Physics Department

Faculty of Science

An- Najah National University

Experimental Physics (1) - 10221213

Laboratory Report

Prepared by
‫ ميره كمال وصفي بظ‬:)‫اسم الطالب (بالعربي‬
Group Number: 2
Title of the Experiment: Geiger Muller Tube and β-Ray
Absorption

Experiment Serial number (‫)الرقم المتسلسل‬: 2

Experiment Number (‫)رقمها حسب توزيعها في المختبر‬: 3

Performance Date and Day: Date:17.Feb.2024 Day: Saturday

Handling Date (‫)تاريخ التسليم‬: Date: 23.Feb.2024 Day: Friday

Nablus – Palestine
2nd semester- 2023 / 2024
 Geiger Muller Tube and β-Ray Absorption

Objectives:
1. Creating a graph illustrating the characteristics of a Geiger Muller tube (GMT) and identifying its
threshold potential and operating voltage.

2.Validating the applicability of the inverse square law to the spread of β-particles.

3.Measuring the distance β-particles travel through an Aluminum plate to determine their stopping
range.

4.Calculating the absorption coefficient of Aluminum (AL).

Apparatus:
1.Geiger Muller tube.

2. Geiger counter.

3. Radioactive source containing 𝑆𝑟 90 (Strontium) isotope of activity 5µCi which decays to

Zirconium stable isotope.

4.Aluminum foils and plates.

5.Stop watch.
Theory:
Geiger-Muller Tube (GMT):

The Geiger-Muller tube is a gas-filled detector for ionizing radiation. Key components include
an anode, cathode, and a argon medium. When radiation ionizes the gas, a voltage threshold
triggers an avalanche effect, generating a detectable electrical pulse.

Beta Ray Absorption:

Beta particles (β) are high-energy electrons emitted during radioactive decay. Absorption
depends on the material's density and thickness. The inverse square law governs radiation
intensity, while stopping power measures energy loss. Materials like Aluminum influence
absorption, with factors such as atomic number, density, and thickness impacting effectiveness.
Experimental setups use Geiger-Muller tubes to study beta particle characteristics and
absorption.

Procedure:
Notes: during the experiment the number of counts was taken 30sec in all the
measurements, and multiplied by 2, in order to have counts/minute.

To get the N correction that we want in our experiment, we calculated the N

background without a radioactive source. This background may be caused by particles
and ionizing rays due to the materials present in the experiment room and from cosmic
rays.

(Ncorr = N - Nback) ---------- (1)

Part (1): characteristic curve of GMT:

In this section, a plot was generated for counts per minute in relation to the potential applied to GMT.
This process was undertaken to ascertain the operating and threshold potentials of the GMT.

1- The experimental setup was configured. The Sr90 radioactive source with an activity of 5µCi was
positioned 10cm away from the mica window of the GMT.

2- The counter's power was activated, and the voltage was adjusted to 300V

3- Counts (N) were recorded over a 30-second interval. The counter was reset after each
measurement.

4- Steps 2 and 3 were repeated for voltages ranging from 300 to 500V, it was increased by 12.5V until
it reached 400V, and then the increase became 25V (But when graphing, we took the values with an
increase of 25 volts in order to facilitate reading and taking a stable measurement).
5- A plot of N counts/min versus voltage was created, and the operating voltage (Vop) was
determined.

Part (2): investing the inverse square law:

Note: The voltage of the GMT was adjusted to the operating voltage determined in part (1) for the
remainder of this experiment.

1- To enhance background measurement accuracy, counts were taken without the source for 10
minutes, and the result was divided by 10 to derive counts/min (Nback). As the voltage remained
fixed at Vop, this background value remained constant throughout the subsequent phases of the
experiment.

2- The radioactive source was returned to its position.

3- The distance between the source and the GMT window was adjusted to 10cm.

4- Counts were recorded every 30 seconds and multiplied by 2 to obtain counts/min (N).

5- Step 5 was repeated for distances ranging from 15 to 50cm in 5cm increments.

6- Ncort (N - Nback) was calculated, and all data were documented in a suitable table.

7- A plot of Ncor against the distance (r) between the GMT window and the source was generated.

8- Another plot of Ncorr against 1/r² was created.

9- The validity of the inverse-square law in the propagation of radiation was demonstrated through
analysis of the two plots.

Part (3): absorption of β-rays in Aluminum foils:

1- The counter voltage was maintained at the operating voltage (V).

2- The holder of the radioactive source was positioned at a distance of 15cm from the GMT.

3- At this location, counts were taken every 30 seconds without any absorber.

4- Aluminum foils and plates were arranged in ascending order of their thickness, starting with the
smaller ones.

5- The given stage, designed to hold the absorbers, was placed between the source and the GMT.

6- The first absorber with a thickness of 65mg/cm² was interposed, and the count rate was recorded
every 30 seconds.

7- The first absorber was replaced with a second one having a thickness of 84mg/cm², and the count
rate was again recorded.

8- Step 7 was repeated with an absorber thickness of 141mg/cm².

9- Step 7 was repeated with a combined thickness of 65 + 84mg/cm², focusing on obtaining multiple
readings with smaller thicknesses where the count rate rapidly decreases.
 10- Absorber thickness was incrementally increased until all Aluminum absorbers were positioned
between the GMT and the source, at which point the count rate no longer decreased.

11- Background counts (No) measured in the previous part were subtracted from all measurements in
this part.

12- All data were organized into a proper table.

13- A plot of the corrected count rate as a function of absorber thickness was created. The result was
fitted with an exponential curve to determine the attenuation or absorption coefficient of Aluminum to
B-rays. The B-particle range, corresponding to 1/e of the maximum count rate at x=0, was identified.

14- Another plot of the same data was generated on semi-log paper, with the count rate on the
logarithmic y-axis. The decreasing points of the absorption curve were fitted with a line, and the last
points of the curve with almost constant value were fitted with another line. The point of intersection
provided the range of B-rays in Aluminum.

15- The two results indicated the B-range in Aluminum.

Data analysis:

Part(1)
Table(1): counts per minute as a function of the potential applied to GMT

V (volt) N (min) Nback (min) Ncorr (min)

300 0 0 0
325 1756 2 1754
350 2464 3 2461 Then plot the Ncorr versus voltage,
375 2536 7 2529 and determine the Vop (operating
400 2514 6 2508 voltage).
425 2558 7 2551
450 2584 5 2579
475 2582 8 2574
500 2616 5 2611

Ncorr versus voltage

3000 Threshold voltage =350
2500
Breaking voltage =500
Ncorr(min)

2000
1500
Operating voltage = (VBr-
1000
500
VTh)/2 =75
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
350+75 =425 V
V(volt)

N (min) Ncorr (min)

Part(2)
In this part we first measured the background measurement without source for 10 min then divide it
by 10 to obtain the count/min (Nback) since the voltage is fixed to 425 volt,
60𝑥2
Nback=60 count/5min Nback= 10
=12count/min.

Ncorr=N-12.

Then we plotted Ncorr versus r &Ncorr versus 1/𝑟 2

Table (2): data of Ncorr versus distance (r)

r(cm) 1/r^2 (cm^-2) Ncount(min) Ncorr(min)
10 0.01 2540 2528
15 0.04444 1352 1340
20 0.0025 676 664
25 0.0016 488 476
30 0.0011111 294 282
35 0.00081632 190 178
40 0.000625 184 172
45 0.000493827 170 158
50 0.0004 126 114

Ncorr versus distance

3000
Ncorr(count/min)

2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
r(cm)

Ncorr(count/min)

Fig (2): Ncorr versus distance curve

 Ncorr versus 1/r^2
3000

2500
Ncorr(count/min)

2000

1500

1000

500

0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012
1/r^2 (cm^-2)

fig (3): Ncorr versus 1/r^2

As figures shows, it is Applicable to inverse square law, in another words, the relation between the
distance (between radioactive source and GMT) and the value of counts is inverse relationship
because as we found that as the separation increase number of counts decrease.

Part (3)

Thickness= surface area / volume density.

Nback=12

Table(3):counts rate after a certain absorber as a function of the absorber thickness

Surface area
Thickness(cm) Ncount x 2 N=Ncount -Nback
(g/cm^3)
65 24.3445 1352 1340
94 35.20599 714 702
141 52.808988 999 987
185 69.288389 464 452
236 88.38951311 452 440
322 120.5992509 344 332
430 161.0486891 240 238
543 203.3707865 112 100
695 260.2996255 80 68
896 335.5805243 30 18
961 359.9250936 28 16
1055 395.1310861 22 10
1196 447.9400749 20 8
1381 517.2284644 42 30
1617 605.6179775 18 6
1939 726.2172285 34 22
3607 1350.93633 26 14
 N versus thickness
1600

1400

1200
y = 298.81e-0.004x
1000
N(count/min)

800

600

400

200

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
thickness(cm)

Fig (4): count/min versus thickness

From fig (4), the absorption or attenuation coefficient is equal:

α = 0.004 (m^-1) because we know the equation: N=N0 exp- αx

Beta-particle range =1/e*Ncount , max= 726.2/e = 267.154 (count).

I want to fit the decreasing points of the absorption curve with a line, and do the same thing with the
almost constant value with another line as shown on the second two curves:
Note: the bold line in the pre plot has different shape because y - axis is semi -
log axis. From the equation of the line, slope = -0.6073= -α

α=0.6073 (m^-1)

Slope=0.004

β=395.1

e=326.34 count/1*887.1

Error:
I deleted from part 2 (r=15 cm, Ncount=1352).
Questions:

1. What does the radioactivity of a material mean?

Radioactive material is any material containing unstable atoms that emit ionizing radiation as it decays.

2. What are the units of measuring radioactivity?

The units of measurement for radioactivity are the becquerel (Bq, international unit) and the curie ( Ci, U.S.
unit).

3. Why do we keep the radioactive source in a lead (Pb) box?

Ead metal is the preferred material for radiation shielding. The reason is that lead is highly effective in providing
protection from sources of radiation. Because of this, it is the standard used in the design of radiation protection
systems. Lead metal is dense.

4. What is the importance of finding the operating potential of GMT?

To decide the potential that we should use in second and third part, and working with operating voltage is very
ideal for GMT counter because small fluctuations in voltage will not significantly alter measurement and will
provide more accurate data, and if the voltage is too low , there is not enough potential to create any Geiger
discharges , and if it too high the Geiger count will enter a state of continuous discharge .

5. What is the life time of sr90? What are the radiations emitted by it?

It has a half- life of 29 years and emits beta particles of relatively low energy as it decay.

6. What is the sr90 decay scheme until it reaches a stable isotope? How it decay?

Sr90 undergoes β − decay with a half-life of 28.79 years and a decay energy of 0.546 MeV distributed to an
electron, an antineutrino, and the yttrium isotope 90Y, which in turn undergoes β − decay with a half-life of 64
hours and a decay energy of 2.28 MeV distributed to an electron, an antineutrino, and 90Zr (zirconium), which
is stable.

7. Beta-particles are electrons emitted from the nucleus of the radioactive nuclei. Are there electrons in
the nuclei? How are they produced from nuclei?

Beta minus particle (β-) emission occurs when the ratio of neutrons to protons in the nucleus is too high. An
excess neutron transforms into a proton and an electron. The proton stays in the nucleus and the electron is
ejected energetically. This process decreases the number of neutrons by one and increases the number of protons
by one. Since the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines the element, the conversion of a
neutron to a proton actually changes the radionuclide to a different element.

8. What is the dead time (Resolving Time) of the Geiger Muller tube? Does it affect the results of your
experiment? In what manner?

After a count has been recorded, it takes the GMT a certain amount of time to reset itself to be ready for the
next count, if the counting rate is high, then the effect of dead time is very important. 9. What is the energy of
Beta-particles and Gamma-rays produced during the decay of. Beta particles with energy of 0.5 MeV Gamma-
rays have energies greater than 100 keV.