Development Through the Lifespan 7th

Edition Berk Solutions Manual

Visit to download the full and correct content document: https://testbankdeal.com/dow
nload/development-through-the-lifespan-7th-edition-berk-solutions-manual/
 CHAPTER 6
EMOTIONAL AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
IN INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD

CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE

Chapter Outline Instruction Ideas Supplements

Erikson’s Theory of Infant and Toddler Learning Objective 6.1 Test Bank Items 1–6
Personality p. 184
Basic Trust versus Mistrust • Autonomy versus (Please contact your Pearson sales
Shame and Doubt representative for a wide range of video
offerings available to adopters.)
Emotional Development pp. 184–190 Learning Objectives 6.2–6.3 Test Bank Items 7–49, 126
Basic Emotions • Understanding and Responding Learning Activities 6.1, 6.2
to the Emotions of Others • Emergence of Ask Yourself p. 190
Self-Conscious Emotions • Beginnings of
Emotional Self-Regulation
Temperament and Development pp. 190–195 Learning Objectives 6.4–6.5 Test Bank Items 50–74, 127–128
The Structure of Temperament • Measuring Lecture Enhancement 6.1
Temperament • Stability of Temperament • Genetic Learning Activity 6.3
and Environmental Influences • Temperament and Ask Yourself p. 195
Child Rearing: The Goodness-of-Fit Model
Development of Attachment pp. 196–206 Learning Objectives 6.6–6.8 Test Bank Items 75–118, 129–130
Bowlby’s Ethological Theory • Measuring the Lecture Enhancement 6.2
Security of Attachment • Stability of Attachment • Learning Activities 6.4–6.6
Cultural Variations • Factors That Affect Ask Yourself p. 206
Attachment Security • Multiple Attachments •
Attachment and Later Development
Self-Development pp. 206–209 Learning Objective 6.9 Test Bank Items 118–125, 131
Self-Awareness • Categorizing the Self • Learning Activity 6.7, 6.8
Self-Control Ask Yourself p. 209

BRIEF CHAPTER SUMMARY

Erik Erikson believed that the psychological conflict of the first year is basic trust versus mistrust, which is resolved on the
positive side when the balance of care is sympathetic and loving. The conflict of toddlerhood, autonomy versus shame and
doubt, is resolved favorably when parents provide suitable guidance and reasonable choices.
Emotions play powerful roles in social relationships, exploration of the environment, and discovery of the self. Basic
emotions—happiness, interest, surprise, fear, anger, sadness, and disgust—are universal in humans and other primates and have
a long evolutionary history of promoting survival.
Infants’ emotional expressions begin as global arousal states of attraction and withdrawal, which gradually become clear,
well-organized signals. Beginning at 8 to 10 months, infants engage in social referencing. During toddlerhood, self-awareness
and adult instruction provide the foundation for self-conscious emotions—guilt, shame, embarrassment, envy, and pride. The
capacity for effortful control improves rapidly as a result of development of the prefrontal cortex and support from caregivers.
Infants vary widely in temperament, including both reactivity and self-regulation. Research on temperament examines its
stability, biological roots, and interaction with child-rearing experiences. According to the goodness-of-fit model, parenting
practices that fit well with the child’s temperament help children achieve more adaptive functioning.
John Bowlby’s ethological theory of attachment recognizes the baby’s emotional tie to the caregiver as an evolved
response that promotes survival. By the end of the second year, children have formed an enduring affectionate tie to the
caregiver that serves as an internal working model, guiding future close relationships. Factors that affect attachment security
include early availability of a consistent caregiver, quality of caregiving, the fit between the baby’s temperament and parenting

Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved. 67

Instructor’s Resource Manual for Berk / Development Through the Lifespan, 7e

practices, family circumstances, and parents’ internal working models. Mounting evidence indicates that continuity of
caregiving determines whether attachment security early in life is linked to later development.
Around age 2, self-recognition is well under way. Self-awareness is associated with the beginnings of empathy, the ability
to feel with another person. Self-awareness also contributes to effortful control, evident in toddlers’ strengthening capacity to
inhibit impulses, manage negative emotion, and behave in socially acceptable ways.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following:
6.1 What personality changes take place during Erikson’s stages of basic trust versus mistrust and autonomy versus shame
and doubt? (p. 184)
6.2 Describe the development of basic emotions over the first year, noting the adaptive function of each. (pp. 185–186)
6.3 Summarize changes during the first two years in understanding others’ emotions, expression of self-conscious emotions,
and emotional self-regulation. (pp. 188–190)
6.4 What is temperament, and how is it measured? (pp. 190–193)
6.5 Discuss the roles of heredity and environment in the stability of temperament, including the goodness-of-fit model.
(pp. 193–195)
6.6 Describe the development of attachment during the first two years. (pp. 196–197)
6.7 How do researchers measure attachment security, what factors affect it, and what are its implications for later
development? (pp. 197–203)
6.8 Describe infants’ capacity for multiple attachments. (pp. 203–205)
6.9 Describe the development of self-awareness in infancy and toddlerhood, along with the emotional and social capacities it
supports. (pp. 206–209)

LECTURE OUTLINE

I. ERIKSON’S THEORY OF INFANT AND TODDLER PERSONALITY (p. 184)

• Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory identifies the psychological conflict of the first year as basic trust versus
mistrust. When the balance of care is sympathetic and loving, the baby will develop basic trust.
• Erikson viewed the conflict of toddlerhood as autonomy versus shame and doubt. It is resolved favorably when
parents provide young children with suitable guidance and reasonable choices.
II. EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT (pp. 184–190)
• Basic emotions—happiness, interest, surprise, fear, anger, sadness, and disgust—are universal in humans and other
primates and have a long evolutionary history of promoting survival.
• Babies’ earliest emotional life consists of two global arousal states—attraction and withdrawal. Emotions gradually
become clear, well-organized signals, providing more precise information about the baby’s internal state.
• Happiness binds parent and baby into a warm, supportive relationship that fosters the infant’s motor, cognitive, and
social competencies.
• Between 6 and 10 weeks, the parents’ communication evokes the social smile, followed at around 3 to 4 months by
laughter in response to active stimuli.
• From 4 to 6 months into the second year, angry expressions increase in frequency and intensity, as infants become
capable of intentional behavior and want to control their own actions and the effects they produce.
• Infant sadness is common when infant–caregiver communication is seriously disrupted—for example, in the case of
parental depression.
• Fear, most frequently expressed as stranger anxiety, rises from the second half of the first year into the second year,
keeping newly mobile babies’ enthusiasm for exploration in check.
• Once wariness develops, infants use the familiar caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment.

68 Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

 Chapter 6 Emotional and Social Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood

• Beginning at 8 to 10 months, babies engage in social referencing, using others’ emotional messages to evaluate the
safety and security of their surroundings, to guide their own actions, and to gather information about others’ intentions
and preferences.
• Self-conscious emotions—guilt, shame, embarrassment, envy, and pride—appear in the middle of the second year, as
18- to 24-month-olds become firmly aware of the self as a separate, unique individual.
• Emotional self-regulation—the strategies we use to adjust our emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity so
we can accomplish our goals—requires voluntary, effortful management of emotions.
• The capacity for effortful control improves gradually as more effective functioning of the prefrontal cortex increases
the baby’s tolerance for stimulation and as caregivers provide lessons in socially approved ways of expressing
feelings.
• Toward the end of the second year, toddlers rapidly develop a vocabulary for talking about feelings, but they are not
yet good at using language to manage their emotions.
III. TEMPERAMENT AND DEVELOPMENT (pp. 190–195)
• Temperament refers to early-appearing, stable individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation.
• In 1956, Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess developed a model of temperament that yielded three types of children:
the easy child, the difficult child, and the slow-to-warm-up child.
• Mary Rothbart’s influential model of temperament combines related traits to yield a list of just six dimensions,
identifying differences in reactivity and also in effortful control, which predicts favorable development and
adjustment in diverse cultures.
• Temperament is often assessed through parent interviews and questionnaires, behavior ratings by pediatricians or
teachers, and laboratory observations by researchers.
• Neurobiological measures can be used to help identify biological bases of temperament, especially for children who
fall at opposite extremes: inhibited, or shy, children, and uninhibited, or sociable, children.
• Because the overall stability of temperament is low in infancy and toddlerhood, long-term prediction from early
temperament is best achieved after age 3.
• About half of individual differences in temperament and personality have been attributed to differences in genetic
makeup, but environment is also powerful, especially in children exposed to severe malnutrition or emotional
deprivation.
• Ethnic and gender variations in infant temperament may have genetic roots, but they are supported by cultural beliefs
and practices, yielding gene–environment correlations.
• Researchers are using molecular genetic analyses to investigate gene–environment interactions—temperamental
differences in children’s susceptibility (or responsiveness) to environmental influences.
• Parents’ tendency to emphasize each child’s unique qualities affects their parenting practices, and siblings’ distinct
experiences with teachers, peers, and others also affect personality development.
• The goodness-of-fit model describes how an effective match between child-rearing practices and a child’s
temperament can produce favorable outcomes.
IV. DEVELOPMENT OF ATTACHMENT (pp. 196–206)
• Attachment is the strong affectionate tie we have with special people in our lives that leads us to feel pleasure when
we interact with them and to be comforted by their nearness in times of stress.
• Although the parent–infant bond is vitally important, later development is also influenced by the continuing quality of
the parent–child relationship.
• In John Bowlby’s ethological theory of attachment, attachment develops in four phases: (1) preattachment phase
(birth to 6 weeks), (2) “attachment-in-the-making” phase (6 weeks to 6–8 months), (3) “clear-cut” attachment phase
(6–8 months to 18 months–2 years), and (4) formation of a reciprocal relationship (18 months to 2 years and on).
• In the clear-cut attachment phase, attachment to the familiar caregiver is evident, and babies display separation
anxiety when the trusted caregiver leaves.
• Out of their early experiences, children develop an internal working model that guides all future close relationships.
• Using the Strange Situation, a laboratory procedure for assessing the quality of attachment between 1 and 2 years of
age, researchers have identified a secure attachment pattern and three patterns of insecurity: insecure–avoidant
attachment, insecure–resistant attachment, and disorganized/disoriented attachment.
• The Attachment Q-Sort uses home observation to measure attachment in children between ages 1 and 5.
• Quality of attachment is usually secure and stable for middle-SES babies experiencing favorable life conditions.
• Despite cultural variations in attachment patterns, the secure pattern is still the most common in all societies studied.

Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved. 69

Instructor’s Resource Manual for Berk / Development Through the Lifespan, 7e

• Factors that affect attachment security include early availability of a consistent caregiver and quality of caregiving.
• Sensitive caregiving is moderately related to attachment security; highly inadequate caregiving is a powerful predictor
of disruptions in attachment.
• In Western societies, interactional synchrony separates the experiences of secure from insecure babies. However,
studies of non-Western communities and Asian cultures suggest that security depends on attentive caregiving, not
necessarily contingent interaction.
• Babies with genotypes associated with emotional reactivity are more susceptible than others to the effects of both
negative and positive parenting.
• Family stressors and parents’ internal working models also play a role in attachment security.
• Bowlby’s theory allows for multiple attachments, including attachment to fathers and to siblings.
• Mounting evidence exists that continuity of caregiving is the factor that determines whether attachment security is
linked to later development.
V. SELF-DEVELOPMENT (pp. 206–209)
• Newborns’ capacity for intermodal perception supports the beginnings of self-awareness, as babies experience
intermodal matches that differentiate their own body from surrounding bodies and objects.
• Over the first few months, infants distinguish their own visual image from other stimuli, but their self-awareness is
limited.
• Implicit self-awareness serves as the foundation for development of explicit self-awareness—understanding that the
self is a unique object.
• During the second year, toddlers become consciously aware of the self’s physical features. Around age 2, self-
recognition is well under way, although toddlers still make scale errors.
• Cultural variations in early self-development may reflect a society’s emphasis on autonomous versus relational child-
rearing goals.
• As self-awareness becomes a central part of children’s emotional and social lives, older toddlers who have
experienced sensitive caregiving express the first signs of empathy.
• Between 18 and 30 months, children develop a categorical self, based on age, sex, physical characteristics, and
goodness versus badness, which they use to organize their own behavior.
• As effortful control—the ability to inhibit impulses, manage negative emotion, and behave in socially acceptable
ways—emerges between 12 and 18 months, toddlers first become capable of compliance.
• To study self-control, researchers often give children tasks that require delay of gratification—a capacity that is
influenced by both temperament and quality of caregiving.

70 Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

 Chapter 6 Emotional and Social Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood

LECTURE ENHANCEMENTS

LECTURE ENHANCEMENT 6.1

Temperament Research: A Review of Major Findings of the Past Quarter Century (pp. 190–195)
Objective: To review the most significant advances in research on temperament over the past quarter century and consider the
major questions that remain to be addressed.
“What Is Temperament Now?” by Shiner et al. (2012) presents an overview of major advances in temperament research since
the publication twenty-five years earlier of Goldsmith et al.’s (1987) “What Is Temperament? Four Approaches.” That paper,
now viewed as classic, brought together the originators of four prominent temperament models—Goldsmith, Thomas and
Chess, Rothbart, and Buss and Plomin—to address fundamental questions about the nature of temperament.
The current authors note that Goldsmith et al. were prescient in identifying issues that would remain central to the field—
for example, the relationship between temperament and later life outcomes. Today’s researchers, however, have a more
complex understanding of interactions between biological factors and experience. For example, Shiner et al. describe how
recent research has led to an expanded view of Thomas and Chess’s concept of goodness of fit. Whereas Thomas and Chess
encouraged parents to modify the environment so as to achieve a better fit with their child’s temperament, more recent studies
suggest an alternative approach using temperament-based strategies to help children modify their capacity for self-regulation.
Shiner et al. pose several key questions that remain to be investigated. These include relationships between temperament
and personality traits, how temperament interacts with context and with the environment, and how changes in temperament are
related to biological and psychological processes. In connection with class discussion of temperament and development (pp.
190–195), this paper provides a valuable historical perspective on what researchers have learned since 1987 and what questions
are still to be explored.
Shiner, R. L., et al. (2012). What is temperament now? Assessing progress in temperament research on the twenty-fifth
anniversary of Goldsmith et al. Child Development Perspectives, 6, 436-444. doi: 10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00254.x

LECTURE ENHANCEMENT 6.2

Young Children in Foster Care: Promoting the Capacity for Secure Attachment (pp. 199–203)
Objective: To consider the developmental needs of young children in foster care and the effectiveness of interventions
designed for these children and their caregivers.
Because “fully normal emotional development,” as described in the text (p. 200), “depends on establishing a close tie with a
caregiver early in life,” it is not surprising that infants and toddlers in foster care, who have experienced maltreatment and
disruptions in relationships with their primary caregivers, are at risk for attachment difficulties and for persisting emotional and
social problems.
In this paper, Dozier et al. (2013) identify key caregiving variables for these vulnerable children on four dimensions:
synchrony, nurturance, stability of care, and commitment. They present two approaches to intervention—Attachment and
Biobehavioral Catch-up (ABC) and the New Orleans Intervention—that are designed to address children’s needs on these four
dimensions and thereby promote the development of secure attachment. The authors cite positive outcomes for children in both
interventions as evidence that such programs “can protect children at a critical time during development.”
Dozier et al. also consider ways of enhancing the foster care system to better meet children’s developmental needs. They
conclude that foster parents ideally must be able to “commit to the child as if he or she were their own child” while still
supporting the child’s relationship with birth parents and valuing efforts to reunite the child with the birth family. Their
findings and recommendations provide the basis for class discussion of the policy implications of research into the key factors
that affect attachment security.
Dozier, M., Zeanah, C. H., & Bernard, K. (2013). Infants and toddlers in foster care. Child Development Perspectives, 7,
166–171. doi: 10.1111/cdep.12033

Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved. 71

Instructor’s Resource Manual for Berk / Development Through the Lifespan, 7e

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

LEARNING ACTIVITY 6.1

Classroom Demonstration: Development of Emotional Expression (pp. 185–186, 188–189)
Arrange for a group of babies, ranging in age from several weeks to 18 months, to visit your classroom for a demonstration of
emotional expression during infancy. You can see if any students have babies of their own in that age range, or you may have
friends or colleagues who are willing to participate. Include some or all of the following activities:
(1) Ask students to carefully observe the infants’ facial, body, and vocal expressions and to record any examples of basic
emotions, noting the events that may have elicited each emotion. For example, if a baby smiles, is it in response to the
parent’s facial expression or voice?
(2) Ask students to interview parents about their babies’ expression of the basic emotions (happiness, interest, surprise,
fear, anger, sadness, and disgust). Are their answers consistent with research presented in the text, which suggests that
infants’ precise emotions are difficult to detect in the early months but, with age, gradually develop into clear, well-
organized signals?
(3) If the group includes a baby between 2 and 4 months of age, try to evoke the social smile by nodding, smiling, and
talking softly to the infant. To underscore the adaptive role of the smile in promoting positive parent–child
interactions, ask students to observe the baby’s response to this stimulation and to note how the parents, in turn,
respond to the infant’s smile,
(4) For babies 3 months of age and older, ask parents to describe and, if possible, demonstrate stimuli that elicit laughter.
Ask students to note the dynamic quality of these stimuli—for example, kissing the baby’s tummy.
(5) If the group includes any infants over 7 months of age, investigate the rise in fear reactions by approaching the baby
and asking students to note the infant’s response. Does the baby show wariness of a strange adult?
(6) If there are any babies over 10 months of age, ask students to look for instances of social referencing and to note
whether the baby uses the parent as a secure base.
For each activity, ask students to compare their observations with research presented in the text.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 6.2

Supporting Emotional Self-Regulation in Infants and Toddlers (pp. 189–190)
Ask students to imagine they have been asked to speak to a group of parents on the importance of helping young children
manage their emotional experiences. Using research presented in the text as a guide, have students list the points they would
include in their presentation—for example:
(1) Why is emotional self-regulation important?
(2) What infant and toddler behaviors reflect the beginnings of effortful control and emotional self-regulation?
(3) How can parents help their infants and toddlers regulate emotion?
(4) What are some cultural differences in the emphasis placed on socially appropriate emotional behavior?
(5) What caregiving behaviors are likely to foster self-regulation? What caregiving behaviors should parents avoid. Why?

72 Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

 Chapter 6 Emotional and Social Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood

LEARNING ACTIVITY 6.3

Matching: The Rothbart Model of Temperament (pp. 190–191)
Present the following exercise as an in-class activity or quiz.
Directions: Match each of the following terms with its correct description.
_____ 1. Activity level
_____ 2. Attention span/persistence
_____ 3. Fearful distress
_____ 4. Irritable distress
_____ 5. Positive affect
_____ 6. Effortful control
Descriptions:
A. Wariness and distress in response to intense or novel stimuli, including time to adjust to new situations
B. Extent of fussing, crying, and distress when desires are frustrated
C. Frequency of expression of happiness and pleasure
D. Level of gross-motor activity
E. Capacity to voluntarily suppress a dominant, reactive response in order to plan and execute a more adaptive response
F. Duration of orienting or interest
Answers:
1. D 4. B
2. F 5. C
3. A 6. E

LEARNING ACTIVITY 6.4

Temperament: Improving Goodness of Fit (p. 195)
Goodness of fit involves creating child-rearing environments that recognize each child’s temperament while simultaneously
encouraging more adaptive functioning. Ask students to consider the following scenarios:
(1) A difficult 2-year-old whose parents both work long hours for low pay and do not have reliable child-care
arrangements. They sometimes use angry, punitive discipline, and their child reacts with defiance and disobedience.
(2) A shy child who was born in a rural village in China, but whose family has recently moved to a large city. Although
this child was considered well-adjusted in her native village, her shyness is not regarded positively in her urban
preschool.
For each scenario, ask students to identify some changes that might improve goodness of fit for these parents and children.

Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved. 73

Instructor’s Resource Manual for Berk / Development Through the Lifespan, 7e

LEARNING ACTIVITY 6.5

Observing the Attachment Relationship During the First Two Years (pp. 196–198)
This activity can be included as an extension of Learning Activity 6.1. Arrange for several babies and their parents (students,
colleagues, or friends) to visit your class. If possible, one child should be a baby 6 weeks of age or younger, one should be
between 6 weeks and 6 to 8 months old, one between 8 and 18 months, and one between 18 and 24 months of age.
(1) Ask students to observe the youngest baby and to describe the built-in signals of the preattachment phase—grasping,
smiling, crying, and gazing into the adult’s eyes.
(2) Ask students to observe how the infant between 6 weeks and 6 to 8 months of age responds to a familiar caregiver and
then to a stranger. Does the baby smile, laugh, and babble more freely with the familiar caregiver? Does he or she
quiet more readily when picked up?
(3) To demonstrate the development of “clear-cut” attachment, ask the parent of a baby between 8 and 18 months old to
leave the room briefly, as in Ainsworth’s Strange Situation.* Does the baby become distressed at the parent’s
departure? Is he or she quickly comforted by physical proximity when the parent returns?
(4) After the babies have had sufficient time to become comfortable in the classroom, ask the parent of the 18- to 24-
month-old to explain to the child that he or she is going to leave the room for a moment but will be back shortly. Then
ask students to note the child’s reaction. How does it compare to the reactions of the younger children?
For each example, ask students to compare their observations with research on development of attachment that is presented in
the text.
*Make sure the parent is able to return immediately if the child becomes distressed.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 6.6

Attachment, Parental Employment, and Child Care (pp. 202–203)
In small groups, ask students to respond to the following scenario:
Paul and Ava are parents to 3-month-old Kevin. After giving birth, Ava decided to spend several months at home caring
for Kevin, but she plans to return to her full-time job as soon as her 12-week maternity leave ends. Some of Ava’s friends
have expressed concerns about her returning to work so soon, and Paul’s parents are worried that Kevin may experience
learning and behavioral problems if he begins attending child care at such a young age. Ava enjoys being a stay-at-home
mother, but she and Paul could really use the income Ava’s job will provide.
Using research in the text as a guide, what advice would you give Paul and Ava? Do their friends and family have valid
concerns? Why or why not? What types of support can Paul provide after Ava returns to work? When qualities should Paul and
Ava look for when choosing a child-care center?
*To supplement the activity, direct students to MyDevelopmentLab and the Playful Learning in Early Childhood video, which
illustrates characteristics of high-quality child care.

74 Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

 Chapter 6 Emotional and Social Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood

LEARNING ACTIVITY 6.7

True or False: Self-Development During the First Two Years (pp. 206–209)
Present the following exercise as an in-class activity or quiz.
Directions: Read each of the following statements and determine if it is True (T) or False (F).
_____ 1. Not until the second half of the first year do infants sense that they are physically distinct from their
surroundings.
_____ 2. Around age 2, children refer to themselves by name or with a personal pronoun.
_____ 3. Toddlers who are frequently punished for misbehavior tend to demonstrate high levels of empathy.
_____ 4. Contrary to popular belief, language skills have little influence on self-development.
_____ 5. Toddlers use their understanding of the categorical self to organize their own behavior.
_____ 6. To behave in a self-controlled fashion, children must think of themselves as separate, autonomous beings who
can direct their own actions.
_____ 7. For most toddlers, opposition is far more common than compliance.
_____ 8. Overall, girls tend to exhibit more self-control than boys.
_____ 9. Toddlers can obey simple commands from an adult but do not yet show any signs of consciencelike
understanding.
_____ 10. Strict parenting with little tolerance for misbehavior is especially effective for helping toddlers develop
compliance and self-control.
Answers:
1. F 6. T
2. T 7. F
3. F 8. T
4. F 9. F
5. T 10. F

LEARNING ACTIVITY 6.8

Observing Toddlers for Compliance and Self-Control (pp. 208–209)
Invite two or three parents to bring their toddlers (ranging in age from 12 months to 2 years) to your classroom for a
demonstration of compliance and self-control. Prior to the demonstration, gather several age-appropriate toys and several boxes
of raisins, or you can ask parents to bring toys and/or raisins from home. Present the following activities:
(1) Ask the child (or have the parent ask the child) not to touch an interesting toy that is within arm’s reach.
(2) Hide some raisins under cups and instruct the child to wait until you (or the parent) say it is all right to pick up a cup
and eat a raisin.
(3) Give the children several directions—for example, to bring you an object or to put away a toy.
In each case, note how well children follow the instructions. Do older children exhibit more compliance and self-control than
younger children? How do parents respond to their child’s behavior?

Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved. 75

Instructor’s Resource Manual for Berk / Development Through the Lifespan, 7e

ASK YOURSELF . . .

CONNECT: Why do children of depressed parents have difficulty regulating emotion (see page 187)? What
implications do their weak self-regulatory skills have for their response to cognitive and social challenges? (pp. 187, 189)
Depressed parents rarely smile at, comfort, or talk to their babies, who respond to the parent’s sad, vacant gaze by turning
away, crying, and often looking sad or angry themselves. Depressed parents also view their infants negatively, which
contributes to their inept caregiving. As their children get older, these parents’ lack of warmth and involvement is often
accompanied by inconsistent discipline—sometimes lax, at other times too forceful.
In the early months, infants have only a limited capacity to regulate their emotional states. When their feelings get too
intense, they are easily overwhelmed and depend on the soothing interventions of caregivers for distraction and reorienting of
attention. But when parents are depressed, they are less likely to provide these interventions. Children who experience these
maladaptive parenting practices often have serious adjustment problems. To avoid their parents’ insensitivity, some withdraw
into a depressed mood themselves; others become impulsive and aggressive. Over time, children subjected to parental
negativity develop a pessimistic world view—one in which they lack self-confidence and perceive their parents and other
people as threatening. Children who constantly feel in danger are likely to become overly aroused in stressful situations, easily
losing control in the face of cognitive and social challenges.

APPLY: At age 14 months, Reggie built a block tower and gleefully knocked it down. At age 2, he called to his mother
and pointed proudly at his tall block tower. What explains this change in Reggie’s emotional behavior? (pp. 188–189)
As 18- to 24-month-olds become firmly aware of the self as a separate, unique individual, self-conscious emotions appear.
These emotions, which involve injury to or enhancement of our sense of self, include guilt, shame, embarrassment, envy, and
pride. At 14 months, Reggie had not yet developed a clear sense of himself as a separate person, so he simply enjoyed the
experience of building the block tower and then knocking it down. But by the time he was 2, he experienced pride in his
achievement at stacking the blocks into a tower, and wanted to share his accomplishment with his mother.
Besides self-awareness, self-conscious emotions require an additional ingredient: adult instruction in when to feel proud,
ashamed, or guilty. The situations in which adults encourage these feelings vary from culture to culture. In Western nations,
most children are taught to feel pride in personal achievement, as Reggie is expressing.

REFLECT: Describe several recent instances illustrating how you typically manage negative emotion. How might your
early experiences, gender, and cultural background have influenced your style of emotional self-regulation?
(pp. 189–190)
This is an open-ended question with no right or wrong answer.

CONNECT: Explain how findings on ethnic and gender differences in temperament illustrate gene–environment
correlation, discussed on pages 68–69 in Chapter 2. (pp. 193–194)
According to the concept of gene–environment correlation, our genes influence the environments to which we are exposed.
This helps to explain ethnic and gender differences in temperament, because children of different sexes and different ethnic
groups will be exposed to different experiences. For instance, Japanese mothers tend to view their infants as independent beings
who must learn to rely on their parents through close physical contact. European-American mothers, in contrast, typically
believe that they must wean the baby away from dependency toward autonomy. Consistent with these beliefs, Asian mothers
interact gently, soothingly, and gesturally with their babies, whereas European-American mothers use a more active,
stimulating, verbal approach. Also, Chinese and Japanese adults discourage babies from expressing strong emotion, which
contributes further to their infants’ tranquility. These differences in parenting practices help explain why Chinese and Japanese
babies tend to be less active, irritable, and vocal; more easily soothed when upset; and better at quieting themselves.
Similarly, gender differences in temperament are evident as early as infancy, suggesting a genetic foundation. Boys tend to
be more active and daring, less fearful, more irritable when frustrated, more likely to express high-intensity pleasure in play,
and more impulsive than girls. And girls’ large advantage in effortful control undoubtedly contributes to their greater
compliance and cooperativeness, better school performance, and lower incidence of behavior problems. At the same time,
parents more often encourage their young sons to be physically active and their daughters to seek help and physical closeness—
through the activities they encourage and through more positive reactions when their child exhibits temperamental traits
consistent with gender stereotypes.

76 Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

 Chapter 6 Emotional and Social Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood

APPLY: Mandy and Jeff are parents of 2-year-old inhibited Sam and 3-year-old difficult Maria. Explain the
importance of effortful control to Mandy and Jeff, and suggest ways they can strengthen it in each of their children.
(pp. 191, 192, 195)
The self-regulatory dimension of temperament, effortful control, is the capacity to voluntarily suppress a dominant
response in order to plan and execute a more adaptive response. The capacity for effortful control in early childhood predicts
favorable development and adjustment in diverse cultures. Mandy and Jeff should be aware that if a child’s disposition
interferes with learning or getting along with others, adults must gently but consistently counteract the child’s maladaptive
style. The concept of goodness of fit describes how Mandy and Jeff can create a child-rearing environment that recognizes each
child’s distinct temperament while simultaneously encouraging more adaptive functioning. Mandy and Jeff can help Sam
develop strategies for regulating fear by offering warm, supportive parenting while also making appropriate demands for him to
approach new experiences. With Maria, they should remain positive and sensitive and should be careful not to resort to angry,
punitive discipline, which will undermine the development of effortful control.

REFLECT: How would you describe your temperament as a young child? Do you think your temperament has
remained stable, or has it changed? What factors might be involved? (pp. 190–195)
This is an open-ended question with no right or wrong answer.

CONNECT: Review research on emotional self-regulation on page 189. How do the caregiving experiences of securely
attached infants promote emotional self-regulation? (pp. 199–200)
Sensitive caregiving—responding promptly, consistently, and appropriately to infants and holding them tenderly and
carefully—is moderately related to attachment security and also helps infants regulate emotion. In Western cultures, a special
form of communication called interactional synchrony, in which infant and adult match emotional states, especially positive
ones, characterizes the experiences of securely attached babies. Sensitive face-to-face play, in which interactional synchrony
occurs, increases babies’ responsiveness to others’ emotional messages and also helps them regulate emotion. Infants whose
parents “read” and respond contingently and sympathetically to their emotional cues tend to be less fussy, to express more
pleasurable emotion, to be more interested in exploration, and to be easier to soothe.

APPLY: What attachment pattern did Timmy display when Vanessa arrived home from work, and what factors
probably contributed to it? (pp. 198, 201–203)
When Vanessa came to pick him up from child care, Timmy ignored her—behavior typical of an insecure–avoidant
attachment. After going through a divorce, Vanessa was anxious and distracted. Because she needed to work long hours to
make ends meet, she placed 2-month-old Timmy in child care and often had a babysitter pick him up at the end of the day, give
him dinner, and put him to bed. Timmy’s response to Vanessa reflects a repeated finding—that serious stressors such as job
loss, a failing marriage, financial difficulties, or parental psychological problems (such as anxiety or depression) can undermine
attachment. These stressors can affect babies’ sense of security directly, by exposing children to angry adult interactions or
disrupting familiar daily routines. Or, as in the case of Vanessa and Timmy, they may undermine attachment security indirectly
by interfering with parental sensitivity.

REFLECT: How would you characterize your internal working model? What factors, in addition to your relationship
with your parents, might have influenced it? (pp. 197, 202–203)
This is an open-ended question with no right or wrong answer.

CONNECT: What type of early parenting fosters the development of emotional self-regulation, secure attachment, and
self-control? Why, in each instance, is it effective? (pp. 189–190, 200–201, 209)
Between 2 and 4 months, caregivers can build on the baby’s increasing tolerance for stimulation by initiating face-to-face
play and attention to objects, arousing pleasure in the baby while adjusting the pace of their behavior so the infant does not
become overwhelmed and distressed. As a result, the baby’s tolerance for stimulation increases further.
From 3 months on, the ability to shift attention away from unpleasant events or engage in self-soothing helps infants
control emotion. Infants whose parents “read” and respond contingently and sympathetically to their emotional cues tend to be
less fussy and fearful, to express more pleasurable emotion, to be more interested in exploration, and to be easier to soothe.
Similarly, sensitive caregiving is moderately related to attachment security in diverse cultures and SES groups. Mothers of
securely attached babies tend to exhibit maternal mind-mindedness, frequently referring to their infants’ mental states and
motives. This tendency to treat the baby as a person with inner thoughts and feelings seems to promote sensitive caregiving.

Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved. 77

Instructor’s Resource Manual for Berk / Development Through the Lifespan, 7e

In studies of Western babies, a special form of communication called interactional synchrony, in which the caregiver
responds to infant signals in a well-timed, rhythmic, appropriate fashion and both partners match emotional states, separates the
experiences of secure from insecure babies. Interactional synchrony occurs during sensitive face-to-face play, which increases
babies’ responsiveness to others’ emotional messages and also helps infants regular emotion.
Between 12 and 18 months, as the capacities necessary for self-control begins to emerge, toddlers first become capable of
compliance. They show clear awareness of caregivers’ wishes and expectations and can obey simple requests and commands.
They can also decide to do just the opposite, but for most, assertiveness and opposition occur alongside compliance with an
eager, willing spirit, suggesting that the child is beginning to adopt the adult’s directives as his own.

APPLY: Len, a caregiver of 1- and 2-year-olds, wonders whether toddlers recognize themselves. List signs of
self-recognition in the second year that Len can observe. (p. 207)
1. Toddlers older than 18 to 20 months, when placed in front of a mirror, respond to unique features of their mirror
image. For example, if red dye is rubbed on the child’s nose or forehead, toddlers will touch or rub their own nose or
forehead, indicating awareness of their unique appearance.
2. Around age 2, children show self-recognition when they point to themselves in photos and refer to themselves by
name or with a personal pronoun (“I” or “me”).
3. Around age 2½, most children reach for a sticker surreptitiously placed on top of their heads when shown themselves
in a live video.
4. Around age 3, most children recognize their own shadow.

REFLECT: In view of research on toddlers’ compliance, active resistance, and budding capacity to delay gratification,
do you think that the expression “the terrible twos”—commonly used to characterize toddler behavior—is an apt
description? Explain. (pp. 208–209)
This is an open-ended question with no right or wrong answer.

78 Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

 Chapter 6 Emotional and Social Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood

MEDIA MATERIALS

For details on individual video segments that accompany the DVD for Development Through the Lifespan, Seventh Edition,
please see the DVD Guide for Explorations in Lifespan Development. The DVD and DVD Guide are available through your
Pearson sales representative.
Additional DVDs and streaming videos that may be useful in your class are listed below. They are not available through
your Pearson sales representative, but you can order them directly from the distributors. (See contact information at the end of
this manual.)
Attachment Relationships: Nurturing Healthy Bonds (2010, Insight Media, 28 min.). The development of attachment from birth
to toddlerhood.
Attachment Theory (2013, Films Media Group, 27 min.). Current and historical models of attachment, including the work of
Bowlby and others. A viewable/printable worksheet is available online.
Fathering: What It Means to Be a Dad (2009, Films Media Group, 21 min.). Fathering expert Steve Onell and young fathers
discuss the importance of a father in a child’s life.
Flesh and Blood: Sibling Rivalry (2006, Films Media Group/BBC–Open University, 60 min.).The significance of sibling
rivalry and bonding. Part of the series Child of Our Time.
History of Parenting Practices: Child Development Theories (2006, Films Media Group, 19 min.). The events, policies, and
theories that shaped child rearing in the twentieth century. Online resources are available.
Infants: Social & Emotional Development (2010, Learning Seed, 26 min.). The range of emotions that infants express in the
first year of life, the stages of emotional development, and how children form attachments.
John Bowlby: Attachment Theory Across Generations (2007, Insight Media, 35 min.). The impact of attachment relationships
on adult behavior, including the findings of recent neuroscientific research.
Mary Ainsworth: Attachment and the Growth of Love (2005, Davidson Films, 38 min.). Mary Ainsworth’s research on human
attachment, including footage of the Strange Situation. Narrated by Robert Marvin, PhD.
Toddlers: Social and Emotional Development (2009, Insight Media, 26 min.). Emotional expression among toddlers, including
the roles of gender and temperament.

Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved. 79

Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved. 80
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd: