BIOLOGY
Veins - Carry deoxygenated blood throughout the body.
Respiratory System and its Parts
Respiratory System - Network of organs and tissues that help
you breathe.
Breathing - Act of taking air in and out of the lungs.
UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT
Nose & Mouth - Openings that pull air outside your body into
your respiratory system
Nasal Cavity - The air passing this part is warm, damp, and
clean.
- Cilia - Tiny hairs that move in a wave-like motion to filter dust
and other irritants out of your airways.
Pharynx (Throat) - Common passageway for both food and air.
LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
Larynx (Voice Box) - Hollow organ that allows you to talk and
make sound when air moves in and out.
- Epiglottis - A cartilage found at the top of the larynx, aids in
closing it tightly, to prevent the passage of foods or liquids.
Trachea (Windpipe) - The empty tube that serves as
passageway of air into the lungs.
Bronchi - The two branching tubes that connect the trachea to
the lungs
Bronchioles - Tiny branches of air tubes in the lungs
Alveoli - The air sacs that allow gas exchange in the lungs
Lungs - Transfer oxygen into the bloodstream and to excrete
carbon dioxide in the air.
Diaphragm - Muscle that helps your lungs pull air and push it
out.
Breathing In (Inhalation) - Contracts/Tightens and moves
downwards.
Breathing Out (Exhalation) - Relaxes and moves upwards.
Circulatory System and its Parts
Circulatory System - Carries one substance from one part of
the body to another.
HEART - Pumps the blood throughout the body.
Atria (Atrium) - The receiving chambers of the heart.
- Right - Accepting Blood from the body.
- Left - Accepting blood from the lungs.
Ventricles - The pumping chambers
- Right - Moving blood into the lungs.
- Left - Moving blood into the body.
BLOOD VESSELS - Carries the blood throughout the body.
Arteries - Carry oxygenated blood throughout the body.
Cappilaries - The smallest blood vessel in your body, connecting
arteries and veins.
BLOOD - Carries the materials throughout the body
Blood Plasma - To take nutrients, hormones, and proteins to the
parts of the body that need it.
Red Blood Cells - Delivers oxygen from your lungs to your
tissues and organs.
Platelets - Help blood to clor when you have a cut or wound.
Pulmonary Circulation - Movement of blood between the heart
and the lungs.
Systemic Circulation - Movement from the heart to the body.
Coronary Circulation - Movement of blood from the tissue of
the heart to the brain.
Effects of One’s Lifestyle in
Respiratory and Circulatory
System
Respiratory Disease - Affects your airways and lungs caused by
infection, or other forces of air pollution.
Asthma - A condition when a person experiences difficulty in
breathing.
Common Cold - Affects the upper respiratory tract.
Pneumonia - Alveoli are inflamed and are filled with liquid and
pus.
Influenza - Caused by the influenza virus that attacks your
throat, nose, and lungs.
Bronchitis - Inflammation or swelling of bronchial tube lining.
Tuberculosis - Bacterial infection of the lungs caused by
Mycobacterium Tuberculosis.
CoVid-19 - Coronavirus Disease 2019.
Cardovascular Diseases - Diseases of the blod vessel and the
heart.
Atherosclerosis - Plaque build up in the walls of the arteries
Stroke - Occurs when it damages the brain when a blood vessel
gets blocked or leaked, usually from a blood clot.
Hypertension - Alsoknown as high blood pressure
Heart Attack - When the blood flow to the part of the heart is
blocked by blood clotting.
Non-Mendelian Inheritance
Non Mendelian Inheritance - Any pattern of inheritance in
which traits do not segregate in accordance with Mendel’s Laws.
Incomplete Dominance - One allele does not completely
dominate another allele, resulting in a new phenotype.
Codominance - Both alleles are expressed equally in the
phenotype of the heterozygote.
Multiple Alleles - Two or more alleles control the inheritance of
a character.
Sex Chromosones and Sex
Determination
46 (23 pairs) - Human chromosones in each cell.
22 pairs - Somatic Chromosones.
Sex Chromosones - The 23rd or last pair.
XX & XY - Female and Male sex chromosones.
Sex Related Inheritance - Expressed in both sexes but more
frequently in one sex than the other.
Sex-Influenced Traits - Controlled by genes located on the
same sex chromosone.
- X-Linked Genes - Genes on the X chromosone
- Y-Linked Genes - Genes on the Y chromosone
Sex-Limited Traits - Expressed exclusively in one sex of the
species.
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) - Contains information needed
to form and control the physical make-up and chemical processes
of an organism.
Biodiversity and Evolution
Biodiversity - The number of varieties of life found on earth.
Genetic Biodiversity - Variations of genes within a species.
Species Biodiversity -Abundance of species within a region.
Ecosystem Biodiversity - Variation among groups of organisms
in different physical settings.
Population - Number of organisms of the same species living in
the same region.
Communities - Composed of different organisms living in the
same region.
Biodiversity Index - Scale of the diversity of plant and animal
species in a given area. =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 # 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓. 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 # 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
Carying Capacity - Size of a biological species that can be
sustained in a specific environment.
Limiting Factors - Lack of particular resources like the
availability of food, water, and space.
Abiotic Factors - Temperature, water availability, oxygen,
salinity, light, food, and nutrients
Biotic Factors - Interactions between organisms such as
predatation, competition, parasitism, and herbivory.
Endangered Species - When the number of species decreases
in size and only a few remain
Threatened Species - Population of species begins declining
rapidly.
Extinction - Happens if the last member of said species is gone.
NATURAL Causes of Species Extinction
Acid Precipitation - Result of air pollution mostly from
factories and motorized vehicles.
Climate Change - Sudden changes in the earth’s temperature.
Diseases/Epidemic - Infectious diseases or virluent infectous
diseases cause the change in biological populations.
Meteoric Impact/Cosmic Radiation - When a massive
asteroid or meteor hits the surface of the earth.
Invasive Species - Changes the abundance of diversity or the
food web in an ecosystem by destroying or replacing its natural
value and number.
MAN-MADE Causes of Species Extinction
Deforestation - Kainign farming, illegal logging, conversion of
agricultural lands to housing projects.
Pollution - Either air or water.
- Eutrophication - Happens when the concentration of organic
nutrients that comes from domestic garbage and thrown in
bodies of water, increases rapidly.
- Biological Magnification -The build up of pollutants in
organisms at higher trophic levels in a food chain.
- Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) - Toxic waste created in
the making of paints, inks, and electrical insulators.
Destruction of Coastal Resources - Caused by using dynamite
in fishing, muro-ami, the conversion of beaches into residencies,
and overharvesting of fishes.
- Greenhouse Effect - Process that occurs when gasses in
earth’s atmosphere trap the sun’s heat.
- Global Warming - The long term warming of the planet’s
overall temperature.
Geologic Time Scale - A timetable of the earth’s history.
Palezoic Era - Pre-historic life. The existence of marine
invertebrates; the development of marine life.
Mesozoic Era - Middle life. The existence of the largest
creatures.
Cenozoic Era - Recent life. The existence of warm-blooded
animals and humans.
Life Energy
Photosynthesis - Process done by autotrophs of converting life
energy into chemical energy that is stored in food (sugar).
Converts carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and glucose.
Chloroplast - Where the photosynthesis occurs.
𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝐶𝑂2
+ 𝐻2𝑂
+ 𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑝ℎ𝑦𝑙𝑙
⇒
𝐺𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛
𝐶6𝐻12𝑂6
+ 𝑂2
TWO MAJOR STEPS IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
Light Reaction - Requires light.
Calvin Cycle - Dark reaction in photosynthesis.

Cellular Respiration - Catabolic process pathways of aerobic
and anaerobic respiration which break down organic molecules
for the production of ATP. Breaks down glucose into carbon
dioxide, water, and energy (ATP) in the presence of oxygen.
𝐺𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 + 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 → 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝐴𝑇𝑃 - Louis de Broglie - Could be a particle or a wave.
BREAKDOWN OF GLUCOSE
Glycosis - Glucose is broken down to produce energy.
Krebs Cycle - The main source of energy for cells and important Uncertainty Principle - Uncertain position and speed of a
for aerobic respiration.
Electron Transport Chain - Produces the greatest number of
chemical energy, in the form of ATP
ATP - Adenosine Triphosphate
CHEMISTRY
Electronic Structure
Metal Salts - Compounds that contains metal and non metal
atoms
Matter - Anything that takes up space and can be weighed
Atoms - From the greek word “Atomos,” meaning “Indivisible”
Subatomic Particles
* Electron (-) * Proton (+)
* Neutron ( )
John Dalton - English Scientist who first stated the modern
atomic theory in 1808
Atomic Theory
- All matter is a composed of atoms
- Atoms of the Same Element are the Same. Atoms of
Different Elements are Different.
- Atoms combine in Whole-Number Ratios to form compounds
Atomic Models:
- John Dalton - Solid Sphere Model.
- Joseph John Thomson - Plum Pudding. Positively Charged
Soup.
- Ernest Rutherford - Nuclear Model. Electrons surround the
nucleus.
- Niels Bohr - Planetary Model. Electrons revolve around the
positive nucleus. Orbits/Shells
- Erwin Schrödinger - Quantum Mechanical Model. In a cloud
no orbits.
Bohr Atom: Planetary Model
Energy Level/Shells - Planetary rings or orbits where electrons nonmetals,
revolve
Quanta - Electrons jumping to another orbit to gain or lose
energy. Also called photons now.
Excited State - In high temp or bombarded.
Ground State - Lowest energy state.
Valence Electron - Electrons on the outermost shell.
Valence Shell - Outermost shell and has 8+ electrons (2n2)
Flame Tests - Used to see the small amounts of metal ions in a
compound.
Glass Prism - Separates the lights in different wavelengths.
Probable Location of an Electron in an Atom:
- Erwin Schrödinger - A mathematical equation to describe
H-atom
- Heisenberg - The location can’t be exactly known.
particle accurately.
Atomic Orbital - Describes the probable place of an atom
- S Orbital - Sharp. 2 electrons 1 Orbital.
- P Orbital - Principal. 6 electrons 3 orbital.
- D Orbital - Diffused. 10 electrons 5 orbitals.
- F Orbital - Fundamental. 14 electron 7 orbitals.
Electronic Configuration - Arrangement of electrons in orbitals
around an atomic nucleus.
Principles in Writng:
- The Aufbau Process - “SPDF Notation.” Aufbauen means to
build.
- Paul’s Exclusion Principle - Opposite spins to maximize
repulsion.
- Hund’s Rule - Orbital Diagrams
Noble Gas Notation - The electronic configuration of the last
noble gas.
Chemical Bonding
Periodic Trends - Patterns present in a periodic table.
Electronegativity - The tendency to attract and form
bonds.(➡⬆- Increases) (⬅⬇- Decreases)
Ionization Energy - Energy required to remove an electron from
a mole in the gas phase.
Lewis Symbol - Dot Structure. Symbol surrounded by dots
(electrons).
Steps in Writing
- Find the Group/Column
- It will show the no. of valence electrons.
- Write the symbol
- Draw the dots
Chemical Bonding - Bond between two or more atoms,
molecules, or ions.
Compounds - Has two or more chem elements.
Types of Chemical Bonds:
Ionic Bond - Complete transfer of electrons between metals and
Ion - Atoms losing or gaining electrons.
Cation - Positively charged particle
Anion - Negatively charged particle
Nonmetals - gains electrons, becomes negative.
Metals - loses electrons, becomes positive.
Octet Rule - Atoms are most stable when they have 8 valence Caldera - Formed when a part of the wall collapses following an
electrons. explosive eruption
Magma - Molten rock and is stored in the earth’s crust

Carbon Compounds
Carbon - Only element that can form so many compounds
Allotrope - Different Forms of the same element in the same
physical state
* Graphite * Fullerene C60
* Diamond * Graphene
Organic Compounds - Compounds that contain carbon atoms.
Produced by plants and animals.
* Carbohydrates * Lipids
* Proteins * Carbonated Drinks
Properties
- Odor - Smell of a compound. It is specific.
- Viscosity - Liquid’s Resistance to flow.
- Volatility - Tendency to evaporate.
- Flammability - How easily it can burn.
Hydrocarbons - Compounds than only contain C and H atoms
Chemical Formula - The elements and their properties in a
compound
Molecular Formula - Number and type of atoms
Condensed Formula - Order and formula of functional groups
Structural Formula - Graphic Representation
Alkanes - Single Bond [CnH2n+n]
Alkenes - Double Bonds [CnH2n]
Alkynes - Triple Bonds [CnH2n-2]
Hydroxyl Group - -OH. Covalent Hydrogen and Oxygen.
Carbonyl - C=O. Carbon and oxygen are double bonded.
Moles
Mole - Quantity of substance which contains the same number
particles as 12g of C-12. The particles maybe atoms, molecules,
or ions
Avogadro’s Number (N) - Named after Amadeo Avogadro.
6.02x1023. Is the number of particles in one mole of a substance.
Molar Mass (g/mol) - Mass in grams of a mole.
Molecular Mass - Sum of the Molar Masses of the elements in a
covalent compound
Lava - Magma that reaches the surface
PHIVOLCS - Philippine Institution of Volcanology and
Seismology
Active Volcanoes - Erupted last 10k Years
Inactive Volcanoes - Not erupted last 10k Years
Types of Volcanic Eruption
Phreatic/Hydrothermal - The heat of magma interacting with
water
Phreatomagmatic - Interaction of magma and water an can be
very explosive
Strombolian - Fountain Lava
Vulcanian - Tall eruption columns
Plinian - Excessively explosive
Types of Volcanic Cones
Sheild Volcano - Broad, slightly domed
Cinder Cone - Steep slope, wide crater, built from ejected lava
Composite Cone - Large nearly perfect slope
Factors that Affect the Volcanoes Eruptive Style
Magma’s Temperature - Higher temperature causes magma to
flow faster
Composition/Silica Content - Causes it to flow slowly
Ammount of Dissolved Gasses - Causes it to flow faster.
Energy from Volcanoes
Benefits of Volcanic Eruption:
- Sources of precious gems
- Sources of building materials
- Fertilizes the soil
- Sources of Geothermal energy
Geothermal Energy - Natural heat of earth captured in fluids
trapped in rock formation that are thousands of feet below the
surface of the earth.
Geothermal Power Plants - Use heat from deep inside the
earth to generate steam to make energy.
Geothermal Heat Pumps - Heat water or provide heat for
buildings.

EARTH SCIENCE 2nd - Global Rank PH.

1st - Power Plant in Leyte.

Volcanoes and Eruptions Climate

Volcano - An opening in the Earth’s surface where molten rocks,
Weather - Short term changes in the Atmosphere.
smoke, gases, and ashes are erupted.
Climate - Long period of weather in an area.
External Parts of a Volcano
- Summit - Slope
Factors that Affect Climate
- Base
1. Latitude - Distance from the equator
Crater - A funnel-shaped opening at the top of the volcano. Climate Zones:
A. Polar Climate - Places near the poles. Absolute Brightness (Actual) - If it was seen from a standard
B. Temperate - Places between the poles and equator. distance.
C. Tropical - Places near the equator. Blue - Color of hottest stars
Red - Color of coolest stars
2. Altitude - The height above sea level .
- High A, Low T | Low A, High T. Constellations - Imaginary groups of stars
- 48 ancient - 40 modern
3. Bodies of Water - Regulates climate. 88 - Different constellations.
- Water heats and cools faster than land. Star Maps - Tracks the patterns of stars and constellations.
- Extreme climates are far from water.
Famous Constellations
4. Ocean Currents - Will cool or warm the air around. Orion - Named after a hunter from Greek mythology.
- Cold A Bring C | Warm A Bring W. Ursa Major - Means “Larger bear” in Latin.
Ursa Minor - Means “Smaller bear” in Latin.
5. Topography - The surface features of the area. Draco - Means “Dragon” in Latin.
- Windward - Has more precipitation. Pegasus - Named after a flying horse in Greek Mythology.
- Leeward - Has less precipitation.
Zodiac Constellations - Locate within a band that is about 20
Impacts of Climate Change degrees wide in the sky
Climate Change - Increasing changes in the measures of 13 Astronomy/12 Astrology
climate 1. Capricornus 8. Leo
Global Warming - Rise in global temperature. 2. Aquarius 9. Virgo
Greenhouse Effect - Natural process where the atmospheric 3. Pisces 10. Libra
gasses traps some of the sun’s energy. 4. Aries 11. Scorpius
Greenhouse Gasses - Atmospheric gas that absorbs radiation 5. Taurus 12. Sagittarius
which warms the planet. 6. Gemini 13. Ophiuchus
El Nino - Abnormal warming in the eastern parts. 7. Cancer
La Nina - Abnormal tropical storms.

Things You Can do to Prevent Climate Change

- Reduce carbon emmissions.
- Conservation of energy.
- The 5Rs of waste reduction.
- Adopt a plant based diet.
- Use renewable energy.
- Preservation of forest.
Causes of Global Warming
- Burning of fossil fuels
- Human Activities
PHYSICS
Horizontal and Vertical Motions
Uniformly Accelerated Motion - Motion of an object where the
acceleration is constant.
Projectile - Body that is given an initial velocity and then moves
in a parabolic path determined by the effects of the force of
gravity.
Trajectory - The path that the projectile follows
- Deforestation Projectile Motion - Type of motion which is two dimensional
- Intensive Farming having horizontal and vertical motion components.

Constellations FORMULAS:
Velocity - 𝑣 =
𝑑
Stars - Gigantic, glowing balls of gasses. 𝑡
𝑣𝑓+𝑣𝑖
400bn - Amount of stars in our galaxy. Average Velocity - 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 2
3000 - Average amount of stars we see. 𝑣𝑓−𝑣𝑖
Acceleration - 𝑎 = 2

Characteristics of Stars v - Velocity. d - Displacement.

1. Size 3. Color t - Time. a - Acceleration.
2. Brightness 4. Surface Temperature vave - Average Velocity. vf - Final Velocity.
vi - Initial Velocity.
Apparent Brightness (Distance) - Brightness as seen from the
earth.
(x) (y)
Acceleration - ax = 0 ay = g = constant ay - Vertical acceleration .
Velocity vox = vx voy = 0
Displacement dx = dox + vx* t Impulse and Momentum
Newton’s Second Law of Motion - The greater the force
dy = doy - 𝑔𝑡2
2

applied, the larger the object’s acceleration. It is stated that with

vy2 = 2g (dy - doy)
the same force, heavier objects have smaller acceleration.
Bigger Objects - Has a greater inertia in motion therefore a
vox - Horizontal component of initial velocity in m/s.
greater momentum at the same velocity.
dx - Horizontal displacement in m.
Momentum - Product of the mass of the object and its velocity.
dox - Initial displacement in m.
A vector quantity with a direction the same as the velocity.
vx - Horizontal component of velocity in m/s.
Momentum - p=mv kg*m/s
ax - Horizontal acceleration.
voy - Vertical component of velocity in m/s. Mass 𝑚=kg 𝑝
𝑣

g - Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8m/s2. Velocity 𝑣= m/s 𝑝

𝑚
t - Time in s. p - Momentum in kg*m/s.
dy - Vertical displacement in m. m - Mass in kg.
doy - Initial vertical displacement in m. v - Velocity in m/s.
Symbol Unit Symbol Unit
a m/s2 d m Impulse - The product of force and the time it acts on an object.
v m/s t s I = ft
I - Impulse in Newton Second (N*S or kg*m/s).
Projectile Launched at an Angle f - Force in N.
t - Time in S.
Body Projected at an Angle - The body is launched with some
initial velocity at an angle above the horizontal axis. Path of the
projectile fired with initial velocity vo at angle θ above the Conservation of Momentum
horizontal. Newton’s Third Law of Motion - For every action there is an
Upward Vertical Velocity - Its magnitude decrases until it equal and opposite reaction.
becomes 0 at the top of the trajectory. Law of Conservation of Momentum - In a closed and isolated
Downward Vertical Velocity - Its magnitude increases system, the total momentum of the objects before and after the
Horizontal Velocity - Remains constant during the course of collision are equal.
the trajectory. Total initial momentum = Total Final Momentum.
Angle of Projection - The angle θ above the horizontal at which pinitial = pfinal
the body is projected.
(m1v1 + m2v2)initial = (m1v1 + m2v2)final
Maximum Height - Reached when vy = 0. At this point, the
m1 - mass of the first subject.
velocity v of the projectile is equal to the horizontal component
m2 - mass of the second subject.
of velocity vx.
v1 - velocity of the first object.
Time of Flight - Time from when the object is projected to the
v2 - velocity of the second object.
time it reaches the surface.
Collision - An encounter between two objects resulting in
Time of Ascent - Time taken by the object to reach the
exchange of impulse and momentum.
maximum height.
Elastic Collision - In which the total kinetic energy of the
Time of Descent -Time taken by the body to move from the
system is the same after collision as before and colliding objects
maximum height to the lowest level of the trajectory.
bounce off their collision.
Range - The horizontal displacement of the projectile.
p1+p2 p1’+p2’
m1v1 + m2v2 = m1’v1’ + m2’v2’
(x) (y) p1 - Momentum of the first object before collision.
Acceleration - ax = 0 ay = g = constant p2 - Momentum of the second object before collision.
Velocity vox = vocosθ = vx | voy = vosinθ p1’ - Momentum of the first object after collision.
Displacement dx = dox + vx* t
p2’ - Momentum of the second object after collision.
dy = doy + voyt - 𝑔𝑡2
2

v1’ - Velocity of the first object after collision.

vy2 = voy2 - 2g (dy - doy) v2’ - Velocity of the second object after collision.
Range R = vxt
vo - Initial velocity in m/s. Inelastic Collision - A type of collision in which the total
R - Range in m. kinetic energy of the system after the collision is less than before
the collision. Momentum is conserved but the kinetic energy is Law of Conservation of Mechanical Energy - The total
not conserved. amount of mechanical energy in the absence of dissipative forces
Completely Inelastic Collision - The colliding bodies stick (friction, air resistance) remains constant.
together and move as one body after the collision.
m1v1+ m2v2 = (m1m2)v’
v’ - Common velocity of the two objects after collision. Heat and Work
Heat - Energy transferred from one object to another due to their
temperature difference.
Conservation of Mechanical Q = M ⋅ C ⋅ ΔT
Q - Energy transferred (Joules).
Energy M - Mass of water (grams).
Energy - Capacity to do work the greater the energy of the body, C - Specific heat capacity.
the greater its capacity to perform any work. ΔT - Temperature change (K or ℃).
Mechanical Energy - Energy associated with position and
motion. Work - The energy transferred when an object is moved against
Forms of Enrgy: force.
Potential Energy - Energy stored on an object because of its W = Fd
position, location, or condition. W - Work in Joules.
Gravitational Potential Energy - The energy of an object F - Force in Newtons.
associated with earth's gravitational pull from the ground. d - Distance in meters.
GPE = mgh.
GPE - Gravitational Potential Energy (J - Joules). Thermodynamics - A branch of physics that deals with the
m - mass (kg). physical laws relating heat and mechanical work.
g - acceleration due to gravity = 9.8m/s2. First Law of Thermodynamics - A system’s internal energy can
h - height relative to the reference point (m). be changed by transferring energy by either work, heat, or
combination of the two.
Elastic Potential Energy - The energy associated with the ΔU = Q-W
compression and elasticity of objects. Q - The amount of heat flowing into a system during a given
PEElas = ½kx2. process.
PeElas - Elastic potential energy. W - The net work done by the system.
k - Spring Constant. ΔU - The change in the system’s internal energy.
x - compression or extension length.
Internal/Thermal Energy - The sum of all kinetic and potential
Chemical Potential Energy - Energy stored in the bonds of
energies og the atoms/molecules in the system.
atoms and molecules.
Changing Factors:
Nuclear Energy - The energy stored in the nucleus of an atom.
1. Heating the system. 2. Doing work on the system.
3. Adding or taking away matter.
Kinetic Energy - Energy possessed by an object by virtue of its
motion.
Spontaneous Process - Heat flows normally from higher
KE = ½mv2
KE - Kinetic energy. m - mass. temperature to lower temperature.
v - velocity. Non-Spontaneous Process - Heat flows from lower
temperatures to higher temperatures.
Sound Energy - Energy produced by sound vibrations as they
travel through a medium. Second Law of Thermodynamics - Heat will never of itself
Radiant Energy - Energy that travels in space in the form of flow from a cold temperature to a hot temperature object. The
waves like x-ray, light, radio, uv waves. work is provided by the motor of the heat pump.
Electrical Energy - Delivered by tiny charged particles called Heat Pump - Is a device that reverses the direction of the heat
electrons, typically moving through a wire. flow from a cold reservoir.
Thermal Energy - Produced as particles in matter move. It is Heat Engine - Is a device that changes thermal energy into
associated with energy taken in or given off as heat. mechanical work.
Thermal Efficiency - Percentage of heat energy that is
Law of Conservation of Energy - Energy cannot be created or transformed into work.
𝑄𝑐
destroyed but is merely changed from one form to another. 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 1 − 𝑄𝐻
× 100
 𝑇𝑐
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 1 − 𝑇𝐻
× 100

Qc - Energy removed by heat/energy in cold reservoir.

QH - Energy added by heat/energy in hot reservoir.
TC - Absolute temperature in cold reservoir.
TH - Absolute temperature in hot reservoir.

Electricity
Electricity - Form of energy that results from the flow of
charged particles
Two Types:
- Static Electricity - Dynamic Electricity

TYPES OF ELECTRICITY PLANT

1. Conventional cycle thermo-electric plants - Energy is
liberated by burning coal, natural gas or diesel oil
2. Nuclear power plants - Heat released by nuclear fission in a
reactor which heats high-pressure water.
3. Geothermal power plants - Uses the natural heat within the
planet through pipelines in the subsoil.
4. Biomass plants - Burning of organic materials like plant
matter or any kind of waste.
5. Hydro-electric plants - Uses a water drop to move a
hydraulic turbine. Built in barrages and reservoirs.
6. Wind farms - The wind which drives a turbine to obtain
electricity.
7. Solar power farms
a. Thermo-solar installations - Use the heat from the sun to
heat water and use the steam to drive a turbine.
b. Photovoltaic installations - Transform solar energy
directly into electricity, using photovoltaic cells.
8. Tidal power plants - The movement of water caused by high
and low tides drives a turbine.
9. Wave power plants - Using the force of waves.

PROCESS OF ELECTRICITY TO YOUR HOUSE

1. Electricity is made at a generating station by huge generators.
2. The current is sent through transformers to increase the
voltage to push the power long distances.
3. The electrical charge goes through high-voltage transmission
lines that stretch across the country.
4. It reaches a substation, where the voltage is lowered so it can
be sent on smaller power lines.
5. It travels through distribution lines in your neighborhood.
6. It connects to your house and passes through a meter that
measures how much your family uses.
7. The electricity goes to the service panel in your room or
garage.
8. The electricity travels through wires inside the walls to the
outlets and switches all over your house.