabilities on school participation and learning, and how
to successfully address these challenges. Because all team members interact with a
student over a range of daily activities, practical knowledge about motor disabilities
must be shared. When students with motor disabilities have consistent and conscien-
tious management of their physical needs in their home, school, work, and commu-
nity environments, they can thrive.
The skills of caring for oneself, toileting, eating, dressing, and grooming are impor-
tant goals for all individuals regardless of the severity of the disability. In Chapter 10,
Monica Delano, Martha Snell, and Virginia Walker provide a comprehensive and cur-
rent review of effective methods for teaching self-care skills while also showing how
these methods apply to specific students.
One of the most important elements that schools can offer students is social rela-
tionships with peers. In Chapter 11, Erik Carter and Matthew Brock illustrate strate-
gies that teams can use to promote membership and a sense of belonging and to
build a variety of personal relationships among students in classrooms and schools.
In the new Chapter 12, Susan Johnston addresses functional communication and
the importance of socially responsive environments. She highlights the pervasive in-
fluence of communication in all aspects of life, including education, friendships, well-
being, and self-determination.
Basic skills in reading, writing, mathematics, and science are increasingly impor-
tant as states respond to federal laws and policies. In Chapter 13, John McDonnell
and Susan Copeland present methods for identifying what academic skills to teach
and evidence-based strategies for teaching those skills in inclusive settings.
Chapter 14 guides teachers on the instruction of skills to increase active participa-
tion in home and community life. Linda Bambara, Freya Koger, Raquel Burns, and
Dolly Singley begin with a series of guiding values and principles that characterize
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viii Preface
the outcomes of skill instruction referenced to students’ homes and communities.

These themes are coupled with instructional methods that have been found to be ef-
fective with students who have severe disabilities.
Our special education laws require a clear focus on and preparation for the transi-
tion to adulthood. Preparing students for real work in the community is a longitudinal
process requiring extensive team effort over the teenage years. In Chapter 15, Valerie
Mazzotti and David Test set forth the essential elements of secondary vocational pro-
grams that will allow students and their teams to plan the transition from school to
adulthood and then to make the transition.
The book closes with Chapter 16, in which Dianne and Phil Ferguson discuss, both
as parents and as scholars, the promises that adulthood can offer to individuals with
severe disabilities. The Fergusons take us on a remarkable journey across the years with
their son Ian, now middle-aged, and his friend Douglas. These family stories describe a
path that has been “often confusing and frustrating, but also filled with many exciting
achievements.” The concept of supported adulthood is discussed within the context of
current policy, social services, educational practices, and societal expectations.
Acknowledgments
Many people have assisted in the task of developing the eighth edition. First, we are
indebted to the children, adolescents, young adults, and mature adults, who add real-
ity to each chapter and whose abilities and disabilities have challenged and shaped
our own skills and those of our contributors. Their families and their educators de-
serve equal gratitude for providing a vast array of teaching ideas, for granting permis-
sion to use their photographs, and for giving us extensive examples and information.
Finally, we are grateful for the helpful comments of our reviewers at various
stages in the revision process—James Dennis Cavitt, Abilene Christian University;
Jeri Katz, Bridgewater State University; and Sharon M. Kolb, University of Wisconsin
Whitewater.
We would also like to thank many of our students who continually inspire our
thinking and writing. Recognition also is given to the contributions of those at Pear-
son including Executive Editor, Ann Davis and her assistant, Janelle Criner and also
to Joe Sweeney and Kerry Rubadue. At Cenveo, we acknowledge the incredible work
of Susan McNally.
Fredda Brown, John McDonnell, and Martha E. Snell

Brief Contents
Chapter 1
Educating Students with Severe Disabilities Foundational Concepts
and Practices 1
Chapter 2
Fostering Family–Professional Partnerships 27
Chapter 3
Assessment and Planning 55
Chapter 4
Measuring Student Behavior and Learning 89
Chapter 5
Selecting Teaching Strategies and Arranging Educational
Environments 130
Chapter 6
Designing and Implementing Instruction for Inclusive Classes 190
Chapter 7
Designing and Implementing Individualized Positive Behavior
Support 223
Chapter 8
Understanding and Meeting the Health Care Needs of Students with Severe
Disabilities 264
Chapter 9
Key Concepts in Understanding Motor Disabilities 292
Chapter 10
Teaching Self-Care Skills 327
Chapter 11
Promoting Social Competence and Peer Relationships 371
Chapter 12
Teaching Communication Skills 404
Chapter 13
Teaching Academic Skills 438
Chapter 14
Building Skills for Home and Community 474
ix

x Brief Contents
Chapter 15
Transitioning from School to Employment 508
Chapter 16
The Promise of Adulthood 554
References 588
Name Index 623
Subject Index 630

Contents
1 Educating Students with Severe Disabilities 1

Michael F. Giangreco, Stacy K. Dymond, and Karrie A. Shogren
Who Are Students With Severe Disabilities? 2
Definitions, 2 ● Societal Perceptions and Expectations, 3 ● Opportunities for Interaction and Reciprocal Benefit, 4
Reasons For Optimism and Concern 4
Reasons for Optimism, 4 ● Reasons for Concern, 6
Access to Quality Education 8
Access to Inclusive Environments, 8 ● Access to Individualized Curriculum, 10 ● Access to Purposeful
Instruction, 17 ● Access to the Necessary Related Services and Supports, 22
Learning Outcome Summaries 25
2 Fostering Family–Professional Partnerships 27

Ann P. Turnbull, H. Rutherford Turnbull, Kathleen Kyzar, and Nina Zuna
Two Families and Two Windows for Understanding Families in Special Education 29
Individuals With Disabilities Education Act: Parental Rights and Responsibilities 29
IDEA’s Six Principles, 30 ● Assisting Families to Advocate: Parent Training and Information
Resource Centers, 36
A Family Systems Perspective 37
Family Characteristics, 39 ● Family Interaction, 42 ● Family Functions, 46 ● Family Life Cycle, 48
Suggested Activity: A Tale of Two Families 53
3 Assessment and Planning 55

Diane M. Browder, Jenny Root, Leah Wood, and Caryn Allison
Assumptions of Assessment 56
Qualities and Types of Assessment 59
Technical Adequacy, 59 ● Types of Assessments, 59
Purpose of Assessment 64
Multidisciplinary Assessments Used to Determine Eligibility, 65 ● Assessments for School
Accountability, 69 ● Assessments Used for IEP and Other Educational Planning, 71
Using the Assessment Information 82
Developing the IEP, 82
Overview to Chapters 4, 5, and 6 86
xi

xii Contents
4 Measuring Student Behavior and Learning 89

Fredda Brown, and Martha E. Snell
Why Measure Student Behavior? 89
Using an Evidence Base to Guide Instruction, 90 ● Accountability Through Evaluation, 91
Foundations of Meaningful Measurement 92
Measurement of Important Behaviors, 92 ● Measurement That Is Contextually Appropriate, 95 ● Measurement
That Is Accurate and Reliable, 96
Quantitative Measures 97
Rationale, 97 ● Measurement Strategies, 98
Organizing Student Performance Data 110
Designing Data Sheets, 110 ● Graphing Your Data, 110 ● Computer-Generated Graphs, 113 ● Saving
Ungraphed Data, 114 ● Frequency of Data Collection, 114
Data Analysis for Better Decision-Making 115
Measures of Accuracy, 116 ● Types of Data, 118 ● Obtaining a Baseline, 119 ● Baseline–Intervention
Comparison, 119 ● Graphing Conventions, 120 ● Visual Analysis, 121
Suggested Activities 129
5 Selecting Teaching Strategies and Arranging

Educational Environments 130
Martha E. Snell, Fredda Brown, and John McDonnell
Principles to Guide Instruction 131
Work as Collaborative Teams, 132 ● Determine What to Teach, 132 ● Understand How the Stage of Learning
Affects Instruction, 132 ● Reach Agreement on How Students Will Be Taught, 133 ● Monitor Student
Learning with Performance Data, 134
“Universal” Strategies that are Effective With a Wide Range of Students 134
Information About Students, 135 ● Materials and Universal Design, 135 ● The Instructor, 137 ● Schedule
for Instruction, 138 ● Teaching Arrangements, 139 ● One-to-One Instruction, 140 ● Small Group
Instruction, 140 ● Enhanced Group Instruction, 142 ● Observation Learning, 142 ● Cooperative Learning
Groups, 143 ● Group Instruction Guidelines, 144 ● Peer-Mediated Instruction and Peer Support, 144 ● Peer
Tutoring, 145 ● Peer Support Programs, 146 ● Individualized Adaptations: Accommodations and
Modifications, 147 ● Self-Management, 147
Specialized Teaching Strategies that are Effective With Students Who Have Severe
Disabilities 150
Visual Modality Strategies, 150 ● Visual Supports, 151 ● Video Modeling, 155 ● Task Analysis and Chaining,
157 ● Task Analysis, 158 ● Approaches for Teaching Chained Tasks, 160 ● Elements of Discrete Teaching
Trials, 161 ● Discriminative Stimuli, 163 ● Instructional Cues, 165 ● Stimulus and Response Prompting,
165 ● Stimulus Prompts, 165 ● Response Prompts, 166 ● Types of Instructional Prompts, 167 ● Response
Latency, 167 ● Prompt Fading, 169 ● Prompting Systems, 170 ● General Guidelines for Using Structured
Prompts and Cues, 176 ● Consequence Strategies, 176 ● Positive Reinforcement 177 ● Planned Ignoring,
180 ● Response to Errors, 181 ● Arranging Teaching Trials, 184 ● Distributed or Massed Trial Instruction,
184 ● Contextualized or Decontextualized Instruction, 185 ● Embedding Instruction Within Activities, 186
6 Designing and Implementing Instruction

for Inclusive Classes 190
Rachel E. Janney, and Martha E. Snell
The Pyramid of Support/Response-to-Intervention Logic 191

Contents xiii
Collaborative Teaming for Ongoing, Day-to-Day Planning and Delivery of Instruction 192
A Model for Making Individualized Adaptations 195
Criteria for Making Individualized Adaptations, 195 ● Types of Adaptations: Curricular, Instructional, and
Alternative, 196 ● Curricular Adaptations: Individualize the Learning Goal, 197 ● Instructional Adaptations:
Individualize the Methods and/or Materials, 199 ● Alternative Adaptations: Individualize the Goal, the Methods/
Materials, and the Activity, 201
Using the Model to Develop Individualized Adaptations 203
Step 1. Gather and Share Information About the Student(s) and the Classroom, 203 ● Information About the
Classroom, 204 ● In-depth Information About Class Activities and Participation, 205 ● Step 2. Determine
When Adaptations Are Needed, 207 ● Step 3. Plan and Implement Adaptations: First General, Then Specific
209 ● General Adaptations, 209 ● Specific Adaptations, 210 ● Individualized Adaptations and Support Plans
211 ● Step 4. Monitor and Evaluate, 216 ● Monitoring Student Performance, 216 ● Evaluating Student
Progress, 219
7 Designing and Implementing Individualized

Positive Behavior Support 223
Robert E. O’Neill, and J. Matt Jameson
Development of Positive Behavior Support (PBS) 225
Development of PBS in Schools: Multi-Tiered Systems of Support (MTSS) 226
Inclusion of Students With More Severe Disabilities in MTSS 227
Components of Individualized PBS 228
Three Phases of Implementation, 228 ● Person-Centered Planning, 229 ● Ecological Assessment, 230 ● Why
Conduct an FBA?, 230 ● Outcomes of an FBA, 231 ● Who Should Be Involved?, 231
Overview of the FBA Process 231
Assessment, 231 ● Hypothesis Development, 232 ● Direct Observations and Analyses, 232 ● Development of
Behavioral Intervention Plans (BIPs), 232 ● Specify Who Will Do What and When, 233 ● Ongoing Data
Collection and Evaluation, 235
Indirect Data Collection 235
Archival Review, 235 ● Interviews, 235 ● Checklists, 239
Direct Observations 239
Validation of Summary Statements, 241
Functional Analysis 241
Procedures, 241
Behavior Intervention Plan Development 242
Important Characteristics of BIPs, 242 ● Bridging the Gap from FBA to BIP: The Competing Behavior Model
243 ● Formats for Behavior Intervention Plans, 246
Potential Intervention Plan Components 246
Lifestyle Changes, 246 ● Classroom Modifications, 246 ● Setting Events/Motivating Operations, 247 ● Antecedent
Strategies, 248 ● Teaching and Prompting Alternative/Replacement Behaviors, 249 ● Consequence Strategies for
Appropriate and Challenging Behavior, 249 ● Crisis/Emergency Intervention Strategies, 250 ● Intervention Plan
Evaluation and Monitoring, 252 ● Example Behavior Intervention Plan for Micah, 253
General Issues Regarding Ethical and Professional Behavior 253
Technology Supports for FBA 254
Direct Observation Tools, 255
Technology Tools to Support Intervention Strategies 257
Setting Events, 257 ● Antecedent Interventions, 258 ● Behavioral Teaching Applications, 258 ● Consequence
Interventions, 259 ● Communication, 259

xiv Contents
8 Understanding and Meeting the Health Care

Needs of Students with Severe Disabilities 264
Donna Lehr, and Nancy Harayama
Introduction 265
Students with Special Health Care Needs Defined 265
General Knowledge of Health Care Procedures 267
Hygienic Practices in Schools, 267
Understanding Specialized Health Care Procedures 275
Knowledge and Training Levels, 275 ● Responsible Personnel, 276 ● Specialized Health Care Procedures, 276
Care Coordination Through Communication 281
Individualized Health Care Plans, 282 ● Record Keeping, 283
Inclusion in the General Education Setting 285
Acceptance by Peers, 285 ● Specialized Education Content, 286 ● Maximizing Educational Opportunities, 287
Other Considerations Related to the Education of Students With Special
Health Care Needs 287
Medical Discrimination, 287 ● Do Not Resuscitate, 289
9 Key Concepts in Understanding Motor Disabilities 292

Mary Jane Rapport, Amy Barr, and Maria Jones
Impact on Education and Participation 294
International Classification on Function (ICF), 295 ● Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS),
297 ● Quality of Movement, 298
Team Support for Students 302
Team Collaboration and Communication, 302 ● Service Delivery by the Team, 304
Meeting Students’ Needs 306
Daily Routines, 307 ● Lifting, Transferring, Moving, 310 ● Positioning, 311 ● Learning, 313 ● Ecological
Inventory, 314 ● Playground and Recreation, 315 ● Transition to Employment or Other Postsecondary
Settings, 316 ● Use of Equipment to Enhance Participation, 317 ● Use of Other Technologies and Equipment
in the Classroom, 323 ● Transportation 324
10 Teaching Self-Care Skills 327

Martha E. Snell, Monica E. Delano, and Virginia L. Walker
General Teaching Considerations 329
Identifying What to Teach, 329
Special Considerations for Toileting 336
Identify What to Teach, 337 ● Identify Teaching Strategies, 342
Special Considerations for Eating and Mealtimes 349
Identify What to Teach, 350 ● Identify Teaching Strategies for Eating and Mealtimes, 351 ● Addressing
Problem Behaviors During Mealtime, 353
Special Considerations for Dressing and Grooming 358
Identify What to Teach, 359 ● Identify Teaching Strategies for Dressing and Grooming Skills, 362

Contents xv
11 Promoting Social Competence and Peer Relationships 371

Erik W. Carter, and Matthew E. Brock
Introduction 372
Contributions of Peer Relationships in the Lives of all Children 373
Friendships Are Important in the Lives of All Students, 373 ● For Children and Youth with Severe Disabilities,
374 ● For Peers Without Disabilities, 374
The Diversity of Peer Relationships 374
Defining Relationships, 375 ● The Variety of Interactions and Relationships, 375 ● The Role of Context and
Relationships, 378
The Importance of Intentional Efforts to Foster Relationships 379
Relationships with Peers Who Do Not Have Disabilities, 379
Promoting Peer Interaction and Social Relationships 380
Assessment to Identify Needs and Opportunities, 381
Strategies for Addressing Social Needs and Maximizing Relationship
Opportunities 385
Shared Space, 385 ● Shared Activities, 385 ● Shared Interests, 386 ● Student-Focused Instruction,
386 ● Peer-Focused Instruction, 387 ● Promoting Valued Roles, 387 ● Providing Appropriate Support, 387
Evidence-Based Strategies for Supporting Relationships 388
Inclusive General Education Classrooms, 388 ● Peer Support Strategies, 388 ● Informal School Contexts,
394 ● Extracurricular and Other School-Sponsored Activities, 396 ● After School, on Weekends, and During
the Summer, 398
Monitoring Progress and Refining Efforts 399
Monitoring Interactions with Peers in Class, 399 ● Monitoring Participation in Extracurricular Activities,
400 ● Monitoring Student and Family Satisfaction 400
Practical Guides and Resources 403
12 Teaching Communication Skills 404

Susan S. Johnston
The Importance of Communication 404
Features of Communication 406
Preintentional or Intentional Communication, 406 ● Presymbolic or Symbolic Communication, 407 ● Modes
of Communication, 407 ● Communicative Functions, 410 ● Conversational Functions, 410 ● More Complex
Communication, 411 ● Comprehension, 412
Identifying and Assessing Communication Skills and Abilities—Deciding What to
Teach 412
Formal and Informal Assessment Procedures, 413 ● Indirect and Direct Observation Assessment Strategies, 413
Linking Assessment to Intervention, 416
Developing an Instructional Plan—Deciding How to Teach 417
Identify Opportunities for Instruction, 417 ● Prompting the Communicative Behavior, 420 ● Prompt Fading
423 ● Consequences, 423 ● Response Efficiency, 424 ● Monitoring Progress, 425
Additional Resources 436

xvi Contents
13 Teaching Academic Skills 438

John McDonnell, and Susan R. Copeland
Selecting Academic Skills for Instruction 440
General Guidelines, 440 ● Strategies for Developing Academic IEP Goals and Objectives, 441
Determining the Instructional Approach 443
Teaching Within Typical Instructional Routines and Activities, 443 ● Teaching Academics in Parallel
Instructional Activities, 444 ● Teaching Academics in Community-Based Activities, 444
Literacy Instruction 445
Definition of Literacy, 445 ● Comprehensive Literacy Instruction, 445 ● Teaching Conventional Early Reading
and Writing, 447 ● Word Recognition, 448
Math Instruction 462
Numeracy and Computation, 462
Science Instruction 470
14 Building Skills for Home and Community 474

Linda M. Bambara, Freya Koger, Raquel Burns, and Dolly Singley
Guidelines for Planning Instruction to Enhance Skills for the Home and Community 476
Guideline One: Use Person-Centered Planning Strategies to Create a Vision, 477 ● Guideline Two: Coordinate
Instruction with Families, 478 ● Guideline Three: Encourage Self-Determination Through Choice-Making, Self-
Cuing, and Self-Management Skills, 478 ● Guideline Four: Select Appropriate Instructional Settings,
484 ● Guideline Five: Incorporate General Case Instruction, 487 ● Guideline Six: Coordinate Instruction with
Transition Planning, 488
Strategies for Teaching Home and Community Skills 491
Skills for the Home, 491 ● Skills for the Community, 500
15 Transitioning from School to Employment 508

Valerie L. Mazzotti, and David W. Test
Introduction 511
Definition of Transition 511
Transition Planning 514
Indicator 13 Requirements, 514 ● Age-Appropriate Transition Assessment, 516 ● Person-Centered Planning,
519 ● Self-Determination and Student Involvement in the IEP 520
Teaching Employment Skills 523
Where to Provide Instruction, 523 ● Where to Provide Instruction: School-Based Instruction (SBI) Options,
524 ● Where to Provide Instruction: Community-Based Instruction (CBI) Options, 529 ● How to Provide
Instruction, 535 ● How to Collect Instructional Data, 538 ● Using Assistive Technology, 539 ● Meeting
Medical and Health Needs, 541
Adult Outcomes and Meaningful Employment Outcomes 542
Supported Employment, 542 ● Natural Supports, 543 ● Customized Employment, 544
Family Roles in Transition 544
Interagency Collaboration 546
Vocation Rehabilitation Services, 546 ● Developmental Disabilities Services, 547 ● Social Security
Administration, 548 ● One-Stop Career Centers, 550
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Contents xvii

16 The Promise of Adulthood 554

Dianne L. Ferguson, and Philip M. Ferguson
Exploring the Promise of Adulthood 556
Understanding Adulthood 557
The Changing Status of Adulthood, 557 ● The Dimensions of Adulthood, 559
Denying Adulthood 566
Unending Childhood, 567 ● Unfinished Transitions, 568 ● Unhelpful Services, 570 ● The Dilemma of
Adulthood 572
Achieving Adulthood 573
The Concept of Support, 574 ● What Is Different About Supported Adulthood?, 575 ● Components of
Supported Adulthood, 575
Living the Promise 579
Multidimensional Adulthood, 584 ● A Cautionary Conclusion About Unkept Promises, 584
References588
Name Index 623
Subject Index 630

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1
Educating Students with Severe Disabilities
Foundational Concepts and Practices
Michael F. Giangreco
University of Vermont
Stacy K. Dymond
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Karrie A. Shogren
University of Kansas
“Learn from yesterday, live for today, hope for tomorrow. The important thing is not to stop questioning.”
—Albert Einstein
1.01 Who are students with severe disabilities?

Learning Outcome
Identify definitions of severe disabilities, the role of the supports model in understanding students
with severe disabilities, and the influence of societal perceptions and social interactions.
1.02 Reasons for optimism and concern
Learning Outcome
Identify areas where progress has been made in providing individualized supports for people with
severe disabilities in inclusive communities, and areas where work is still needed.
1.03 Access to quality education
Learning Outcome
Discuss the foundational principles of providing supports to students with severe disabilities that
promote access to (a) inclusive environments, (b) individualized curriculum, (c) purposeful instruc-
tion, and (d) necessary supports.
P roviding relevant education for students with severe disabilities requires that we learn from our past
practices, both the mistakes and the successes, by drawing on the historical bank of foundational con-
cepts and practices available to us. Our contemporary challenge is to apply what we have learned
within today’s context and to do so with a sense of urgency, because as we ponder, debate, and research the
merits of our practices, the children who enter our schools are quickly growing up—they and their families
do not have the luxury of waiting. Providing individuals with severe disabilities quality education requires
that we adopt conceptually sound, evidence-based practices in our schools and confront assumptions about
ability that continually threaten current and future opportunities.
M01_SNEL7163_08_SE_C01.indd 1 26/03/15 4:43 PM

2 Chapter 1
People identified as having severe disabilities are the epitome of why Einstein’s chal-
lenge “not to stop questioning” is so important. Only 40 years ago, students with severe
disabilities had no legal right to attend public schools and many did not—expectations
for their educational progress were minimal. Today because of people with disabilities,
their family members, and professionals who never stopped questioning, people with
severe disabilities are doing things that many would have thought to be unimaginable
just a few short decades ago: They are (a) attending general education classes with their
peers who do not have disabilities, (b) learning general education curricular content,
(c) participating in general education co-curricular activities, (d) engaging in supported
employment, (e) transitioning to community-based supported living options, and (f)
accessing inclusive post–high school educational opportunities—but, only some.
Who are Students with Severe Disabilities?

Definitions
Although the term severe disabilities is used extensively in the professional literature, no
single authoritative definition exists. The amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA) (2004), a common source of special education
Watch the video “Classification terminology, do not define severe disabilities. IDEA and its corre-
and Intellectual Disability” at www sponding Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) (2006) do define 13
.youtube.com/watch?v=80rc4ZAtQ0I. distinct disability classifications (34 CFR 300.8), several of which rea-
sonably include students considered to have severe disabilities (e.g.,
autism, deaf-blindness, intellectual disability, multiple disabilities,
traumatic brain injury), although not all students within these categories have severe dis-
abilities. Sometimes people with severe disabilities are described as having low-incidence
disabilities. Within the school context, the Code of Federal Regulations (2003) allows for
up to 1% of the total student population, those with most severe cognitive disabilities, to
be assessed based on alternate performance standards (34 CFR 200.13).
Historically, and all too often contemporarily, attempts to describe or define the
characteristics of students with severe disabilities have focused primarily on identify-
ing deficits in domains that influence human functioning, including intellectual, aca-
demic, orthopedic, sensory, behavioral, and social. Unfortunately, such definitions tell
us very little about people with severe disabilities (McDonnell, Hardman, & McDonnell,
2003) and may, in fact, contribute to the failures to question the capabilities of people
with disabilities that have occurred throughout history and led to limited educational
opportunities (Schalock et al., 2007).
Newer conceptualizations of disability are emerging, however, that shift the focus from
simply identifying deficits in functioning and instead to emphasizing the reciprocal inter-
action between the personal capacities of people with severe disabilities, such as differ-
ences in intellectual, academic, orthopedic, sensory, behavioral, and social functioning,
and environmental demands, such as the need to participate and learn in inclusive
schools, communities, and classrooms (Schalock et al., 2010; World Health Organization,
2001; 2007). By identifying discrepancies between a person’s current level of functioning
and environmental demands, supports needed for participation and learning in those
environments can be identified; this is know as the supports model (Schalock et al., 2012;
Thompson et al., 2009). Supports for participation might include assistive technologies
for students as well as environmental changes like the adoption of a co-teaching model or
the implementation of a peer support program. Supports for learning might include indi-
vidualized curricular adaptations as well as the adoption of universal design for learning
in the classroom. The supports model shifts the focus from identifying deficits within a
person to understanding needed supports and building systems of supports that facilitate
success in inclusive environments.
The supports model prompts professionals to never stop questioning the capabili-
ties of individuals with severe disabilities, particularly when needed supports are pro-
vided for participation and learning in inclusive environments. It also recognizes that
M01_SNEL7163_08_SE_C01.indd 2 16/04/15 2:59 PM

Educating Students with Severe Disabilities 3
students with severe disabilities are a widely heterogeneous group in terms of their
disability characteristics, capabilities, and educational needs as well as in their charac-
teristics not related to disability (e.g., interests, preferences, personalities, socioeco-
nomic levels, cultural heritage). By focusing on individualized supports identified
through a systematic analysis of discrepancies between personal capacities and envi-
ronmental demands, this collective diversity and need for individualized, lifelong sup-
ports can be addressed in inclusive contexts.
A foundational assumption of the supports model is that people with severe disa-
bilities share a fundamental human trait with all other people—the capacity to learn,
and that appropriate supports for learning will allow individuals with severe disabili-
ties to demonstrate their capabilities. Although this may seem too obvious to men-
tion, as recently as the early 1980s, there were heated debates in the professional
literature about whether individuals with the most severe disabilities were capable of
learning and how such judgments affected their right to be educated. The words of
Baer (1981) remain relevant today:
To the extent that we sometimes finally succeed in teaching a child whom we have con-
sistently failed to teach in many previous efforts, we may learn something about teach-
ing technique . . . Too often, in my opinion, we teach children who are not only capable
of teaching themselves, but eager to do so; in their wisdom, they cheat us of learning
completely how the trick is done because they do some of it for us and do it privately. It
is when they cannot do much if any of it for us that we get to find out how to do all of it
ourselves, as teachers. (p. 94)
Approaching all students as capable of learning provides us with the opportunity
to never stop questioning our own understanding of teaching and learning. The
notion of all students as capable of learning and entitled to appropriate education is
consistent with the federal zero-reject principle embedded in IDEA since its passage
in 1975. The zero-reject principle established that all school-aged children, regardless
of the severity of their disability, are entitled to a free, appropriate public education
(Turnbull, Stowe, & Huerta, 2007). This principle was tested in the case of Timothy
W. v. Rochester School District (1989) when a student with severe, multiple disabilities
was denied admission to his local public school because school officials deemed him
unable to benefit from education due to the severity of his disability. Although the
trial court sided with Rochester School District, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the First
Circuit overturned this ruling, and strongly reaffirmed the zero-reject principle as a
core component of IDEA, stating that
. . . educational methodologies in these areas are not static, but are constantly evolving
and improving. It is the school district’s responsibility to avail itself of these new
approaches in providing an educational program geared toward each child’s individ-
ual needs. The only question for the school district to determine, in conjunction with the
child’s parents, is what constitutes an appropriate individualized education program
(IEP). (p. 973)
This decision, and all subsequent reauthorizations of IDEA, have emphasized that all
students are entitled to a free, appropriate public education. Schools must continu-
ously question their assumptions about supports for learning and participation, and
ensure that teachers have access to state-of-the-art practices for meeting all students’
individualized needs.
Societal Perceptions and Expectations

TASH (n.d.), an international advocacy and professional organization focused on pro-
moting the full inclusion and participation of people with severe disabilities, states
that people with severe disabilities are
. . . most at risk for being excluded from society; perceived by traditional services sys-
tems as most challenging; most likely to have their rights abridged; most likely to be at
M01_SNEL7163_08_SE_C01.indd 3 26/03/15 4:43 PM

4 Chapter 1
risk for living, working, playing, and learning in segregated environments; [and] least
likely to have the tools necessary to advocate on their behalf.
Because people with severe disabilities require ongoing supports to mitigate the
risks described above, the ways in which they are perceived and subsequently treated
by others can have a major impact on the quality of their lives. When coupled with
the historical emphasis on deficits in functioning experienced by people with disabili-
ties, social perceptions and expectations have tended to be low. This can lead to dis-
ability spread, defined as the tendency to make broad inferences, assumptions, and
generalizations about a person on the basis of disability stereotypes within the society
(Dembo, Leviton, & Wright, 1975; Liesener & Mills, 1999). Some common stereotypes
portray persons with disabilities as sick, subhuman, a menace, an object of pity, an
object of charity, or a holy innocent (Smith & Wehmeyer, 2012; Wolfensberger, 1975).
Opportunities for Interaction and Reciprocal Benefit

As noted by TASH, stereotypes and disability spread have a significant, negative
impact on the quality of life of people with severe disabilities. However, it is not just
people with severe disabilities that are negatively impacted. If you accept the notion
that personal relationships are among a small set of the most defining characteristics
that influence the quality of a person’s life, then disability spread is a problematic
issue for those with and without disabilities alike as it limits relationships between
people with and without disabilities (Bogdan & Taylor, 1989).
As you continue to read this chapter and the rest of this book about people who
have the label of severe disabilities, you are encouraged to think about how these
individuals are like all other people, like some other people, and uniquely like no other
people. Keep in mind that first and foremost we all are human beings—someone’s
child, someone’s sibling, someone’s classmate, someone’s neighbor, or someone’s
friend. It is true that some people are born with or acquire disability characteristics
that require lifelong systems of supports. Remember, though, that we all need sup-
ports, we just differ in the level of those support needs. Our collective attitudes and
responses to differences in support needs can influence how much of a barrier those
support needs are (or are not) to living a full, engaged, and self-determined life.
Reasons for Optimism and Concern

From an historical perspective, our current times are among the best for individuals
with severe disabilities, at least thus far. We write this with the full recognition that
our current best is relative and is quite a long way from good for far too many people
labeled as having severe disabilities. This section highlights a set of key reasons for
optimism about the education of students with disabilities followed by a set of con-
tinuing concerns.
Reasons for Optimism

Table 1–1 lists five areas for optimism about our present and future. Such optimism about
our collective potential to make a positive difference in the lives of students with and
without disabilities is an essential ingredient of the creative problem solving necessary to
tackle these important challenges.
First, nowhere is progress more evident or reason for optimism
Karrie Shogren discusses self-
more warranted than with regard to inclusive educational opportu-
determination at www.youtube.com
/watch?v=ZdArcPCH8FQ&src_vid nities (see Table 1–2 for key elements of inclusive education).
=SOdHpLvpVH4&feature=iv&annotat Across the country, students with severe disabilities are increas-
ion_id=annotation_2241971059 ingly accessing general education classrooms and other inclusive
settings with their same-age peers without disabilities (Downing,
M01_SNEL7163_08_SE_C01.indd 4 16/04/15 10:00 AM

Educating Students with Severe Disabilities 5
Table 1–1
Areas for Optimism
1. Inclusive education and schoolwide reform
2. Access to the general education curriculum
3. Positive behavior interventions and supports
4. Peer supports
5. Self-determination and transition to adult life
2008); such options were rare or non-existent just two or three decades ago. Inclusive
schools promote equity, opportunity, and social justice for all their students ( Jorgensen,
McSheehan, & Sonnenmeier, 2009; Sapon-Shevin, 2011; Theoharis, 2009). These out-
comes are relevant for any student across a range of diverse characteristics (e.g., race,
culture, primary language, socioeconomic level), as well as any student who simply is
having difficulty becoming part of a classroom’s learning community. The tenets of
inclusive schooling are increasingly being linked with broader school reform and restruc-
turing efforts designed to improve educational opportunities for all students. The
Schoolwide Applications Model (SAM) (Sailor, 2002; Sailor & Roger, 2005), Whole
Schooling (Peterson, 2004; (Peterson & Hittie, 2010), Schools of Promise (Causton-
Theoharis, Theoharis, Bull, Cosier, & Dempf-Aldrich, 2011), and Schoolwide Integrated
Framework for Transformation (SWIFT, www.swiftschools.org/) offer examples of suc-
cessful efforts to bridge general and special education, and transform schools into inclu-
sive communities that meet the needs of the diverse array of students in our schools.
Second, curricular options for students with severe disabilities have extended beyond
functional life skills to include greater alignment and access to the general education cur-
riculum. Promising approaches have emerged that demonstrate positive learning out-
comes for students with severe disabilities in literacy, math, and science (Hudson,
Browder, & Wood, 2013; Riggs, Collins, Kleinert, & Knight, 2013; Spooner, Knight,
Browder, & Smith, 2012). In inclusive settings, the principle of universal design for learn-
ing (i.e., designing the curriculum with the needs of all learners in mind right from the
start) has enabled teachers to create learning environments that accommodate the range
of learners in their classrooms (Coyne, Pisha, Dalton, Zeph, & Smith, 2012; Dymond
Table 1–2
Elements of Inclusive Education
Inclusive education exists when each of the following six characteristics occurs on an ongoing, daily basis.
1. All students are welcomed in general education. The first placement options considered are the
general education classes in the school that the students would attend if they did not have a disability.
2. Disability is recognized as a form of human diversity. Hence, students with disabilities are accepted
as individuals and are not denied access because of their disabilities.
3. Appropriate supports are available, regardless of disability label or the level and/or type of supports
needed. Given their portability, supports are provided in typical environments instead of sending
students to specialized settings to receive supports.
4. The composition of the classrooms in which students are educated reflects the naturally occurring
proportion of students with and without disabilities or other identified needs (referred to as natural
proportions). Therefore, the percentage of students without disabilities in each class is substantially
higher than the percentage of students with disabilities or other special needs.
5. Students, irrespective of their performance levels and/or support needs, are educated with peers in
the same age groupings available to those without disability labels instead of with younger students.
Students with disabilities need not function at or near the same academic level as their classmates
(although some do) to benefit from a chronologically age-appropriate, inclusive placement.
6. Students with and without disabilities participate in shared educational experiences while pursuing
individually appropriate learning outcomes with the necessary supports. Educational experiences are
designed to enhance valued life outcomes that seek an individualized balance between both the
academic-functional and the social-personal aspects of schooling.
(From Choosing Outcomes and Accommodations for Children (COACH): A Guide to Educational
Planning for Students with Disabilities, Third Edition (2011) by M.F. Giangreco, C.J. Cloninger, & V.S.
Iverson. (Baltimore, Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co, Inc.). Adapted with permission.)
M01_SNEL7163_08_SE_C01.indd 5 16/04/15 10:00 AM

6 Chapter 1
et al., 2006). Furthermore, students with severe disabilities are now included in statewide
accountability systems through alternate assessments that are aligned with state aca-
demic standards (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, IDEA, 2004; No Child Left
Behind Act, NCLB, 2001). This increased emphasis on academic instruction has pre-
sented new opportunities for students with severe disabilities to access challenging cur-
riculum and for school personnel to be held accountable for their learning.
Third, the rapidly developing technology of positive behavior interventions and sup-
ports (PBIS) has resulted in effective, non-aversive interventions for students with severe
disabilities who exhibit problem behavior (Brown & Michaels, 2006; Dunlap et al., 2010;
Freeman et al., 2006; Goh & Bambara, 2012; Sailor, Dunlap, Sugai, & Horner, 2008) (see
Chapter 7). PBIS is based on the premise that all behavior serves a function (or purpose)
and interventions must be designed to teach alternative behaviors that serve the same
functions. Since the reauthorization of IDEA in 1997, schools have been required to con-
sider the use of PBIS for students with problem behavior. Schools are increasingly imple-
menting PBIS strategies schoolwide, which has resulted in the creation of more positive
learning environments for all students, including students with severe disabilities.
Fourth, drawing upon peers to lend support to students with severe disabilities has
emerged as a prominent area of research because it is central to social and academic
classroom success (Carter, Cushing, & Kennedy, 2009; Janney & Snell, 2006). Peers
without disabilities can effectively provide an array of supports to their classmates
with disabilities in ways that enhance educational experiences. Increasingly, school
personnel are recognizing the benefits of peer supports instead of the common
response of relying too heavily or unnecessarily on extra adult supports (e.g., one-to-
one teacher assistants) (Giangreco, Doyle & Suter, 2012) (see Chapter 11).
Finally, the focus on family involvement has expanded to include student involve-
ment and self-determination. Self-determined young people have skills and attitudes
that allow them to act as causal agents, to make things happen in their own lives.
Self-determination emerges as students learn the skills needed to make choices and
decisions about their own lives, have opportunities to make decisions, and then have
those decisions honored (Wehmeyer, 2005). As succinctly summarized in self-
advocacy circles, “Nothing about me without me!” Self-determination is critically
important as it pertains to transition to adult life (Shogren, 2013; Thoma, Bartho-
lomew, & Scott, 2009). Self-determination skills facilitate successful transitions into
supported employment (Wehman, Inge, Revell, & Brooke, 2007), supported commu-
nity living ( Jameson & McDonnell, 2010; Taylor, 2006), and postsecondary education
(Feldman, Fialka, & Rossen, 2006; Grigal & Hart, 2009).
Reasons for Concern

Although the five areas for optimism presented in the previous section are encourag-
ing trends, the field of special education is not at a stage of development where the
curricular, instructional, and support needs of students with severe disabilities are con-
sistently and sufficiently addressed. Table 1–3 lists six continuing areas of concern.
First, inclusive educational opportunities have remained relatively static, and
inconsistent access to inclusive classrooms continues to plague public school systems,
especially for students with severe disabilities. Primary placement in general education
Table 1–3
Areas for Continuing Concern
1. Inconsistent access to inclusive classrooms
2. Questionable quality of curriculum and instruction
3. Too many families are frustrated by the lack of professional responsiveness
4. Continued use of aversive procedures
5. Challenging working conditions for special educators
6. Limited postschool options
M01_SNEL7163_08_SE_C01.indd 6 26/03/15 4:43 PM

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
“Miss Barry did it in Denver one time—when she was with a stock
company. I can’t understand why you speak as if there was
something wrong about it. I think it’s great. You can cry like anything
when you see it—because it seems as if what happens couldn’t have
been helped. It isn’t one of those things that’s been screwed around
to make everybody feel as if they’d been eating caramels. You
remember it!”
Baron, Sr., engaged in carving the roast, twinkled somewhat darkly.
“You might get her to shape your criticism for you, Victor,” he
suggested.
“I don’t know if the editor would stand for ‘screwed around,’” said
Baron, “but upon my soul, I think she’s right.”
“Well, don’t you think you could take me, then?” asked Bonnie May.
“It really isn’t possible. You see, I must hurry down to the office right
after the performance—to write it, you know.”
The child leaned toward Mrs. Baron, a very real shadow trembling on
her face. “Couldn’t you go, so you could bring me home?” she
asked. Her voice was nearly inaudible, through fear of
disappointment. “I haven’t been for such a long time. You can’t think
how dearly I’d like to go.”
Mrs. Baron was provoked by the child’s intense earnestness. “Oh—
impossible!” she said. She noted the look of despair in Bonnie May’s
eyes. “There wouldn’t be enough tickets, anyway,” she added
weakly.
Baron leaned back in his chair as if he had lost his appetite. What
was the matter with them all, anyway, that they were afraid to get
down into the crowd once in a while? Plenty of really nice people
went to all manner of places—in search of novelty, for diversion, in
order to get into touch with mankind. He had spoken of mad persons
out at Fairyland. That was merely a silly cynicism. They weren’t any
madder than other people. Surely they were saner, since they were
willing to enjoy the best that life afforded.
“I’ve got plenty of seats, mother,” he said. He returned to his dinner,
smiling somewhat maliciously.
“Victor!” exclaimed Mrs. Baron. She flushed angrily. “You know very
well I won’t go to such a place.”
Bonnie May’s voice trailed away to a whisper—almost to a whimper.
“Nice people can go anywhere they want to go,” she said. “It’s only
silly people who need to be afraid, because they don’t know how to
think for themselves.”
She tried very hard to eat her dinner then, and to say no more. But
presently she said, faintly, “Please excuse me,” and ran, weeping in
true childish abandon, from the room.
It was the first time she had really lost control over herself!
Baron, Sr., was the first to speak. “She’s only a child,” he said, as if
anything more would be superfluous.
An ensuing silence was broken by the sound of the telephone-bell,
and Mrs. Baron was glad to respond, as a means of putting the
finishing touches to an uncomfortable episode.
But the telephone seemed only to create other difficulties. The group
at the table were quite at a loss to know what could have brought
such an extraordinary sharpness into Mrs. Baron’s voice. She was
soon grasping the receiver angrily, and they heard her saying, with
uncomfortable intervals between her words and phrases: “To-night?
Bonnie May? Mr. Baron? Why should he do anything of the kind?
No, I don’t understand at all. No....” She turned around in quick
displeasure. “Victor,” she appealed, “will you see what they want?”
And Baron hurried to the phone and took up the broken
conversation.
“Oh, Mrs. Thornburg!” he began. Then, after a pause, “Yes, that was
the understanding. There wasn’t any definite time set—” A pause.
“Yes, I know he is. I’m going out there, too.” Another pause, and
then, “Well, I suppose it might be managed. I’ll ask her. I promised—
we both agreed—that she should do as she pleased——”
He turned back to the table with a brave attempt at briskness. But
the inquiring glances bent upon him were disconcerting.
Mrs. Baron went and unceremoniously hung up the receiver. She
had, it seemed, understood quite accurately what the person at the
other end of the phone had been saying.
“It’s an invitation for Bonnie May,” said Baron, trying to shake off the
feeling that he was a guilty wretch. “Mrs. Thornburg particularly
wishes her to come over this evening, because she’s to be alone.”
“Well!” was Mrs. Baron’s comment. “Why should she go over there,
I’d like to know?”
Baron hesitated. “The fact is, I entered into a sort of compact with
Thornburg——”
“Yes, I gathered something of the kind,” said Mrs. Baron angrily. “I
suppose I have nothing to say, one way or another.”
“It was when you were still of the belief that Bonnie May couldn’t be
—quite comfortable with us, and Thornburg.... I don’t think I was
wholly unjustified in what I promised. You remember you said that as
soon as she could be got ready—” He was floundering painfully now,
with the eyes of everybody in the room turned upon him accusingly.
“Mrs. Thornburg says she has a room ready, specially fitted up for
her, and she only asks that she may spend the night——”
Mrs. Baron had a vision of that room that had been “specially fitted
up” for the child, who was now away somewhere grieving because
she had been refused a greatly coveted privilege. No doubt the
Thornburg woman had spent whole weeks and no end of money in
fitting up that room. And she thought with a sinking heart of the
gloom of the mansion, and its threadbare aspects.
“Victor Baron,” she cried angrily, “I wish you would tell me just what
agreement you made with that theatre man. I want to know where I
stand.”
And Baron explained—or, rather, he failed to explain very clearly.
The idea of “a sort of duel” not only failed to delight his auditors as it
had delighted Thornburg, but they looked as if they considered it a
type of criminal and unseemly folly.
“You see,” persisted Baron, “the Thornburgs are rich people. They
may go so far as to adopt Bonnie May, if the thing works out
satisfactorily. I know how that sounds, but we’ve got to think of—of
her interests, as well as our own whims.”
“Whims!” This, witheringly, from Mrs. Baron.
“I think it was mostly whims at first, anyway.”
“You’re speaking for yourself—not for me.”
“And the Thornburgs are not bad people. I don’t see why they
shouldn’t make her quite happy. I’m not at all sure we could do as
much, if we undertook to keep her here constantly.”
“That,” said Mrs. Baron “is your mean way of reminding me of what
happened just a little while ago!”
“Oh, no, mother! But she’s such a joyous little thing! I think she’ll like
us all the better for seeing other people once in a while.”
Mrs. Baron gazed at her son silently, her face darkening. He realized
that her mind was filled with scorn, with resistance, with misgivings.
“And I suppose,” she said, “that everything in their house is the
newest and brightest and costliest!” She enumerated these qualities
as if she were pointing out so many of the cardinal sins.
Baron pretended not to understand. “They live nicely,” he said. “But
as far as Bonnie May is concerned, I don’t think you need fear that
the things the Thornburgs have will give them any advantage over
us.”
“Well, I don’t want her to go,” declared Mrs. Baron.
Baron was standing in indecision when, happily, there was an
interruption.
The front door closed rather noisily, as it did when Mrs. Shepard was
not in a very good humor, and there was the sound of Baggot’s voice
in the hall.
Baron groaned. He had forgotten about Baggot. He went out into the
hall and confronted the playwright apologetically. “I’d really
forgotten,” he began, but Baggot cut him short.
“It’s all right,” remarked that young man. “Come on up to the library. I
needn’t keep you long. But it’s simply necessary—” He was leading
the way up-stairs as if he were in his own house.
“Look here, Baggot,” remonstrated Baron, “I’ve got to go out to-night,
in half an hour—in fifteen minutes. You’ll have to come back some
other night.”
“Where you going?”
Baron gasped at the man’s rudeness.
“I’ve got to review a play, out at——”
“Fine! I’ll go with you!”
Baron sank into a chair. There really wasn’t any reason why Baggot
shouldn’t go with him. “But I’m going on the street-car,” he explained.
“We couldn’t read a play——”
“It’s not ready to be read, most of it. I’ve only got a couple of acts
and the scenario. But there are certain things....” He pulled his chair
closer to Baron’s and began an eager discussion of his play.
Time passed, and Flora appeared in the doorway. Her eyes were
inscrutable. “Mother wishes to see you before you go out,” she said.
“Will she come up here?” pleaded Baron. He wanted to hide behind
Baggot and escape a further scolding.
“I’ll ask her,” replied Flora.
Baggot, leaning forward and speaking with great intensity, continued
on the subject which obsessed him.
Time flew, and Baron found himself nervously jerking out his watch.
Then there was a faint rustle of dresses out in the sitting-room.
Mrs. Baron appeared in the doorway.
She was dressed with all the exquisite, subtle attention to detail
which never failed to make Baron proud of her. He took in the quiet,
old-fashioned jewelry, sparingly displayed; the softened dignity of
costume; the fine severity of her beautiful hair. Surely she was every
inch a gentlewoman of whom any son might be proud.
She held Bonnie May, smiling serenely, by the hand.
“I just wanted you to know,” she said, standing impressively erect
and speaking with quiet resolution, “that we are ready to go to the
play.”
CHAPTER XIX
BONNIE MAY LOOKS BACK
Baggot’s play, it seemed, was really a charming thing—a

modernized fairy-story.
To the monotonous rumble of revolving car-wheels the plot was
outlined, the characters sketched. Baron felt the dramatic force of it,
the surprises. But as the enthusiastic playwright proceeded with his
self-appointed task, Baron began to realize, also, that he and his
companions and their affairs constituted a very queer sort of drama.
By his side sat Baggot, and in front of them were his mother and
Bonnie May. Mrs. Baron, for special reasons of her own, was making
a studied and persistent effort to be entertaining. She talked to the
child almost continuously. But Baron could not help seeing that
Bonnie May was determinedly playing a double rôle. She was
politely pretending to listen to every word Mrs. Baron said, but she
was also keeping one ear eagerly turned toward Baggot.
Baggot, for his part, saw only that Baron seemed to be giving a good
deal of his attention to the little girl in the seat ahead. He couldn’t
make any excuse for such division of interest. He began leaning
forward at frequent intervals to catch Baron’s eye—to see if the
points he was making were going home.
Only Mrs. Baron remained in a single-minded mood. She continued
to talk amiably, and no doubt a bit wearyingly. She was determined
that Bonnie May should have no ground for complaint that she was
not being properly entertained.
“You see,” Baggot was saying, “the central figure is an elf, or a sprite,
who is supposed to be an embodiment of the good traits in human
nature. And then there are witches, and gnomes, and dwarfs, and
some big fellows—vikings and Titans and giants—and some figures
put in for the sake of—well, variety: druids, and people like that. And
Psyche—to make a swell picture. Looking at her reflection, you
know. All but the central figure, the sprite, are supposed to embody
faulty traits, like cruelty, or vanity, or superstition, or jealousy, or envy,
or fear. And then certain other qualities—for comedy effects, like
laziness, or stubbornness, or stupidity. See? And the sprite governs
them all, little by little, until in the end they turn into fairies, or nice
human beings. A great transformation scene....”
Baggot stopped suddenly and frowned. “It sounds childish, telling it.
As if it were some silly sort of extravaganza. But there’s the dialogue.
Smart and unexpected, you know. Modern drawing-room stuff put up
against the heart of the forest and the figures of the story-books.
Bringing the sublime and the ridiculous together, you know—and the
material and the ideal, and the every-day and the remote. Silly
fallacies of our own day, set against the truth in words such as Æsop
would have used.” He stopped suddenly and threw out his hands in
a despairing gesture. “Oh, what’s the use?” he demanded. “I can’t
get at it at all, just talking about it. You’ll have to see it in writing.”
“I’m sure I understand,” Baron reassured him. “You don’t put it so
vaguely at all. And you know I saw the first act.”
“Yes.... But I’ve done that over—ever so much better.” He clasped
his knee in his hands and fidgeted for a moment. And then he broke
out with—“And the settings! The four seasons, in the forest, for the
four acts. Big things to hit the eye—but nicely, you know, so that the
drama doesn’t suffer—so that it’s not choked, you might say.”
“Yes,” said Baron, “I understand.”
Baggot began to go more into detail touching the plot. He put this
part of it very incisively. Occasionally he laughed, or his eyes blazed
with satisfaction. He had reached the end before it was time for them
to leave the car.
Bonnie May had seemed to be listening attentively to Mrs. Baron; but
once Baron heard her say, with slight confusion: “I beg your pardon,”
because she had not responded to a question that had been put to
her.
Now, as they were getting ready to leave the car, she nodded her
head decisively.
“Why are you nodding?” asked Mrs. Baron. She was frankly irritated.
And the child prevaricated. “Oh, I think it’s because I’m—well,
satisfied.”
The entrance to Fairyland might have been described as a study in
chaos. Hundreds of people were pouring into the gates, and they
were all coming immediately under the spell of the bedlam of noises
and the blaze of lights.
Baron had one moment of grave doubt as he marshalled his party
before getting into the vortex of human forms. He thought his mother
could not have looked less satisfied with things in general if she had
been the Peri of the legend, just turned back from paradise because
she hadn’t brought the thing that was expected of her.
But Mrs. Baron was playing a game. Rather, she was fighting a
battle, and she remarked calmly, in response to Baron’s anxious
look. “It won’t be so bad after we get inside.”
“No doubt you’re right,” replied Baron; and then they all pressed
forward.
They got by the gatemen just as a car of the scenic-railway variety
was cut loose from its moorings on a high platform to which it had
been dragged, and began its incredibly swift descent along a far-off
vista of trees and lights. Women shrieked as if they were being
enveloped in flames, and tried to hold their hats in place.
“Mercy!” was Mrs. Baron’s comment; whereupon Baron dropped
back a step, and hid his mouth with his hand.
The inrush of persons behind kept them going somewhat smartly
past the first group of “attractions”: an “old mill-wheel,” with an
entirely uniform supply of water tumbling down upon its buckets; a
shooting-gallery; a negro with terrified, grinning face protruding from
a hole in a curtain as a target for a group of men who were throwing
baseballs.
A merry-go-round started just as Baron’s party passed, and a
popular melody was ground out with quite superfluous vehemence.
Mrs. Baron paused—startled into making a halt, seemingly—just
long enough to catch a glimpse of an elderly couple, a man and a
woman, mounted upon two highly colored lions. They were
undoubtedly country people, and the woman’s expression indicated
that she was determined not to betray unfamiliarity with the high life
of the city.
Mrs. Baron hadn’t even an ejaculation which seemed at all adequate
to her needs in this case.
“I think the theatre’s over this way,” said Baron, steering a course
which promised escape from the main currents of the crowd.
Yes, there was the theatre, standing on a knoll with trees growing on
its sides. A curved, flower-bordered road led up to its entrance.
Conditions rapidly improved. There weren’t nearly so many people,
and what there were were of a quieter type.
Half-way up the knoll Baron turned about for a bird’s-eye view of the
whole place. But beneath them a Midway blazed, and he caught
sight of a lady on a platform before a tent, who was coiling a very
large snake about her neck, while a little farther away a princess—
she seemed to be—in red satin and spangles, sat wearily on a
palanquin on top of a camel.
He thought it would be as well for his mother not to see these
choicest fascinations of Fairyland. He directed attention to the
theatre ahead, which was modelled after what is left of a famous
Roman ruin. And so they completed their climb without looking back.
A grove surrounded the theatre, and under the trees there were
chairs and tables.
“Chairs!” exclaimed Mrs. Baron. “They’re the first thing I’ve seen....”
She turned one about and sat down.
“Fine idea, that,” said Baron. “Let’s all sit down.”
“It’s plenty of time to go in when you hear the overture begin,”
observed Bonnie May; whereat Mrs. Baron regarded her with rather
a blank expression; but she said nothing.
From the portals of the theatre strolled Thornburg, and instantly his
glance took in Baron and his party.
It was Baggot who observed that the manager seemed about to join
them.
The manager did. He came toward them across the grass and shook
hands with Baron. He was smiling almost benignantly.
Baron introduced his party. Thornburg was rather casually cordial in
his manner. Then he took in the fact that the child in the party was
Bonnie May.
“So this is the little girl?” he inquired. He drew her to his side and
flushed with pleasure. His entire appearance changed. “I had an idea
she might be over to the house to-night,” he added, turning to Baron.
“No,” said Baron, “she preferred to come with us.”
Bonnie May shrank slightly from the stranger’s touch; but after she
had regarded him critically she yielded to it. He seemed rather a
good sort, she thought. He wasn’t loud, and he didn’t take things for
granted too much.
But Mrs. Baron stiffened and seemed bent upon bringing upon the
entire group that discomfort and embarrassment the creation of
which is one of the finer social accomplishments. “Sit down, Bonnie
May,” she said. She patted an unoccupied chair with her hand and
smiled. There was something in her manner which caused Bonnie
May to regard her with surprise.
Thornburg, too, observed her rather deliberately. For an instant he
seemed to forget himself, to be absent-minded. Thornburg was of
that type of man who seems to surrender unconditionally when a
woman employs strategies, but who resolves to do what he pleases
when her back is turned.
Baron resented his mother’s attitude, her decision not to be
communicative and gracious. He stood by the manager’s side and
spoke of the splendid picture the garden presented. For a moment
they stood in silence, looking down upon the tangle of many-colored
lights which marked the course of the Midway.
The steady stream of people who had been entering the theatre had
begun to diminish, and now the notes of the overture arose—the
“Poet and Peasant.”
Bonnie May sprang to her feet. “There it is,” she said, and both
Baron and Thornburg smiled down on her. Then Thornburg escorted
the party into the theatre.
Baron noted the immense audience, sitting in a blaze of light; a fairly
quiet and pleasant-appearing audience. He noted, too, that where
one might have expected to find walls at right and left there were
vast open spaces, through which stars, beyond waving horizontal
branches, were visible. Rolled canvas, which might be let down in
case of rain, rattled slightly in the breeze, and one or two disturbed
sparrows darted into the place and rested, chirping, on a girder
overhead.
Then Baron had eyes only for Bonnie May, who had undergone
some strange sort of transformation the moment she had entered the
theatre.
Her eyes were enough to thrill an ordinary world-weary person. Her
color became brilliant. Then her body began to respond to some
overmastering influence. One might have thought of her as a little
palfrey about to enter a great parade with many bands in it. She was
not merely proud and happy; she was quite entranced with delight.
When the usher, with the manner of his kind, darted down the aisle
until he was some eight or ten steps in advance of the party, the
child hurried forward a little, and then turned about, her face alight
with eagerness; and suddenly she stood still until Mrs. Baron came
up to her, and seized that amazed lady’s hand and laid her cheek
against it and patted it rapidly.
“It’s all right, child,” whispered Mrs. Baron warningly, in dread of a
scene; but her voice was like a caress, and her eyes were beaming
with joy. She was thinking how little she had had to sacrifice, and
how very well worth while the sacrifice had been. Truly, it would have
been cruel to deprive the child of a pleasure which meant so much to
her.
The man who stood with his big bass fiddle in the orchestra pit was
making a dreadful noise on one string—sawing it rapidly—when the
usher flung down a row of seats. Mrs. Baron went in first, followed by
Bonnie May. Baron took the next seat, leaving the aisle seat to
Baggot.
The overture ended, and the orchestra leader laid down his baton,
while he and his musicians began to adjust themselves in easy
positions in their chairs.
Somewhere a man at a switchboard performed his duty, and one
light after another went out until the theatre was in darkness.
Then the curtain lifted.
But to Baron it all meant less the story of Paula Tanqueray, up there
on the stage, than it did the story of Bonnie May, close by his side.
Tanqueray’s friends discussed his approaching marriage and his
bride to be; the argument of the drama received its simple statement,
and presently the ill-starred woman appeared. But through it all
Baron knew that his thoughts were chiefly with the child by his side.
She was so completely lost in the rapture of every passing moment
that he felt a strange uneasiness. Here was something more than a
normal enjoyment. She had the extraordinary gift of being able to
appraise the value of the make-believe—to gauge the truth of every
look and word and movement, and at the same time to lose herself
in the story. She clasped and unclasped her hands in silent, painful
intensity; there were little, strange movements of her head as a
result of her acute sympathy with the work of the playwright and
players alike. And sometimes she hung upon a word that halted, and
smiled with rapture when a difficulty was surmounted.
Baron thought, grotesquely enough, of a little fish fallen from a hook
into the grass for a breathless moment, and then getting back into its
proper element and rushing away with a mighty flicking of tail and
fins.
Bonnie May had been of the theatre once, and Baron realized, as he
watched her, that somehow, sometime, she would return to it again.
When, at the end, the report of a pistol was heard, and the
stepdaughter of Mrs. Tanqueray came screaming upon the stage,
Mrs. Baron set her lips in a hard line.
“Nobody to blame but herself!” was her comment. She, too, had
been deeply impressed by the play.
But the larger faith of the little girl asserted itself. “Oh, don’t say that!”
she begged. “She’d have been all right, if they’d really loved her in
spite of all!”
It was the reality of it that held her, Baron perceived—or her ability to
see it as something real.
The puppets, the make-believe—these were off the stage, for Bonnie
May. The truth and beauty and reality were on it.
He smiled thoughtfully as they all filed up the aisle, amid a babble of
voices. The child might be wrong; but was it strange that so glorious
an ignis fatuus should have power to lead her on to the end?
As they left the theatre they passed Thornburg, standing near the
entrance alone. For an instant there was a peculiar, inscrutable
expression in his eyes; then he pulled himself together and smiled
and lifted his hat. But after this perfunctory greeting was over, the
manager steadily regarded Mrs. Baron, who did not look at him.
That quiet, masked glance made Baron uncomfortable, and
instinctively he stooped and took Bonnie May firmly by the hand.
In another moment they were lost in the throng.
CHAPTER XX
CONCERNING LAUGHTER
The next afternoon Baron received a very cordial letter from

Thornburg. The manager was delighted with the fine account of the
Fairyland opening that had been printed in the Times. That was the
sum and substance of his letter. There was nothing about the
compact to which Baron was a party.
“Just the same, he’s got something up his sleeve,” Baron mused.
And his next thought was: “But I’ve kept my word. If she doesn’t want
to go there’s no reason why I should urge her to. She’s getting along
all right where she is.”
Two weeks slipped by, and then one day at noon as Baron was
emerging from the lobby of the Times building he heard a familiar
voice in the street. The Thornburg automobile stopped and the
manager pushed the door open.
“Been to lunch yet?” called Thornburg.
“Just going,” was the response. Baron would have prevaricated if
he’d had time to think; but now it was too late and he made the best
of the matter as Thornburg pulled him into the car.
“Come with me,” said the manager, and then he became silent as he
threaded the machine through the down-town congestion.
He did not speak again until they were in a comparatively quiet
restaurant whose patronage was drawn chiefly from theatrical people
who did not come in until late in the evening.
Both men observed that they were to have the place practically to
themselves, and then Baron was promptly given to understand what
it was that Thornburg wanted.
“That’s really a fine little girl,” said the manager, frankly regarding
Baron across the table.
“You mean Bonnie May. Yes, she certainly is. The fact is, you can’t
begin to realize how uncommonly fine she is until you know her
better.”
“Well, that’s just the point. When am I going to know her better?
When is she coming to us?”
Baron gave his whole attention to the waiter for a minute. He was
trying to think of a response that wouldn’t concede too much. He
held the strong cards now. It would be foolish to relinquish them.
The waiter was gone now.
“The fact is, Thornburg,” said Baron, “she doesn’t seem at all eager
to accept your invitation. I’ve told her about it, and explained what a
fine place you’ve got, and all that—and she just changes the subject.
You know I didn’t agree to force her to act. That’s just what we both
agreed not to do.”
“Childish timidity—the first time,” said Thornburg. “If you’d bring her
over once she’d get over feeling that way.”
“She’s just about as timid as a sunbeam. She’d go anywhere if she
thought she’d enjoy it. The fact is, she’s absolutely satisfied where
she is, at present. Let the matter rest awhile. When things become
monotonous I’ll call her attention again to your invitation.”
Thornburg shook out his napkin violently. “That sounds like beating
about the bush,” he said. “You know how to get a child started. ‘Oh,
look!’ you say to them. Get them excited. Then they’ll do anything.”
“I don’t want to get her excited,” replied Baron dryly.
“Yes, that’s just it!” retorted the other. “A little excitement would be
good for her. I see the advantage of having her at your place part of
the time, but I see the advantage of having her with us, too. It would
be a shame if she ever got to thinking highly of some of this polite
flubdub—” He checked himself in embarrassment and brushed
imaginary crumbs from his waistcoat.
“Won’t you enlighten me as to what you mean by ‘polite flubdub’?”
Thornburg became almost defiant. “Being chilly, for one thing. And
not seeing people. That kind of business. It used to be all right, but
it’s out of date now. Class distinctions and that sort of thing—that’s
all done away with. You might as well hang a knitted tidy up in an art
display. Nothing but the goods counts these days.”
“No doubt you’re right,” responded Baron briefly. He felt it would be
impossible for him to admit that he saw any special application in
what Thornburg had said.
A silence followed. Baron permitted a considerable degree of
arrogance to stifle his friendlier thoughts. Thornburg had spoken
offensively; which was rather less excusable than “polite flubdub.”
Yet, Baron reflected, nothing in Thornburg’s manner could alter the
fact that it might be greatly to Bonnie May’s advantage to accept the
hospitality of the manager and his wife.
The impression of the child in the theatre not long ago recurred to
him—the imperative call upon her which the skill of the players had
exerted.
“You’re right, Thornburg,” he said finally. “I’ve been procrastinating—
that’s all. I’ll speak to her again. The next time I’ll even say ‘Oh,
look!’—or words to that effect. In your own expressive phrase, we’ll
give her a chance to decide which of us ‘has the better attraction to
offer.’”
This new promise weighed heavily on his conscience that afternoon

when he went home; for Bonnie May, unusually radiant, was waiting
for him at the door.
“Mr. Baggot was here to-day,” she began. “He left his play. And he
talked to me about it. He said you might keep it as long as you liked.”
“All very kind of Mr. Baggot.” Baron thoughtfully disposed of his hat
and cane. When he turned to the child again there was a little furrow
between his eyes.
“Bonnie May,” he began, “do you remember my telling you some
time ago that Mr. and Mrs. Thornburg would be glad to have you visit
them?”
“Yes, I remember.”
“They thought possibly you might have forgotten. They asked me to
remind you.”
“Thank you. And he’s made the prettiest copy of it, with red lines
drawn under the words you don’t have to learn. Can’t we go up-stairs
and see it? I put it in your room.”
“Yes, we’ll go up-stairs.” He was irritated by her supreme indifference
to the matter which he had tried to bring to her attention. He meant
to have this thing out definitely.
She rushed away in advance of him so impetuously that he paused
and looked after her in amazement. The furrow disappeared and he
was smiling.
And then the whole strange situation struck him with renewed force.
Was she really the daughter of Thornburg, and was he afraid to
claim her? Or was there no connection at all between her and the
manager, and did he, Baron, hold the trump-cards in that game
which meant the permanent possession of her?
If she were Thornburg’s, why shouldn’t Mrs. Thornburg frankly say to
her husband: “I know everything—but I still want her”? It occurred to
him that it might be his duty to suggest just that course to her. But
old habits of restraint were too strong for him. After all, he didn’t
know the Thornburgs very well. He scarcely knew Mrs. Thornburg at
all.
Moreover, “it was a very pretty quarrel as it stood.” He had been
frank and aboveboard every step of the way. If others could not or
would not be so, that was no concern of his.
He went up into the attic, which was made golden by a flood of late
afternoon sunlight. In truth he found himself in an atmosphere that
was delightful in its warmth and aloofness and quietude.
Bonnie May hurried toward him, the manuscript in her hands. She
was trembling with eagerness. A foolish little creature in some
respects, surely, thought Baron.
He glanced at the title-page and turned half a dozen pages
aimlessly. And when he glanced at Bonnie May he was amazed by
her expression of wonder, of distress.
“You don’t seem to be interested in it!” said she.
“Not a great deal—just now. I’d have to get into it, you know. When
I’ve more time. Besides,” he tossed the manuscript aside, “I’m
deeply interested in something else just now.”
She quickly evinced a pretty spirit of submission. In response to his
gesture she sat down near the window, opposite him.
“I’ve been thinking about you to-day. Seriously.”
“I hope I haven’t been queering anything?”
“Not a bit of it. We’re all very much pleased with you.”
There may have been something of patronage in the tone. At any
rate, she replied with a little smile: “Thank you. You know an artist
always strives to please.” As he regarded her quietly she added
more earnestly: “It’s strange that I got by, too, when you come to
think about it. I was hardly prepared to play a nice part when I came
here. Anyway, not a part where you have to have so much—what the
critics call restraint. You can take it from me, the nice parts aren’t half
as fat as the nasty parts.”
He did not remove his eyes from her face. He had the thought that
she was very far away from him, after all. From all of them. “I wish,”
he said, “you wouldn’t always talk as if you were only taking part in a
play. Somehow it doesn’t seem quite friendly. We’re trying to make
this a real home for you. We’re trying to be real friends. We’re trying
to live a real life. Why not look at it that way when you’re with me?
Wouldn’t that seem friendlier?”
She looked at him with a little flicker of anxiety in her eyes. “You
see,” she said, “I can’t help thinking all the time that everything I do
must be like a nice ingénue part, and being afraid that you’ll come
home some day and find I’ve been doing some soubrette stuff.”
He shook his head and abruptly assumed a new attitude. “Did you
understand me clearly when I said that Mrs. Thornburg wishes you
to visit her?”
“I think I didn’t pay much attention,” she admitted, looking away from
him. “Did you—wish me to go?”
“I think it would be very nice. If you didn’t like them, you needn’t ever
go again.” He tried to speak lightly.
She brought her eyes to his now, anxiously. “When did you think I
ought to go?” she asked.
Baron brought his chair down with a bump. “I didn’t say you ought to
go, exactly. Don’t put it that way. I only thought it would be nice and
kind of you to go, because they wish it. I’d be anxious to have you
come back quite soon, of course.”
“And—and mother: does she wish me to go, too?”
Her use of that word brought warmth to his heart. “She doesn’t wish
it. Frankly, I think she wouldn’t like it at all. But I think she’d consent.”
She was greatly relieved. She leaned forward and patted him on the
knee. “I was afraid you might be planning to cut down the company,”
she said.
He looked at her without comprehending readily.
“I mean,” she elaborated, “I thought maybe it was a case of cold
feet.”
He flinched. “Oh, Bonnie May!” was his disapproving rejoinder.
“You mean it’s stale?” she asked. The expression in her eyes was
innocent, perplexed.

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(eBook PDF) Instruction of Students

with Severe Disabilities 8th Edition

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the outcomes of skill instruction referenced to students’ homes and communities.

Fredda Brown, John McDonnell, and Martha E. Snell

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1 Educating Students with Severe Disabilities 1

2 Fostering Family–Professional Partnerships 27

3 Assessment and Planning 55

Overview to Chapters 4, 5, and 6 86

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4 Measuring Student Behavior and Learning 89

5 Selecting Teaching Strategies and Arranging

6 Designing and Implementing Instruction

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7 Designing and Implementing Individualized

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8 Understanding and Meeting the Health Care

9 Key Concepts in Understanding Motor Disabilities 292

10 Teaching Self-Care Skills 327

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11 Promoting Social Competence and Peer Relationships 371

12 Teaching Communication Skills 404

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13 Teaching Academic Skills 438

14 Building Skills for Home and Community 474

15 Transitioning from School to Employment 508

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Learning Outcome Summaries 550

16 The Promise of Adulthood 554

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1.01 Who are students with severe disabilities?

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Who are Students with Severe Disabilities?

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Societal Perceptions and Expectations

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Opportunities for Interaction and Reciprocal Benefit

Reasons for Optimism and Concern

Reasons for Optimism

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Reasons for Concern

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Baggot’s play, it seemed, was really a charming thing—a

The next afternoon Baron received a very cordial letter from

This new promise weighed heavily on his conscience that afternoon

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1 Educating Students with Severe Disabilities 1

2 Fostering Family–Professional Partnerships 27

3 Assessment and Planning 55

Overview to Chapters 4, 5, and 6 86

4 Measuring Student Behavior and Learning 89

9 Key Concepts in Understanding Motor Disabilities 292

10 Teaching Self-Care Skills 327

11 Promoting Social Competence and Peer Relationships 371

12 Teaching Communication Skills 404

13 Teaching Academic Skills 438

14 Building Skills for Home and Community 474

15 Transitioning from School to Employment 508

16 The Promise of Adulthood 554