Biophysics

Chapter 13:
MECHANICS OF NON VISCOUS FLUIDS
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Week 1/Lecture 2
Chapter 13: Mechanics Of Non Viscous Fluids

 Chapter Topics:

13.1‐ Archimedes’ Principle

13.2‐ The equation of continuity, Streamline flow 13.3‐ Bernoulli’s Equation
13.4‐ Static consequence of Bernoulli’s equation

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Chapter 13: Mechanics Of Non Viscous Fluids
13.1 Archimedes’ principle

 An object floating or submerged in a fluid experiences an upward or Buoyant force due to the fluid.

Archimedes’ principle states that

“the buoyant force 𝐵 on the object is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid”

• Consider a solid of volume 𝑉 and density 𝜌 completely submerged in a fluid of density 𝜌 . The fluid
displaced by the solid has a mass 𝑚, 𝐷 = 𝜌𝑜𝑉𝐷 , then it weighs 𝑤 𝑚𝐷𝑔 𝜌 𝑉𝐷𝑔.
The buoyant force is then:
𝑩 𝒘𝟎 𝝆𝒐𝑽𝑫 𝒈 … Archimedes’ principle

• The buoyant force is the resultant force exerted by fluid on the surface of a submerged solid.

Figure 13.1 : A solid

submerge in a fluid
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Chapter 13: Mechanics Of Non Viscous Fluids
13.1 Archimedes’ principle
Example: What is the magnitude of the buoyant force exerted on a piece of solid of volume 𝑉 = 15 𝑐𝑚3 completely
immersed in water.

Example 13.1: A piece of metal of unknown volume 𝑉 is suspended from a string. Before submersion, the tension in
the string is 10 𝑁. When the metal is submerged in water the tension is 8 N. The water density is 𝜌 10 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 .
(a) calculate the buoyant force (b) calculate the volume of the piece of metal (c) What is the density of the metal?

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Chapter 13: Mechanics Of Non Viscous Fluids
13.1 Archimedes’ principle
Partially submerged solid:
If an object of volume 𝑉𝑠 is not completely immersed in a fluid, the displaced volume is equal to the submerged
volume of the solid 𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏 ( volume of the part of the solid below the top surface of the fluid) . Then a quantity
without unit called submerged fraction is defined by the ratio of the submerged volume and the total volume of the
solid:
submerged fraction=
• By equating the buoyant force and the weight of the object 𝐵 = 𝑤,
we get: 𝜌𝑜 𝑔 𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏= 𝜌𝑠 𝑔 𝑉𝑆
• The submerged fraction is then equal to the ratio of the density of the solid to the density of the fluid is :
𝑽𝒔𝒖𝒃 𝝆𝒔
𝑽𝒔 𝝆𝟎

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Chapter 13: Mechanics Of Non Viscous Fluids
13.1 Archimedes’ principle

Example 13.2: The density of ice is 920 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 while that of sea water is 1025 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3. What fraction of an iceberg
is submerged?

Solution:

 About 90 % of an iceberg is submerged in the sea.

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Chapter 13: Mechanics Of Non Viscous Fluids
13.2 Equation of continuity
The flow rate 𝑄 is the volume of the fluid flowing past a point in a channel per unit time:

∆𝑽
𝑸
∆𝒕
• The S.I unit of the flow rate is the 𝒎 /𝒔.
For an incompressible fluid (𝜌 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡) the volume of fluid that passes any section of the tube per second is
unchanged. The fluid that enters one end of the channel such as a pipe or an artery at the flow rate 𝑄1, must leave
the other end at a rate 𝑄2 which is the same. Thus the equation of continuity can be written as 𝑄1 = 𝑄2.

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Chapter 13: Mechanics Of Non Viscous Fluids
13.2 Equation of continuity
• Consider a section of the tube with cross‐sectional area 𝐴 ( Fig. 13.4
a) and suppose that the fluid on this section has the same velocity. In
the time ∆𝑡 the fluid moves the distance ∆𝑥 𝑣∆𝑡 and the volume of
the fluid crossing the tube is 𝑉 𝐴 𝑣 ∆𝑡. The flow rate is then
𝑄 𝐴𝑣

• For a channel whose cross section changes from 𝐴1 to 𝐴2 , this result

together with 𝑄1 𝑄2 gives another form of the continuity
equation:

𝐴1𝑣1 𝐴2𝑣2 constant

𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

• It states that the product of the area and the fluid speed at all points along a pipe is
constant for an incompressible fluid
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Chapter 13: Mechanics Of Non Viscous Fluids
13.2 Equation of continuity

Example 13.4:
A water pipe leading up to a hose a radius of 1 𝑐𝑚. Water leaves the hose at a rate of 3 liters per minute.
1.Find the velocity of the water in the pipe.
2.The hose has a radius of 0.5 𝑐𝑚. What is the velocity of the water in the hose?

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Chapter 13: Mechanics Of Non Viscous Fluids
13.3 Bernoulli ’s equation
• Bernoulli’s equation can be used for the following conditions :
1‐ The fluid is incompressible, then its density remains constant.
2‐ The fluid is non‐viscous (no mechanical energy is lost).
3‐The flow is streamline, not turbulent.
4‐ The velocity of the fluid at any point does not change during the period of observation. (This is called the
steady‐state assumption.)

• If the above conditions are satisfied, then Bernoulli’s equation states that the pressure plus the total mechanical
energy per unit volume is constant everywhere in the fluid.

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Chapter 13: Mechanics Of Non Viscous Fluids
13.3 Bernoulli ’s equation

• Bernoulli’s equation can be written between two sections as :

• When the fluid is at rest (𝒗 𝟎), Bernoulli’s equation is written as:

𝑃 𝜌𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

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Chapter 13: Mechanics Of Non Viscous Fluids
• Specific forms of the Bernoulli’s equation
13.3 Bernoulli ’s equation

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Chapter 13: Mechanics Of Non Viscous Fluids
13.4 Static Consequences Of Bernoulli's Equation
Pressure in a fluid at rest:
• the last form of the Bernoulli’s equation can be used to calculate the pressure everywhere in the fluid.
• For example, from the figure find the pressure at a point 𝐵 in terms of the pressure at surface and the depth.
• Using Bernoulli’s equation we can write:
At the surface 𝑆𝐴, 𝑃𝐴 𝜌𝑔𝑦𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
and at the surface 𝑆𝐵 , 𝑃𝐵 𝜌𝑔𝑦𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
Then 𝑃𝐴 𝜌𝑔𝑦𝐴 𝑃𝐵 𝜌𝑔𝑦𝐵 or 𝑃𝐵 𝑃𝐴 𝜌𝑔 𝑦𝐴 𝑦𝐵 𝑃𝐴 𝜌𝑔𝑑

 If the pressure at the surface 𝑆𝐴 is equal to the atmospheric pressure so 𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚

then : 𝑃𝐵 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝜌𝑔𝑑

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Chapter 13: Mechanics Of Non Viscous Fluids
13.4 Static Consequences Of Bernoulli's Equation
 Pressure in a fluid at rest:
This result shows that pressure at a depth 𝑑 in a fluid at rest is equal to the surface pressure plus the potential
energy density change 𝜌𝑔𝑑 corresponding to this depth.
 Calculating 𝑃 𝜌𝑔𝑦 at points 𝐵 and 𝐷 gives:
𝑃𝐵 𝜌𝑔𝑦𝐵 𝑃𝐷 𝜌𝑔𝑦𝐷, since 𝑦𝐵 𝑦𝐷 then:
𝑃𝐵 𝑃𝐷

Thus the pressure at the same depth at two places in a fluid at rest is the same. The surfaces of liquids at rest in
connected containers of any shape must be at the same height if they are open to the atmosphere.

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Chapter 13: Mechanics Of Non Viscous Fluids
13.4 Static Consequences Of Bernoulli's Equation
 Pressure in a fluid at rest:
Example : The pressure at the floor is measured to be normal atmospheric pressure, its value is 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
1.013 𝑏𝑎𝑟.
1) How much is the pressure at a height of 1000 𝑚 .
2) You are in scuba diving at a 10 𝑚 depth, you feel pain in the ears. Explain why?

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Chapter 13: Mechanics Of Non Viscous Fluids
13.4 Static Consequences Of Bernoulli's Equation
 Pressure in a fluid at rest:
Example 13.5 : What is the pressure on a swimmer 5 m below the surface of a lake? Using d = 5 m
and p = 1000 kg m/ w

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Chapter 13: Mechanics Of Non Viscous Fluids
13.4 Static Consequences Of Bernoulli's Equation
 Pressure measurement:
The Open‐Tube Manometer: the open‐tube manometer is a U‐shaped tube used for measuring gas
pressures (or liquid pressure if doesn’t mix with the manometer fluid). It contains a liquid that may be
mercury or, for measurements of low pressures, water or oil.

• In Fig. 13.7 the pressure of the gass ( the pressure to measure) is equal to the pressure on the liquid at
the left arm 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠

• At the right arm the pressure of the mercury is 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ

As 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵 (same level), then:
𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝜌𝑔ℎ

Fig. 13.7
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Chapter 13: Mechanics Of Non Viscous Fluids
13.4 Static Consequences Of Bernoulli's Equation
 Pressure measurement:
The gauge pressure : is the difference between the absolute pressure and the atmospheric pressure. In
the above equation𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠is the absolute pressure, then the gauge pressure is:

𝑃𝑔 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 Then 𝑃𝑔 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝜌𝑔ℎ

For example, the blood pressure given by a sphygmomanometer is the gauge pressure 𝜌𝑔ℎ

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Chapter 13: Mechanics Of Non Viscous Fluids
13.4 Static Consequences Of Bernoulli's Equation
 Pressure measurement:
Cannulation: In many experiments with anesthetized animals, the blood pressure in an artery or vein is
measured by the direct insertion into the vessel of a cannula, which is a small glass or plastic tube
containing saline solution plus an anticlotting agent.
The saline solution, in turn, is in contact with the fluid in a manometer. It’s necessary to have the surface of
contact between the saline solution and the manometer fluid either at the same level as the insertion point
of the cannula or to correct for the height difference.

The pressure at the artery is: 𝑃𝐵 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝜌𝑔ℎ 𝜌𝑠𝑔ℎ′

Where 𝜌𝑠 is the density of the saline solution and 𝜌 is the density
of the manometer fluid.

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Chapter 13: Mechanics Of Non Viscous Fluids
13.5 The role of gravity in circulation
Humans have adapted to the problems of moving blood upward a large distance against the force of gravity.
• Animals that have not, such as, snakes, eels and even rabbits, will die if held head upwards; the blood
remains in the lower extremities and the heart receives no blood from the venous system.
• Figure 13.9 shows that in the reclining position the pressures are almost the same everywhere, the small
pressure drop is due to the viscous forces. However the pressures are quite different in the standing person.

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Chapter 13: Mechanics Of Non Viscous Fluids
13.5 The role of gravity in circulation
𝟏
 Since the viscous effects are small we can use the Bernoulli’s equation: 𝑷 𝝆𝒗𝟐 𝝆𝒈𝒉 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝑛𝑡
𝟐
𝟏
 The velocities at the three arteries are roughly equal, so the term 𝝆𝒗𝟐 can be ignored.
𝟐
 Hence the gauge pressures at the heart P , at the foot 𝑃 and at the brain 𝑃𝐵 are related by:
𝑃𝐹 𝑃𝐻 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝐻 𝑃𝐵 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝐵

Typical values for adults can be calculated for ℎ𝐻 1.3 𝑚, ℎ𝐵 1.7 𝑚 and a density of blood : 𝜌 1059.5 𝑘𝑔/ 𝑚3
We find that :
𝑃𝐹 𝑃𝐻 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝐻 13.5 𝑘𝑃𝑎

𝑃𝐹 𝑃𝐵 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝐵 1.7 𝑘𝑃𝑎

 The pressures in the lower and upper parts of the body are very different when the person is standing, although they
are about equal when reclining. Blood returned to the heart, at least partially, by the pumping action associated with
breathing and by flexing of skeletal muscle, as in walking.
 The importance of the role of gravity in the circulation is illustrated by the fact that soldier who is required to stand at
strict attention may faint because of insufficient venous return. To regain consciousness, position has to be altered to
horizontal, then pressure is equalized.
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Chapter 13: Mechanics Of Non Viscous Fluids
13.5 The role of gravity in circulation
Effect of Acceleration:
• When a person experiences an upward acceleration 𝑎, his effective weight becomes W 𝑚𝑔 𝑎.
• Applying Bernoulli’s equation to the brain and the heart with 𝑔 replaced by 𝑔 𝑎) we obtain:

𝑃𝐻 𝜌 𝑔 𝑎 ℎ𝐻 𝑃𝐵 𝜌 𝑔 𝑎 ℎ𝐵

• Then the pressure at the brain will be : 𝑃𝐵 𝑃𝐻 𝜌 𝑔 𝑎 ℎ𝐵 ℎ𝐻

• Thus the blood pressure in the brain will be reduced even farther. It has been found that if the acceleration is two
or three times 𝑔 (𝑎 2𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 3𝑔 , a human will loose consciousness because of the collapse of arteries in the
brain.
• A related experience is the felling of light‐headedness that sometimes occurs when one suddenly stands up.

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Chapter 13: Mechanics Of Non Viscous Fluids
13.6 Blood Pressure Measurements Using The Sphygmomanometer
• During a complete heart pumping cycle, the pressure in the heart and the circulatory system goes through both a
maximum Systolic ( as the blood is pumped from the heart) and a minimum Diastolic ( as the heart relaxes and fills
with blood returned from the veins) the sphygmomanometer is used to measure these extreme pressures.
• The sphygmomanometer (Figure 13.10) is used in the upper human arm where it gives values nearly close to the
pressure in the heart. Also, the upper arm contains a single bone making the brachial artery located there easy to
compress.
• Blood pressures are usually presented as 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑐/𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑐 ratios. Typical readings for resting healthy adult are
about 120/80 in torr (mm Hg), the borderline for high pressure (hypertension) is usually defined to be 140/90.
Pressures above that level needs medical attention.

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