site of chemical gel like substance containing cell site of chemical gel like substance containing

cytoplasm membrane reactions in the cell enzymes to catalyse the reactions

reactions in the cell enzymes to catalyse the reactions
bacterial not in nucleus floats
contains genetic controls the activities of the cell and controls the function of the cell
nucleus DNA in the cytoplasm
material codes fro proteins
NOT made of
semi permeable controls the movement of cell wall supports and strengthens the cell
cell membrane cellulose
substances in and out of the cell
site of protein mRNA is translated to an amino acid plasmid small rings of DNA contain additional genes
ribosome
synthesis chain
controls the movement of
site of respiration where energy is released for the cell cytoplasm semi permeable
mitochondrion substances in and out of the cell
to function
animal cell Bacterial cells are much smaller than plant and animal cells
Eukaryotes complex AQA
organisms Prokaryotes simpler
plant cell Cell Structure organisms

contains all the parts of animal cells plus extras carry

nerve long branched connections and

specialised animal cells

electrical
permanent contains cell sap keeps cell turgid, contains insulating sheath
signals
vacuole sugars and salts in solution
streamlined with a long tail
sperm fertilise an
supports and strengthens the acrosome containing enzymes
cell wall made of cellulose egg
cell large number of mitochondria
contract to contains a large number of

Specialised cells
site of contains chlorophyll, absorbs muscle
chloroplast allow mitochondria
photosynthesis light energy movement long

how a cell changes and becomes specialised Cell differentiation absorb water hair like projections to increase the
Undifferentiated call are called STEM cells root hair and minerals surface area

specialised plant cells

from soil
Microscopy
animal cell differentiation plant cell differentiation TRANSPIRATION - dead cells
carry water
xylem cell walls toughened by lignin
and minerals
early stages of flows in one direction
development
all stages of life cycle the magnification M = size of image I
stem cells are grouped TRANSLOCATION - living cells cells
only for repair and real size of the object A carry glucose
together in meristems phloem have end plates with holes
replacement flows in both directions

Feature Light (optical) microscope Electron microscope PREFIXES

eyepiece lens
Radiation used Light rays Electron beams Prefix Multiple Standard form
objective lens
Max magnification ~ 1500 times ~ 2 000 000 times centi (cm) 1 cm = 0.01 m x 10 -2
focusing wheel
Resolution 200nm 0.2nm milli (mm) 1 mm = 0.001 m x 10 -3
stage
Size of microscope Small and portable Very large and not portable micro (𝛍m) 1 𝛍m = 0.000 001 m x 10 -6
light source
Cost ~£100 for a school one Several £100,000 to £1 million plus nano (nm) 1nm = 0.000 000 001 m x 10 -9

better hope – brighter future

 The smallest structural and functional unit Villi – increase surface area, Good blood supply – to maintain concentration
largest cell of an organism.
Small intestines
gradient, Thin membranes – short diffusion distance.
Alveoli– increase surface area, Good blood supply – to maintain concentration
Lungs
A structure that contains genetic material gradient, Thin membranes – short diffusion distance.
nucleus and controls the activities of the cell. Gill filaments and lamella – increase surface area, Good blood supply – to
Gills in fish
maintain concentration gradient, Thin membranes – short diffusion distance.

A thread like structure of coiled DNA found

chromosome in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
Roots Root hair cells - increase surface area.

Large surface area, thin leaves for short diffusion path, stomata on the lower
Leaves
A polymer made up of two strands forming surface to let O2 and CO2 in and out.
DNA
a double helix.
The greater the difference in concentrations the faster
smallest

ADAPTATIONS FOR DIFFUSSION

the rate of diffusion.
A section of DNA that codes for a specific
gene
protein or characteristic. AQA
Movement of particles E.g. O2 and CO2 in gas exchange,
Cell Biology 2 Diffusion
in a solution or gas urea in kidneys. Factors that affect
No energy
Cells divide in a series of stages. The from a higher to a the rate are concentration,
MITOSIS AND required
lower concentration temperature and surface area.
genetic material is doubled and then Cell division

Transport in cells
THE CELL CYCLE
divided into two identical cells. E.g. Plants absorb water from the
STEM CELLS Osmosis Movement of water soil by osmosis through their root
No energy from a dilute solution hair cells. Plants use water for
Increase the number of sub-cellular
Stage required to a more several vital processes including
Growth structures e.g. ribosomes and Undifferentiated cell of
1 concentrated solution photosynthesis and transporting
mitochondria. an organism
minerals.
Stage DNA DNA replicates to form two copies of each
2 Synthesis chromosome. Active Movement of particles E.g. movement of mineral ions
Divides to form more cells of the
same type, and can differentiate transport from a dilute solution into roots of plants and the
One set of chromosomes is pulled to each
to form many other cell types. ENERGY to a more movement of glucose into the
end of the cell and the nucleus divides.
Stage required concentrated solution small intestines.
Mitosis Then the cytoplasm and cell membranes
3
divide to form two cells that are identical
to the parent cell.
Human Embryonic Can be cloned and made to differentiate into Therapeutic cloning uses same genes so the body
stem cells most cell types does not reject the tissue. Can be a risk of infection

Adult bone marrow Can form many types of human cells e.g. blood Tissue is matched to avoid rejection, risk of
stem cells cells infection. Only a few types of cells can be formed.

Used to produce clones quickly and economically,

Can differentiate into any plant cell type
Meristems (plants) e.g. rare species, crop plants with pest /disease
throughout the life of the pant.
resisitance

Mitosis occurs during growth, repair, replacement of cells.

Asexual reproduction occurs by mitosis in both plants Treatment with stem cells may be able to help conditions such as diabetes and paralysis. Some people object to the use of
& simple animals. stem cells on ethical or religious grounds

better hope – brighter future

 Enzymes catalyse (increase the rate of) specific reactions in living organisms
An organ system in which organs work
together to digest and absorb food.
The ‘lock and key
theory’ is a simplified The activity of enzymes is affected by changes in
model to explain temperature and pH
enzyme action More energy mouth
Enzymes activity has an Enzyme activity has an consumed in oesophagus
optimum temperature optimum pH food and drink

Non-communicable
than used

diseases
obesity
The human Linked to liver stomach
Enzymes catalyse
digestive increased rates
specific reactions in system of gall bladder pancreas
cardiovascular
living organisms due to large
the shape of their active
disease and small
development intestines
site intestines
of diabetes
type 2.
Digestive enzymes AQA GCSE

Food tests
Large changes in temperature or pH can stop anus
speed up the
the enzyme from working (denature) ORGANISATION
conversion of large
insoluble pH too high or too
Part 1 Sugars (glucose) Benedicts’ test Orange to brick red precipitate.
Temperature too high
molecules (food) low
Starch Iodine test Turns black.
into small soluble
molecules that can Enzyme changes shape (denatures) the
substrate no longer fits the active site. Biuret Biuret reagent Mauve or purple solution.
be absorbed into
the bloodstream

carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Some glucose is

The basic building blocks
The products of digestion are used to build new
Cells e.g. muscle cells
Made in salivary Break down carbohydrates to of all living organisms.
Carbohydrases
glands, pancreas, simple sugar (e.g. amylase breaks
(e.g. amylase)

Cells, tissues, organs

small intestine down starch to glucose).
A group of cells with a

and systems
e.g. muscle
Tissues similar structure and
used for respiration.

Made in stomach, Break down protein to amino tissue

Proteases function.
pancreas acids.

Aggregations (working
Made in pancreas together) of tissues
Break down lipids (fats) to Organs e.g. the heart
Lipases (works in small performing a specific
glycerol and fatty acids).
intestine) function.

Emulsifies lipids to increase Organs working together

Made in liver, surface area to increase the rate e.g. the
Bile (not an Organ to form organ systems,
stored in gall of lipid break down by lipase. circulatory
enzyme) systems which work together to
bladder. Changes pH to neutral for lipase system
form an organism.
to work
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 Blood vessels The heart is an organ that pumps blood around the
body in a double circulatory system
aorta

vena cava pulmonary artery

Pumps blood to the lungs
Right

Different structure in the heart have different functions

where gas exchange takes
ventricle
place.
pulmonary
veins
Left Pumps blood around the
Artery Vein Capillary
left ventricle rest of the body.
Carry blood away Carry blood to the Connects arteries atrium
from the heart heart and veins right atrium
Controls the natural resting
Thin walls, large lumen, left Pacemaker heart rate. Artificial
Thick muscular ventricle (in the right electrical pacemakers can
carry blood under low
walls, small lumen, atrium) be fitted to correct
pressure, have valves to One cell thick to
carry blood under right ventricle irregularities.
stop flow in the wrong allow diffusion, Carry
high pressure, carry
direction, carry blood under very low

Heart
oxygenated blood
deoxygenated blood pressure. Coronary Carry oxygenated blood to
(except for the
(except for the arteries the cardiac muscle.
pulmonary artery).
pulmonary vein).
coronary
arteries
Prevent blood in the heart
Heart valves from flowing in the wrong
Blood AQA GCSE direction.

Blood is a tissue consisting of plasma, ORGANISATION

in which blood cells, white blood cells part 2
and platelets are suspended The heart pumps low oxygen/high carbon dioxide blood to the lungs

Pale Transports CO2, alveolus

Plasma
yellow hormones and
(55%)
fluid waste.
Carries air Rings of cartilage protect
Trachea
Red Large surface to/from the lungs the airway.
blood Carries area, no nucleus, O2 CO2
Carries air Splits into multiple bronchioles
cells oxygen full of (air sacs at the end) alveolar wall
(45%) haemoglobin. Bronchioles to/from the air pathways to reach all the
trachea
sacs (alveoli) air sacs.
Some produce
White Site of gas Maximises surface area red
Part of the antibodies, capillary
blood Alveoli exchange in the for efficient gas blood cells
immune others surround lung
cells lungs exchange. CO2 out
system and engulf bronchus
(<1%) O2 in
pathogens. Allows gas
Oxygen diffuses into the
Clump together exchange diaphragm gas exchange in an alveolus
Platelets Fragments Capillaries blood and carbon
to form blood between into/out
(<1%) of cells dioxide diffuses out.
clots. of blood

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 Heart failure can be treated with a transplant or artificial heart
AQA GCSE ORGANISATION part 3 Plant tissues

Disease Cause Effect Treatment Waxy cuticle (top layer of the leaf) Reduces water loss from the leaf
A build up for fatty substances Epidermal
Guard cells open and close the stomata to
Coronary heart disease (CHD)

Oxygen-ated blood cannot get

tissues

blocked artery to open it up.

Guard cells and stomata control water loss and allow for gas
in the coronary arteries
exchange (oxygen and carbon dioxide).
(atherosclerosis)

Stents: inserted into the

Statins: lower harmful

to the cardiac muscle.
Cells near the top surface of the leaf that
Palisade are packed with chloroplasts that contain
Palisade cells
mesophyll chlorophyll. Both adaptations maximize

The roots, stem and leaves form a

plant organ system for transport
cholesterol.
photosynthesis.

of substances around the plant

flow is from glucose Increased surface area for gas exchange
roots to leaves Spongysolution
Air spaces in the leaf between cells so that carbon dioxide can diffuse into
water and mesophyll
minerals
cells have end plates photosynthesising cells.
Valves don’t open

with holes
or close properly

flow in the wrong

Blood can leak or

mechanical valve
Faulty heart

Hollow tubes strengthened by

can be inserted
one
one way
way flow
Biological valve

flow
transplant or a

Allows transport of water and mineral

valves

lignin adapted for the

xylem ions from the roots to the stem and the
walls toughened transportation of water in the
direction

two way flow

with lignin leaves.
transpiration stream

xylem
xylem phloem Cell sap moves from one phloem Transports dissolved sugars from the
phloem cell to the next through pores in the leaves to the rest of the plant for
Non-communicable diseases
Cancer

end walls immediate use or storage (translocation).

The result of changes in DNA that lead Meristem New cells (roots and shoot tips) are
Root hair cells have an increased surface
to uncontrolled growth and division area for the uptake of water by osmosis,
tissue made here including root hair cells
and mineral ions by active transport.
Contained in one area of the phloem
Benign
body (usually by a
tumour A potometer is used to
membrane) – not cancer.
glucose measure the amount of water
one way flow
Invade tissues and spread to one way flow solution lost over time (rate of
Malignant
different parts of the body to transpiration)
tumour water and
form secondary tumours. minerals
cells have end plates
with holes
Carcinogens and ionising radiation
Transpiration
Some cancers oneway
one wayflow
flow
have genetic increase the risk of cancer by
risk factors. changing/ damaging DNA
walls toughened The rate at which
two way flow
with lignin water is lost from
Risk factors for These risks the leaves of a Temperature,
heart/lung disease factors can plant. The humidity, air
xylem phloem
and certain types of also affect nucleus transpiration movement and The shape of
permanent Transpiration
the brain, stream is the light intensity the graph for
cancer include vacuole column of water affect the rate
liver and light intensity
drinking alcohol, the health cell wall moving through the of transpiration. is the same for
diet, obesity and of unborn roots, stem and temperature
cytoplasm cell
smoking babies
membrane
leaves (energy)

better hope – brighter future

 Antigens (surface protein)
Pathogens are identified by white blood cells by the
Phagocytes engulf the pathogens and digest different proteins on their surfaces ANTIGENS.
Phagocytes Phagocytosis
them.

The human body has several non specific ways

Nasal hairs, sticky mucus and

of defending itself from pathogens getting in

Specific antibodies destroy the pathogen. This

Non-specific defence systems

Nose cilia prevent pathogens

White blood cells are

Antibody takes time so an infection can occur. If a person

part of the immune

Immune system
production is infected again by the same pathogen, the entering through the nostrils.
Lymphocytes lymphocytes make antibodies much faster.

system
Trachea and Lined with mucus to trap dust
Antitoxin Antitoxin is a type of antibody produced to bronchus and pathogens. Cilia move
production counteract the toxins produced by bacteria. (respiratory the mucus upwards to be
system) swallowed.

Detection Identification AQA GCSE INFECTION

Detection and identification of

Stomach acid (pH1) kills most

Stunted growth AND RESPONSE part 1 Stomach acid
ingested pathogens.
plant diseases (bio only)

Spots on leaves Reference using

gardening manual Plants have several ways of Hard to penetrate waterproof
Area of decay
or website, defending themselves from Skin barrier. Glands secrete oil
growths laboratory test for which kill microbes
pathogens and animals
pathogens, testing
Malformed
kit using
stem/leaves Pathogens may infect plants or animals and can be spread by direct contact, water or air
monoclonal Physical Mechanical
Discolouration antibodies. Method of
Thick waxy Pathogen Disease Symptoms Control of spread
Presence of pests Thorns, curling up transmission
layers, cell walls
leaves to prevent
stop pathogen Fever, red skin Droplet infection from
Magnesium ions needed being eaten Virus Measles Vaccination as a child.
Nitrate ions needed entry rash. sneezes and coughs.
to make chlorophyll –
for protein synthesis
not enough leads to Chemical Initially flu like
– lack of nitrate = Sexual contact and
chlorosis – leaves turn systems, serious Anti-retroviral drugs and
stunted growth. Antibacterial and toxins made by plant Virus HIV exchange of body
yellow. damage to use of condoms.
fluids.
immune system.
Bacteria may produce toxins that damage tissues and make us fell ill
Tobacco Enters via wounds in Remove infected leaves and
Communicable diseases
Mosaic pattern
Pathogens are microorganisms

Bacteria Protists Fungi

that cause infectious disease

Viruses Virus mosaic epidermis caused by control pests that damage

(prokaryotes) (eukaryotes) (eukaryotes) on leaves.
virus pests. the leaves.
e.g. cold, e.g. e.g. Food prepared in Improve food hygiene,
Pathogens

influenza, tuberculosis dysentery, e.g. athlete’s Fever, cramp,

unhygienic conditions wash hands, vaccinate
measles, (TB), sleeping foot, thrush, Bacteria Salmonella vomiting,
or not cooked poultry, cook food
HIV, tobacco Salmonella, sickness, rose black spot diarrhoea.
properly. thoroughly.
mosaic virus Gonorrhoea malaria
Green discharge Direct sexual contact
No membrane Use condoms. Treatment
Bacteria Gonorrhoea from penis or or exchange of body
bound Membrane using antibiotics.
vagina. fluids.
organelles (no Membrane bound
DNA or RNA Prevent breeding of
chloroplasts, bound organelles, cell By an animal vector
surrounded Protists Malaria Recurrent fever. mosquitoes. Use of nets to
mitochondria organelles. wall made of (mosquitoes).
by a protein prevent bites.
or nucleus). Usually single chitin. Single Viruses live and
coat
Cell wall. Single celled. celled or multi- reproduce inside Rose black Purple black Spores carried via Remove infected leaves.
celled cellular Fungus
cells causing spot spots on leaves. wind or water. Spray with fungicide.
organisms damage
better hope – brighter future
 Traditionally drugs were extracted from plants and Antibiotics have greatly reduced deaths
microorganisms from infectious bacterial disease
Digitalis Aspirin Penicillin Antibiotics
Most new drugs are synthesised by chemists

Kill infective bacteria inside the cannot be

A painkiller and Discovered by body. Specific bacterial
Bacteria antibiotics e.g. penicillin use to
Extracted from anti- Alexander infections require specific
in the pharmaceutical industry.

can treat viral

foxglove plants inflammatory Fleming from antibiotics.
mutate pathogens
and used as a that was first the Penicillium
heart drug found in willow mould and used
bark as an antibiotic Painkillers e.g. aspirin, Drugs that are used to treat the It is difficult to
Sometimes this makes and other paracetamol, symptoms of a disease. They develop drugs
them resistant to medicines ibuprofen do not kill pathogens to kill viruses
antibiotic drugs. without
harming body
tissues
AQA because
Drugs have to be tested and trialled before INFECTION Used to immunise a large proportion of viruses live
the population to prevent the spread of a and
to check they are safe and effective AND reproduce
pathogen
RESPONSE inside cells
Efficacy Make sure the drug works
New drugs are
extensively
tested for:

Check that the drug is not

the harmful disease and

population is prevented
suffer the symptoms of
1st infection White blood cells detect pathogens in the

A person is unlikely to
Toxicity
poisonous Small amount by vaccine. Antibodies are released into the

Vaccination

it’s spread in a
The most suitable amount to of dead or pathogen blood.
Dose inactive form
take
of the Re-infection White blood cells detect pathogens.
Preclinical trials - using cells, tissues and live animals - must Double blind trial: pathogen by the same Antibodies are made much faster and in
be carried out before the drug can be tested on humans. patients and scientists do pathogen larger amounts.
not know who receives
Clinical trials use healthy volunteers and patients the new drug or placebo Created more side effects than expected (fatal in some cases) and are not as
until the end of the trial. widely used as everybody hoped when first developed.
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 This avoids bias.
A placebo can look identical to the new
Monoclonal antibodies

drug but contain no active ingredients Monoclonal antibodies can be used in a variety of ways
Healthy A double
A small A larger
(Biology only HT)

volunteers blind trial will Detecting Detecting

number number of 1. A mouse is injected with Diagnosis Treatment
try small occur. The pathogens molecules
of patients; pathogen
dose of patients are
patients different
the drug divided into 2. Lymphocytes produce Bound to
Monoclonal antibodies

try the doses are Identical

to check it groups. Some antibodies radioactive
drug at a trialled to copies of
is safe will be given e.g. substance,
low dose find the one types 3. Lymphocytes are removed from Fluorescent dye
record any the drug and pregnancy Can detect very toxic drug or
to see if it optimum of the mouse and fused with rapidly can be attached
side some a test – small quantities chemical
works dose antibody dividing mouse tumour cells so it can be
effects placebo. measure of chemicals in Cancer cells
produced seen inside cells
4. The new cells are called the level of the blood are targeted
in or tissues
hybridomas hormones to normal
laboratory
5. The hybridomas divide rapidly body cells are
Specific to one binding site on the antigen. Can target and release lots of antibodies unharmed
specific chemicals or cells in the body which are then collected
better hope – brighter future
 Respiration, stored as insoluble starch,
Used to provide optimum Growers must balance the

greenhouses to reduce limiting

factors can improve crop yields
fats or oils for storage, cellulose for cell
Heating temperatures for maximum plant economics of additional
walls, combine with nitrates from the soil

Control conditions in
growth. costs of controlling the
permanent vacuole
to form amino acids for protein synthesis
conditions to maximise
Plants use the glucose produced in Enhances the natural sunlight photosynthesis with making
nucleus chloroplasts Artificial
photosynthesis in a variety of ways especially overnight and on a profit.
cytoplasm lighting
cloudy days.
cell membrane
cell wall
Extra
Gas can be pumped into the air
The plant manufactures glucose from carbon dioxide and water using energy carbon
inside the greenhouse.
transferred from the environment to the chloroplasts by light dioxide

Plants make use

light AQA GCSE BIOENERGETICS part
Photosynthesis

of light energy Carbon dioxide + Water Oxygen + Glucose

from the 1
environment
(ENDOTHERMIC)
Rate of photosynthesis HT Only
to make food CO2 + H 2O
light
O2 + C6H12O6
Rate of photosynthesis

Light intensity obeys the inverse square law. This means that if you double the
distance between the plant and the light source you quarter the light intensity
(glucose) Graph lines C and D:
If temperature is
Explain graphs of
The rate of photosynthesis is affected by temperature, light intensity, increased by 10oC
two or three
carbon dioxide concentration, and the amount of chlorophyll then a slight increase
factors and decide
in rate of
which is the
Limiting factors (why the rate stops photosynthesis
Factor How the rate is affected limiting factor
going up) occurs.
As the temperature of the Photosynthesis is an enzyme

temperature are increased the

Graph lines A and D: If carbon

increases significantly up to a
environment the plant is in controlled reaction. If the Graph Lines A and B:

dioxide concentration and

If carbon dioxide

rate of photosynthesis
increases rate of photosynthesis temperature increases too much,
Temperature concentration is
increases (up to a point) as there is then the enzymes become
Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis

more energy for the chemical denatured and the rate of reaction increased from 0.01%

reaction.
Light intensity increases as the
distance between the plant and the
light sources increases. As light
Light intensity intensity increases so does the rate
of photosynthesis (up to a point) as
more energy is available for the
chemical reaction.
point.
will decrease and stop to 0.1% then a large
increase in rate occurs
up to a point.
At point X another factor is limiting
the rate of photosynthesis. This
could be carbon dioxide
concentration, temperature or the
amount of chlorophyll

limited by temperature and/or

carbon dioxide concentrations

Carbon dioxide is needed for plants
Carbon to make glucose. The rate of
tissue can be damaged when
amount of chlorophyll. Plant
Graph line A: Rate could be
At point X another factor is limiting x
the rate of photosynthesis. This

dioxide photosynthesis will increase when a
concentration plant is given higher concentrations
of carbon dioxide (up to a point).
Chlorophyll is a photosynthetic
pigment that absorbs light and
Amount of
allows the reaction between water
chlorophyll
and carbon dioxide to occur
(photosynthesis)
exceed 0.1%
could be light intensity,
temperature or the amount of
chlorophyll
Another factor could limit the rate
of photosynthesis. This could be
light intensity, temperature or the
carbon dioxide concentration
better hope – brighter future
 An organism To enable muscles to contract in
For movement
will receive all animals.
cytoplasm
During long the energy it
periods of needs for living
processes as a For keeping To keep a steady body temperature in
vigorous warm a cold environment.
activity result of the mitochondria
energy Electron micrograph
muscles
transferred of a mitochondrion
become
from For chemical To build larger molecules from smaller animal cell plant cell
fatigued
respiration reactions one.
and stop

Cellular respiration is an exothermic

contracting
efficiently Anaerobic respiration Aerobic respiration

reaction which is continuously

Response to exercise Respiration

occurring in all living cells

Respiration when Respiration with
oxygen is in short oxygen. Occurs inside
During the mitochondria
Heart rate Top pump oxygenated blood faster to supply. Occurs during
exercise AQA GCSE intensive exercise continuously
the human increases the muscle tissues and cells.
body reacts
BIOENERGETICS During hard exercise, Glucose is oxidised by
to Breathing rate part 2 muscle cells are oxygen to transfer the
increased and breath This increases the amount of oxygen respiring so fast that energy the organism
demand volume entering the blood stream. blood cannot transport needs to perform it’s
for energy increase enough oxygen to meet functions.
their needs.

carbon dioxide + water

Metabolism is the sum of all the
reactions in a cell or the body
Metabolism Glucose is partially

CO2 + H2O
oxidised to produce
lactic acid which builds
Conversion of glucose to starch, glycogen and
up in muscle tissue
The energy cellulose.
Anaerobic respiration in plant and yeast cells causing them to
transferred by
The formation of lipid molecules from a molecule become painful and
respiration in cells The end products are ethanol and carbon
Metabolism

of glycerol and three molecules of fatty acid. fatigued.

is used by the dioxide. Anaerobic respiration in yeast cells is
organism for the The use of glucose and nitrate ions to form amino called fermentation
continual enzyme acids which in turn are used to synthesise proteins. glucose lactic acid
glucose ethanol + carbon dioxide

C6H12O6 + O2
controlled
Respiration
processes of

glucose + oxygen
metabolism. Breakdown of excess proteins to form urea for
excretion. This process is economically Anaerobic respiration
important in the manufacture releases a much
of alcoholic drinks and bread. smaller amount of
The extra amount of oxygen required to remove all
exercise HT only

energy than aerobic

lactic acids from cells is called the oxygen debt
Response to

respiration.
Blood flows The liver
Lactic acid
through the oxidises the The incomplete Aerobic respiration
builds up in
muscle cells and lactic acid and oxidation of glucose releases a large
the muscles
transports the converts it causes a build up of amount of energy
cells during
lactic acid to the back to lactic acid and creates from each glucose
exercise
liver glucose an oxygen debt molecule

better hope – brighter future

 The iris can dilate the pupil Cells called
Sense organ Detect stimuli (changes in environment). Enables humans to react to their

systems include
(aperture) to let in more

Human control
receptors surroundings and to co-ordinate
light in dim conditions containing
receptors Coordination e.g. brain, spinal cord and pancreas that their behaviour
Retina Light sensitive cell layer. sensitive to centres receive information from receptors.
light intensity Effectors
Muscles or glands, which bring about Information from receptors passes
Optic nerve Carries impulse to brain. responses to restore optimum levels.
and colour along cells (neurones) as electrical
impulses to the central nervous
Structures of the eye

Sclera Protects the eye. AQA GCSE The human

The Eye (Bio only) system (CNS)

Cornea
Transparent layer that HOMEOSTASIS AND nervous The CNS is the brain and the spinal
sclera
covers the pupil and iris. cord.
suspensory ligament retina RESPONSE part 1 system
Pigmented layer, controls cornea
Iris Coordinates the response of
size of pupil. optic nerve cerebral cortex
The Brain effectors; muscles contracting or
Ciliary Controls thickness of glands secreting hormones
muscles lens. iris
(Bio only) dendrites

Suspensory Connects lens to ciliary

ligaments muscles. ciliary muscles The brain controls complex cell body
Stimulus Lights switch on
cerebellum
behaviour. It is made of axon terminal
Accommodation is the process of billions of interconnected
Neuroscientists
treating brain disorders very difficult

(HT) The complexity and delicacy of

changing the shape of the lens to focus medulla neurones. axon with insulating sheath

the brain makes investigating and

nucleus Receptor Cells in retina
have been able
Near object Far object to map regions
Typical motor neurone

The brain has different regions that

of the brain by Largest part of the
Ciliary muscles Cerebral human brain. Higher

carry out different functions.

Ciliary muscles studying Synapse (gap where two Coordinator CNS
contract, patients with cortex thinking skills e.g.
relax, suspensory neurones meet).
suspensory brain damage, speech, decision making.
ligaments pulled
ligaments loosed, electrical
tight, lens pulled axon
lens get thicker, stimulation and Balance and voluntary Muscles
thin, light is only Effector
light is more MRI. Cerebellum muscle function e.g. direction of impulse connected to iris
slightly refracted. axon terminal
refracted. walking, lifting.
vesicles
neurotransmitter

Hyperopia (long Myopia (short Pupils get

Involuntary (automatic) Synaptic cleft Response
sightedness) sightedness) smaller
Medulla body functions e.g. neurotransmitter
receptors
Treated using a Treated using a breathing, heart rate.
convex lens so the concave lens so sensory
spinal cord neurone
light is focused on light is focused on
e.g. Lobotomy – cutting part of the
Treating brain damage and disease

the retina. the retina. Benefit: thought to Receptor Detect stimuli.

motor
alleviate the neurone
Long axon carries impulse from receptor to
symptoms of some Sensory neurone
spinal cord.
mental illnesses.
cerebral cortex

Gap where neurones meet. Chemical

Reflex arc

Synapse muscle
Risks: bleeding in message using neurotransmitter. pain (effector)
receptors
the brain, seizures,
Allows impulses to travel between sensory
loss of brain Relay neurone
and motor neurones in the spinal cord.
function.
New technologies now include hard/soft Procedure was Long axon carries impulse from receptor to Reflex actions are automatic and
contact lens, laser surgery to change the Motor neurone rapid; they do not involve the
abandoned in the effector.
shape of the cornea and a replacement 1950s due to risk. conscious part of the brain and can
lens in the eye. Effector Muscle or gland that carries out response. protect humans from harm.
better hope – brighter future
 Thermoregulatory Contains receptors sensitive to the temperature
Monitoring centre of the blood.
Blood glucose These automatic body
concentration control systems temperature Contains temperature receptors, sends nervous
Controls Skin
may involve impulses to the thermoregulatory centre.
Response to internal and external change

in the Body
nervous
human temperature
responses or

Body temperature
body Blood vessels dilate (vasodilation),
chemical Too
Water levels sweat produced from sweat (HT) Thermal energy is lost from blood
responses. Thermoregulatory high
glands. near the surface of the skin, sweat
centre (hypothalamus)
evaporates transferring thermal energy.
Blood vessels constrict
The regulation of internal conditions of a Too
(vasoconstriction), sweating stops, (HT) Thermal energy loss at the surface
cell or organism to maintain optimum Control of body low
muscles contract (shivering). of the skin is reduced, respiring muscles
conditions for function. temperature cells transfer chemical to thermal energy.
(Biology only) Human endocrine system
Homeostasis maintains optimal conditions for The blood carries the

Endocrine system
Composed of
enzyme action and all cell functions. hormone to a target
glands which
AQA GCSE Pituitary
gland
Pineal
gland secrete chemicals
organ where is produces
an effect. Compared to
Homeostasis HOMEOSTASIS Thyroid
called hormones
the nervous system
directly into the
AND RESPONSE bloodstream.
effects are slower but act
Thymus for longer.
Water and nitrogen balance PART 2
(Biology only) Adrenal
‘Master gland’;

Pituitary
gland Stimulates other glands

gland
Pancreas secretes several
to produce hormones
they are de-aminated to form toxic ammonia which is converted to urea
(HT only) digestion of proteins results in excess amino acids. In the liver

If body cells
Uncontrolled
Water exhaled Control of hormones into the
to bring about effects.
lose or gain in lungs, water, blood glucose Ovaries blood
water/ion urea
too much ions and urea in
water by
loss
sweat. concentration Testes
Blood glucose concentration

negative feedback system. Insulin is released to reduce glucose

(HT) Rising glucose levels inhibit the release of glucagon in a
osmosis they

levels and which cause the pancreas to release glucagon

do no Controlled Monitored and controlled by the pancreas
Via the kidneys
function water/ion/urea
in urine. Produced in adrenal glands, Too high (HT only) Too low
Negative feedback (HT only)

efficiently. loss
increases breathing/heart rate,
Pancreas produces
blood flow to muscles, Pancreas produces
Adrenaline the hormone insulin,
Kidney failure is treated by organ conversion glycogen to glucose. the hormone
transplant or dialysis. glucose moves from
Prepares body for ‘fight or glucagon that
the blood into the
flight’. causes glycogen to
cells. In liver and
Produce urine by A dialysis machine be converted into
Produced in the thyroid gland, muscle cells excess
Maintain filtration of the removes urea from glucose and
stimulates the basal metabolic glucose is converted
Kidney water blood and selective the blood by Thyroxine released into the
rate. Important in growth and to glycogen for
function balance of reabsorption of diffusion while blood.
development. storage.
the body. glucose, ions and maintaining ion
water. and glucose levels.
Diabetes
Increasing thyroxine
levels prevent the Type 1 Type 2
Acts on Released by pituitary gland when release of thyroid
kidney blood is too concentrated. Water stimulating Pancreas fails to produce sufficient Obesity is a risk factor. Body cells no
(HT only)
tubules to is reabsorbed back into the blood hormone which insulin leading to uncontrolled longer respond to insulin. Common
ADH
control from the kidney tubules stops the release of blood glucose levels. Normally treatments include changing by diet
water levels. (NEGATIVE FEEDBACK). thyroxine. treated by insulin injection. and increasing exercise.
better hope – brighter future
 FSH and LH are used as ‘fertility
Light breaks down auxins and they become unequally

hormones to coordinate
Hormones are used in modern
reproductive technologies to
drugs’ to help someone become
Light distributed in the shoot. The side with the highest

and control growth

pregnant in the normal way

Plants produce
(phototropism) concentration of auxins has the highest growth rate and
Plant the shoot grows toward the light.

treat infertility
In Vitro Fertilisation (IVF) treatment. responses
using Gravity causes an unequal distribution of auxins. In roots
Involves giving a mother FSH and LH to stimulate
hormones the side with the lowest concentration has the highest Light
the maturation of several eggs Gravity
(auxins) growth rate and the root grows in the direction of gravity.
(geotropism or
The eggs are collected from the mother and fertilised gravitropism) In new shoots from a seedling the unequal distribution of
by sperm from the father in a laboratory. auxins causes the shoot to grow away from gravity.

gravity
(HT only) Gibberellins are important (HT only) Ethene controls cell
The fertilised eggs develop into embryos. in initiating seed germination. division and ripening of fruits.
The use of

hormones
Weed killers, rooting powders,

hormones are used

in agriculture and
Plant
hormone to Auxins
promoting growth in tissue culture.

Plant growth
(Biology Only)

horticulture
Use of plant
At the stage when they are tiny balls of cells, one or treat infertility

hormones
two embryos are inserted into the mother’s uterus Control ripening of fruit during
(womb).
(HT only) Ethene
storage and transport.
End seed dormancy, promote
Gibberellins
flowering, increase fruit size.
AQA GCSE
Emotional and physical stress.
HOMEOSTASIS AND Hormones in human
Potential
disadvantages Success rates are not high. RESPONSE PART 3 reproduction Pineal
Pituitary
gland
of IVF gland
Multiple births risk to mother and
babies. Contraception During puberty reproductive hormones cause secondary sexual Thyroid
characteristics to develop
Thymus
Oestrogen (main female Testosterone (main male
Contain hormones to inhibit FSH
reproductive hormone) reproductive hormone)
Oral contraceptives production so that no eggs
mature. Produced in the ovaries. At Adrenal
puberty eggs being to mature Produced in the testes gland Pancreas
For slow release of progesterone
releasing one every 28 days – stimulation sperm production.
Injection, implant, to inhibit the maturation and
ovulation.
skin patch release of eggs for months or Ovaries
Fertility can be years.
(HT only) a graph of Testes
controlled by
Condoms or diaphragms which hormone levels over time
hormonal and Barrier methods
prevent sperm reaching the egg. oestrogen progesterone
non hormonal Follicle Causes maturation (HT) FSH stimulates
methods Prevent implantation of an embryo LH stimulating of an egg in the ovaries to produce
Intrauterine devices
Menstrual cycle
FSH
or release a hormone. hormone (FSH) ovary. oestrogen.
Spermicidal agents Kill or disable sperm. Luteinising Stimulates release (HT) Oestrogen stops
Avoiding intercourse when an egg hormone (LH) of an egg. FSH production and
Abstaining stimulates LH
may be in the oviduct.
Oestrogen and Maintain uterus production in
Surgery Male or female sterilisation. progesterone lining. pituitary gland.
better hope – brighter future
 Copies of the genetic Sperm and egg in
Sexual reproduction Produced by meiosis. There is
Gametes are information are made. animals.
involves the fusion of mixing of genetic information
made in
Cells divide by The cell divides twice to form male and female Pollen and egg cells which leads to a variety in the
reproductive
Meiosis halves
the number of
chromosomes
meiosis to four gametes each with single gametes. in flowering plants. offspring.
organs (in
form gametes set of chromosomes.
animals ovaries Asexual reproduction Only mitosis is involved. There is
and testes) All gametes are genetically e.g. cloning of
involves only one no mixing of genetic
different from each other. females only in an
parent and no fusion of information. This leads to
aphid population.
Gametes join at gametes. genetically identical clones.
fertilisation to The new cell divides by mitosis. The When the protein chain is complete it folds to form a unique shape. This allows
Advantages and restore the number number of cells increase. As the embryo proteins to do their job as enzymes, hormones or new structures such as collagen.
disadvantages of sexual of chromosomes develops cells differentiate.
and asexual reproduction Some change the shape
Meiosis leads to non-identical cells being Most do not
and affect the function of (HT) Making new proteins
(Biology only) Meiosis formed while mitosis leads to identical cells alter the
proteins e.g. and enzyme (protein synthesis)
protein so that
being formed active site will change or a
its appearance Composed of chains of
Reproduction advantages/disadvantages structural protein loses its
DNA and or function is amino acids. A sequence of
Sexual and asexual reproduction strength
not changed. 3 bases codes for a
Sexual Asexual the genome particular amino acid.
Needs two Only one parent AQA GCSE INHERITANCE, Mutations occur
parents. needed (quicker). Genetic material in the VARIATION AND continuously (HT only) DNA in the nucleus unravels.
nucleus is composed of
Produces variation Identical offspring
a chemical called DNA.
EVOLUTION Part 1 Protein In DNA the
in the offspring. (no variation). synthesis complementa Enzymes make a copy of the
(HT only) ry strands C, DNA strand called mRNA.
If the environment
Vulnerable to DNA structure
DNA structure A, T, G always
changes variation (Biology only) link in the
rapidly changing mRNA moves from the

nucleotide consists of a common

gives a survival Polymer made up of two

sugar, phosphate group and one

DNA is polymer made from four

of 4 different bases A, C, G & T

conditions due to same way. C nucleus to ribosome in the
advantage by strands forming a

different nucleotides. Each

lack of variation. always linked cytoplasm.
natural selection. double helix. to G on the
Negative Negative mutation Contained in structures opposite Ribosomes translate each 3
mutations are not can affect all called chromosomes. A strand and A bases into amino acids
always inherited. offspring. gene is a small section of The genome is to T. according to mRNA template
DNA on a chromosome. the entire
Natural selection genetic material
Phosphate Repeating
Each gene codes for a and sugar
Ribosomes link amino acids
can by speeded up Food/medicine of an organism. back bone nucleotide units.
sequence of amino acids brought by carrier proteins.
using selective production can be
to make a specific ribose
breeding to extremely quick. (HT only) Not all parts code for
protein. sugar
increase food proteins. Non-coding parts can switch A long chain of amino acids
production. phosphate
genes on and off. Mutations may group base form. Their specific order
affect how genes are expressed. forms a specific protein.
Malarial Asexually in the human host but
Some parasites sexually in a mosquito. Searching for genes linked to A sequence of 3 bases is the
The whole different types of disease.
organisms use Asexually by spores, sexually to It is of great code for a particular amino
Fungi human
both methods give variation. importance acid. The order of bases
genome Understanding and treatment
depending on for future controls the order in which
has now of inherited disorders.
the Produce seeds sexually, asexually medical each amino acid is assemble
been
circumstances Plants by runners in strawberry plants, developments Tracing migration patterns to produce a specific protein.
studied.
bulbs division in daffodils. from the past. nucleotide
better hope – brighter future
 Embryo screening: small piece of Gene therapy: replacing the

Ordinary human body cells contain 23

developing placenta removed to faulty allele in somatic cells One pair of chromosomes
check for presence of faulty genes with a normal allele Embryo screening and carry the genes that
Very rarely a gene therapy may determine sex
mutation will alleviate suffering

pairs of chromosomes
Embryo Economic Costly and not 100% reliable.

male of female child is

lead to a new Female Male

50%. The ratio is 1:1

The probability of a
phenotype which screening
/gene Social Not available to everyone (due to cost). Some disorders are XX XY
if is suited to
therapy inherited. They are caused
environmental Should only ‘healthy’ embryos be implanted
issues by the inheritance of certain
change can lead Ethical
following screening. alleles
to rapid change
in the species. Mutations occur continuously Cystic

disorder. He must be heterozygous

Polydactyly

all of the offspring would have the

Using a family tree: If the father
was homozygous dominant then
fibrosis
characteristics of individuals in

Genetic causes There is usually

a population may be due to

Caused by
Variation: difference in the

(inheritance) extensive genetic inheriting a

variation within the Caused by Using a punnet square (using mouse fur
Environmental recessive
population of a inheriting a colour as an example)
causes (condition allele (both
species e.g. hair dominant
they have parents have Parent Black fur White fur
colour, skin colour, allele.
developed in) to at least phenotype
height that can also carry it).
A combination of be affected by
A disorder of Parent

Sex determination
genes and environment e.g. BB bb
environment nutrition, sunlight. Inherited disorders the cell genotype
Causes a
membrane.
person/anim
Patients In each egg In each sperm
All genetic variation arises in mutation, most AQA GCSE al to have
cannot What
have no effect on phenotype, some influence Variation extra toes or gametes are B
but very few determine phenotype.
INHERITANCE, fingers.
control the
viscosity of present B
VARIATION AND their mucus.
The genome and its interaction with the environment
influence the development of phenotypes EVOLUTION PART 2
Genetic inheritance
Some characteristics
Gamete Sex cells produced in meiosis. are controlled by a The concept of
single gene e.g. fur probability in predicting
Chromosome A long chain of DNA found in the nucleus.
colour, colour
results of a single gene The probability of black fur offspring phenotype
Define terms linked to genetics

Gene Small section of DNA that codes for a particular protein. blindness.
cross. is 100%. All offspring genotypes are
Allele Alternate forms of the same gene. heterozygous (Bb).
The alleles present, Dominant and recessive allele
A type of allele – always expressed if only one copy present or genotype operate combinations
Dominant
and when paired with a recessive allele. at a molecular level Crossing two heterozygous mice (Bb)
Dominant Recessive
A type of allele – only expressed when paired with another to develop
Recessive characteristics that Represented
recessive allele. Represented
can be expressed as by a lower
Homozygous Pair of the same alleles, dominant or recessive. by a capital
a phenotype. case letter
letter e.g. B.
Heterozygous Two different alleles are present 1 dominant and 1 recessive. e.g. b.
Most characteristics 3 possible combinations:
Genotype Alleles that are present for a particular feature e.g. Bb or bb
are as a result of Homozygous dominant BB
Physical expression of an allele combination e.g. black fur, multiple genes Heterozygous dominant Bb The probability of black fur is 75% and white fur
Phenotype 25%. The ratio of black to white mice is 3:1
blonde hair, blue eyes. interacting. Homozygous recessive bb

better hope – brighter future

 Evolutionary trees are a method
Species of
Through natural selection of variants (genotypes) Classification of
that give rise to phenotypes best suited to their used by scientists to show how
all living
environment or environmental change e.g. stronger,
living organisms organisms are related

particularly prone to disease or inherited defects e.g. British Bulldogs have

things have
faster. This allows for variants to pass on their
Over time this results in

The
the formation of new

evolved

Selective breeding can lead to ‘inbreeding’ where some breeds are

theory of genotype to the next generation. Choosing characteristics
from simple Use current
evolution
life forms classification data
species.

by natural Desired characteristics are

that first If two populations of one species become so for living chosen for usefulness or
selection.
developed different in phenotype that they can no longer organisms and appearance
3 billion interbreed to produce fertile offspring they have fossil data for
Darwin’s finches extinct organisms
years ago. formed two new species. Disease
resistance in

breathing difficulties.
Humans have been doing this for thousands of years since food crops.
A change in the inherited they first bred food from crops and domesticated animals.
Evolution Animals
characteristics of a population over The process by which
time through the process of natural which humans breed Selective breeding produce
selection. plants/animals for more meat
AQA GCSE particular genetic Choosing parents with the desired or milk.
characteristics from a mixed
INHERITANCE characteristics
population
Domestic
dogs with a
Cloning
VARIATION Selective gentle
Chosen parents are bred together.
(Biology AND breeding nature.

only) EVOLUTION From the offspring those with Large or

PART 3 Genetic desired characteristics are bred unusual
engineering together. flowers.

Modern medical is Repeat over several generations

Cloning techniques in plants/animals Concern: effect of GMO
exploring the until all the offspring show the
on wild populations of
Small groups of cells to possibility of GM desired characteristics.
flowers and insects.
grow new plants. Important to over come
Tissue
for preservation of rare inherited disorders
culture
plants and commercially in e.g. cystic fibrosis
Concern: effect of GMO on human Genes from the chromosomes
health not fully explored of humans or other organisms
nurseries.
Adult cell cloning can be ‘cut out’ and
1. Nucleus is removed from an Part of a plant is cut off and Genetic engineering process (HT only) transferred to the cells of other
Cuttings
unfertilised egg. grown into full plant. organisms.
1. Enzymes are used to isolate the
2. Nucleus from body cell is required gene.
Splitting apart cells from
inserted into egg cell.

Genetically modified crops

animals embryo before they 2. Gene is inserted into a vector – To become
Embryo more
3. An electric shock stimulates become specialised. New bacterial plasmid or virus.
transplants Crops that resistant to
the egg to divide into an embryo clone embryos are inserted
3. Vector inserts genes into the required have insect
into womb of adult female.

(GMO)
4. Embryo cells are genetically cells. genes from attack or
identical to adult cells. 4. Genes are transferred to other herbicides.
Concern: some people have ethical plants/animals/microbes at an early organisms
5. When embryo has developed To increase
objections to adult cell cloning e.g. stage of development so they develop
into ball of cells it is inserted into the yield of
welfare of the animals. the required characteristics.
host womb. the crop.
better hope – brighter future
 Individual organisms within a particular species show Developed since its proposal Did much pioneering work on Allows biologists to
a wide range of variation for a characteristic. from information gathered by speciation but more evidence understand the
Theory of
Charles evolution by Individual most suited to the environment are more other scientists. over time has lead to our diversity of species
Darwin natural likely to breed successfully. current understanding. on the planet.
selection.
Characteristics enable individuals to survive are then Published joint
passed on to the next generation. writings with Speciation
Darwin in 1858. Due to isolation of a population of
Evidence from around the world,
experimentation, geology, fossils, discussion
Theory of Independently Worked worldwide a species e.g. species are split

Alfred Wallace
evolution proposed the gathering across far apart islands.
with other scientists (Alfred Wallace) lead to:
theory of evidence.
(Biology evolution by
Charles Published the Slowly accepted; challenged Speciation Best know for Environmental conditions differ for
only) natural populations e.g. types of food
Darwin ‘On theory of creation theory (God), (Biology only) selection
work on warning
available, habitat.
the Origin of evolution by insufficient evidence at time, colouration in
the Species’ natural mechanism of inheritance not animals and his
(1859) selection yet known. AQA GCSE theory of
speciation. Individuals in each population most
Other theories e.g. Lamarckism are based on the idea that changes INHERITANCE suited to their environments are
occur in an organism during its lifetime which can be inherited. We VARIATION AND more likely to breed successfully.
now know that in the vast majority of cases this cannot occur.
EVOLUTION PART 4
The full
human
Classification of living organisms
Over long periods of time each
classification population will have greater

Evidence for evolution

Carl Woese
Due to improvements in differences in their genotype.
Kingdom Animalia The understanding of genetics (biology only)
microscopes, and the
Carl Linnaeus classified

3 domain based on
Phylum Chordata understanding of chemical analysis. If two populations of one species
biochemical processes,
living things

Class Mammalia Inheritance of each become so different in phenotype

new models of Archaea (primitive In the mid 19th
characteristic is

Mendel
Gregor
Order Primates century carried out that they can no longer interbreed
classification were bacteria), true determined by units that
proposed. breeding experiments to produce fertile offspring they
Family Hominidae bacteria, eukaryota. are passed on to have formed two new species.
on plants
descendants unchanged.
Genus Homo Organisms are named by the binomial system of
Species sapiens genus and species. Humans are Homo sapiens Further understanding of genetics
Fossils

cannot be certain about how life began.

Early forms of life were soft bodied and
Improving technology allowed

but not until long after Mendel died.

Led to gene theory being developed
been destroyed by geological activity,
few traces are left behind and have
Fossils and antibiotic resistance in bacteria provide evidence for evolution. ‘remains’ of ancient new observations.
organisms which are found in
Resistant strains are Late 19th century: behaviour of
Extinction rocks
Mutations not killed. chromosomes in cell division.
Antibiotic resistant

When no members of a Parts of organism that have

produce Early 20th century: chromosomes
Strain survives and species survive not decayed as necessary
bacteria

antibiotic and Mendel’s ‘units’ behave in

reproduces. conditions are absent.
resistant Due to extreme similar ways. ‘units’ now called
strains People have no geological events, Parts of the organism replaced genes must be located on
which can immunity to strain disease, climate change, Fossils tell scientists by minerals as they decay. chromosomes.
spread and treatment is habitat destruction, how much or how
ineffective. Preserved traces of organisms Mid 20th century: structure of DNA
hunting by humans. little different such as footprints, burrows determined. Mechanism of gene
organisms have and rootlet traces.
Evolution is widely accepted. Evidence is now available as it has been function worked out.
changed over time.
shown that characteristics are passed on to offspring in genes.
better hope – brighter future
 Environment The conditions surrounding an organism; abiotic and biotic. Plants in a community or habitat compete with
each other for light, space, water and mineral ions.

Ecosystem

Surviving and
reproducing
Habitat Place where organisms live e.g. woodland, lake. Competition
Animals compete with each other for food, mates
conditions for making
compost for use as a

greys also carry a pathogen

food for red squirrels. The
increased competition for

EXAMPLE: Introduction of
Farmers optimise

natural fertiliser. Population Individuals of a species living in a habitat. and territory.

grey squirrels to UK
that kills reds.
Community Populations of different species living in a habitat. Species depend on each other for food, shelter,
Interdependence pollination, seed dispersal etc. Removing a species
Organisms require a supply of materials from their can affect the whole community
surroundings and from the other living organisms.
Bacteria respire when breaking down dead EXAMPLE: climate change is leading to
organisms releasing CO2. Decomposition and more dissolved CO2 in oceans lowering
the pH of the water affecting
Anaerobic decay in biogas material cycling organisms living there.
generators produces
CO2 taken in
methane gas, used as a fuel. Abiotic Biotic
during
photosynthesis.
Interdependence
and competition Non-living factors
Living factors that
that affect a
affect a community
community

AQA GCSE Living intensity.

Abiotic and biotic

Availability of food.
ECOLOGY PART 1 Temperature.
Organisms
respire

factors.
releasing
Moisture levels.
CO2. New predators
Adaptations Soil pH, mineral
arriving.
content.

organisation
Organisms
Wind intensity and

Levels of
Dead organisms decayed by bacteria
adaptations enable direction. New pathogens.
and fungi releasing carbon. them to survive in
conditions where Carbon dioxide
Materials are recycled to provide the levels for a plant. One species
they normally live.
building blocks for future organisms outcompeting so
Adaptations may Oxygen levels for numbers are no
Photosynthetic organisms are the producers of biomass for life on Earth be structural, aquatic organisms. longer sufficient to
behavioural or breed
Food chains functional.

Feeding relationships in a community Adaptations

Primary Secondary Tertiary Plants Animals Extremophiles

Producer
consumer consumer consumer Cactus in dry, hot Polar bear in Deep sea vent
desert extreme cold artic bacteria

Factors affecting rate of decay

organisms releases
Breakdown of dead
mineral ions can

Temperature, water, oxygen

into the soil.

Increase the rate of decay. In All food chains begin Populations form in
Consumers that kill and In a stable
enzyme controlled reactions with a producer e.g. No leaves to reduce Hollow hairs to trap
eat other animals are community the thick layers to
raising the temperature too grass that is usually a water loss, wide layer of heat. Thick
predators and those numbers of protect outer layers
high will denature the green plant or deep roots for layer of fat for
eaten are prey. predators and prey from extreme heat
enzymes. photosynthetic algae. absorbing water. insulation.
rise and fall in cycles. of vent.
better hope – brighter future
 Global warming
Levels of CO2 Decreased land availability from sea There is a global consensus about global
Enough food is needed to feed and methane level rise, temperature rise damages warming and climate change based on
Factors affecting food security

Increasing birth rate. systematic reviews of thousands of peer

a changing population in the delicate habitats, extreme weather
atmosphere events harm populations of plants reviewed publications.
Changing diets in developing countries.
are increasing. and animals.
New pests and pathogens affecting farming. Human activity can have a positive
impact on biodiversity
Environmental changes e.g. famine when rains fail.

Cost of agriculture input. Global

warming Scientists and concerned citizens
Conflicts (war) affecting water of food availability
Put in place programmes to reduce the
negative impacts of humans on
Food ecosystems and biodiversity
Farming techniques production
Breeding programmes for endangered
Increasing efficiency of food (biology only)
species.
production AQA GCSE ECOLOGY Maintaining Protection and regeneration of rare
Reduce energy waste, PART 2 biodiversity habitats.
limiting movement, control
temperature, high protein Reintroduction of field margins and
diet to increase growth. hedgerows in agricultural areas where
Trophic farmers grow only one type of crop.
levels and Reduction of deforestation and CO2
biomass
Fish stocks in oceans are

emissions by some governments.

Sustainable fisheries

Maintain/grow fish (biology only)

stocks to a sustainable Recycling resources rather than dumping
waste in landfill.
declining

level where breeding

continues or certain
species may disappear.
By controlling net size,
fishing quotas.
Some of the programmes potentially
Some people have concerns conflict with human needs for land use,
about the treatment of animals. food production and high living standards.
Trophic levels can be represented by
numbers and biomass in pyramids.
Transfer of biomass Trophic levels are numbered sequentially

Apex predators are carnivores

Biotechnology
according to how far the organisms is
Biomass is lost between the different trophic levels
Meeting the demands of a growing along the food chain.

with no predators.
population Producers transfer about
Plants and
1% of the incident energy Level 1 Producers
Fungus Fusarium to produce mycoprotein. Large amounts of algae.
from light for
Requires glucose syrup, aerobic conditions. glucose is used in
photosynthesis. Primary
Biomass is harvested and purified. Decomposers break down respiration, some Level 2 Herbivores
consumers.
dead plants and animal matter material egested as
GM bacterium produces insulin to treat by secreting enzymes. Small Approximately 10% of the faeces or lost as waste Secondary
diabetes. biomass from each trophic Level 3 Carnivores
soluble food molecules than e.g. CO2, water and consumers.
diffuse into the level is transferred to the urea in urine.
GM crops to provide more/nutritional food level above. Tertiary
(golden rice). microorganism. Level 4 Carnivores
consumers.
better hope – brighter future
 Ensures the By reducing the dependence on one Human activity
Pollution kills plants
stability of species on another for food, shelter, can have a and animals which can
Maintain a ecosystems maintenance of the physical environment. negative impact reduce biodiversity.
great on biodiversity
biodiversity
Future of Many human activities are reduction
human biodiversity and only recently measures
species have been taken to stop it. More resources used and more waste produced.

Waste management
Rapid
growth in
Biodiversity is the variety of Biodiversity and the human
Pollution in water; sewage, fertiliser or toxic chemicals.
all different species of population
effect of human
organisms on Earth, or within and higher Pollution in air; smoke or acidic gases.
Biodiversity interaction on the
an ecosystem standard of
ecosystem living
Pollution on land; landfill and toxic chemicals.
Experimental methods are used to determine
the distribution and abundance of a species.
AQA GCSE Land use
Organisms are counted ECOLOGY PART 3
Quadrats within a randomly Humans reduce the amount of land and
techniques
Sampling

placed square habitats available for other plants,

animals and microorganisms.
Organisms are counted
Transects along a belt (transect) of Waste, land use and deforestation Building and quarrying.
the ecosystem.

Farming for animals and food crops.

Processing data
Impact of
Median Middle value in a sample. environmental change Dumping waste.
(Biology HT only)
Destruction of peat bogs to produce cheap
Mode Most occurring value in a sample.
compost for gardeners/farmers to increase
food production.
The sum of all the value in a sample
Mean Large scale deforestation
divided by the sample number.
The decay or burning of peat
In tropical areas (e.g. rain forest) release CO2 into the atmosphere.
has occurred to:
changes affect the

Temperature
Environmental

distribution of

These changes might

species

be seasonal,
Availability of water Provide land for cattle and rice
geographic or caused This conflicts with conserving
fields, grow crops for biofuels.
by human interaction. peat bogs and peatlands as
Composition of atmospheric
gases habitats for biodiversity and
reduce CO2 emissions.
Example: Several species of bird migrate from cold Deforestation reduces biodiversity
winter conditions to warmer conditions closer to the and removes a sink for increasing
equator. the amount CO2 in the atmosphere.

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