Electric drives and Control

By,
Dr. Razia Sultana W.
Associate Professor Sr.,
Energy and Power Electronics Department
School of Electrical engineering,
Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore

3/18/2024 Dr. Razia Sultana W. / VIT University / Electric Drives and Control 1
 Speed control in Induction
motor drives

18-03-2024 Electric Drives and Control/Dr. RSW /SELECT/ VIT University 2

Introduction

Induction motors
• Simple construction, reliable, ruggedness, low maintenance, low cost, high-speed
operation capability, and the ability to be operated by a direct connection to an
AC power source.

• To analyze the operating characteristic and performance of an induction motor,

we usually use an equivalent circuit based on voltage equations that describe th
behavior of the motor.

Electric Drives and Control/Dr. RSW /SELECT/ VIT University 3

Induction motor Operating Characteristics

Two-pole, three-phase, wye-connected

symmetrical induction motor
• Rotor windings, which may be a wound or a squirrel
cage type, are approximated as three-phase windings.
• stator and rotor windings are distributed windings

P-pole motor, there is a relationship

between the mechanical angle θm and the electrical angle θe

mmf Distribution by phase as current in the four-pole motor

This speed of the rotating mmf is called the synchronous speed

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Representation of Stator and rotor circuit

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Stator flux production

• Stator voltage Vs is applied to the stator winding with the effective number of turns Ns
• Stator current is flows in the winding.
• Current is produces a stator mmf (Ns*is)
• in turn produces a stator flux φs in the air gap.

• Most of the stator flux φs crosses the air gap and links to the rotor winding.
• This air-gap flux is termed mutual flux, which is often called magnetizing flux.
• Only the mutual flux is contributed to energy conversion, i.e., torque
• production.

• However, a small portion of the stator flux cannot cross the air gap but links
to only the stator winding itself. This is termed leakage flux.

Electric Drives and Control/Dr. RSW /SELECT/ VIT University 6

Stator Circuit
The voltage equation for the stator windings consists of the voltage drop of the winding
resistance Rs and the induced voltage proportional to the rate of change over time of the
stator flux linkage λs
• Voltage equation for the stator windings :
Rs is the resistance of the stator
winding
λs is the flux linkage of the stator
• Stator flux linkage λs winding.

Ns effective number of turns in stator

φ is the magnetizing flux
• Stator flux linkage λs φls is the leakage flux
is stator current

air-gap flux= magnetizing flux

Lls isRSW
Electric Drives and Control/Dr. leakage
/SELECT/inductance
VIT University 7
Stator side Equivalent circuit

Electric Drives and Control/Dr. RSW /SELECT/ VIT University 8

Rotor side Eq Ckt
• This rotor speed is always less than the speed of the stator rotating magnetic field (i.e., the
synchronous speed).
• The difference between the synchronous speed ns and the rotor speed n is called the slip
speed.
The slip speed expressed as a fraction of the
synchronous speed is called the slip s

Electric Drives and Control/Dr. RSW /SELECT/ VIT University 9

Complete & Approximate per phase equivalent circuit of a
three-phase induction motor.

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Steady-state average torque per phase for a given input voltage Vs, which is a function of the slip

Power-flow diagram in an induction motor.

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Speed versus torque curve for an induction motor

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Three operation modes of an induction motor: plugging mode,
motoring mode, and generation mode

Electric Drives and Control/Dr. RSW /SELECT/ VIT University 13

 operation modes
• Motoring mode
• Rotor rotates in the same direction as the stator rotating magnetic field but at a somewhat slower speed.
• Thus the slip ranges between 0 and 1 (0 <s ≤1), and both the air-gap power and the mechanical power are positive as

• This implies that, in the motoring mode, the induction motor converts the applied input power into mechanical power through
the air gap.

• Generation mode
• If induction motor is driven to a speed higher than the synchronous speed by an external prime mover, then the slip will be
negative (s < 0) and both the air-gap power and the mechanical power are negative as

• This implies that the power from the mechanical system flows into the rotor circuit, then across the air gap to the stator circuit
and the external electrical system. Thus the induction motor will operate in the generation mode.

Electric Drives and Control/Dr. RSW /SELECT/ VIT University 14

Regenerative braking

• This mode may occur when the stator frequency applied to an induction motor is lowered to
reduce the speed of the rotor.
• In this process, the instantaneous speed of the rotor may be higher than the instantaneous
synchronous speed because of the inertia of the drive system.

• This leads to a negative slip, and the direction of the torque developed in the motor will be
opposite to the rotation of the rotor.

• This torque will act as a braking torque that slows down the rotor speed. In this case, the motor
operates as a generator, and the generated power is fed back into the power source.

Electric Drives and Control/Dr. RSW /SELECT/ VIT University 15

Plugging mode

• Rotor rotates in the direction opposite to the stator magnetic field and thus, the slip s > 1.

• In this mode, the air-gap power and the mechanical power are given as

• Both powers flow into the rotor and are dissipated in the rotor as heat. Thus the rotor bar may
be overheated. This mode can also be used for braking the motor to stop quickly.
• When an induction motor is running, the direction of the rotation of the stator magnetic field
can be reversed by switching any two of the three-phase windings.
• In this case, the developed torque will be in the direction of the stator magnetic field but
opposite to the rotation of the rotor, and the induction motor will operate in the plugging
mode.
Electric Drives and Control/Dr. RSW /SELECT/ VIT University 16
Design types of induction motors
• Induction motors can be classified into different designs according to the
starting and the normal operating characteristics.
• For classification of the motor, there are two most widely used standards:
National Electrical Manufacture’s Association (NEMA) and International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).
• The NEMA standards mainly specify four design types: Design A, B, C, and D. Of these, the most widely used are
Design B (normal torque) and Design C (high torque). Description on these four design types is summarized later.
• Design A—It is characterized by normal starting torque (typically 150 170% of the rated), high starting current,
low operating slip, and high-breakdown torque (the highest of all the NEMA types); common applications include
fans, blowers, and pumps.

• Design B—It is characterized by normal starting torque, low starting current, and low operating slip; common
applications being the same as Design A. Design B is the most commonly used type for general-purpose
applications.

Electric Drives and Control/Dr. RSW /SELECT/ VIT University 17

Design C—It is characterized by high starting
torque, low starting current, and higher
operating slip than Designs A and B; common
applications include compressors and
conveyors.

Design D—It is characterized by high starting

torque (higher than all the NEMA motor types),
high starting current, high operating slip (=13%),
and inefficient operation efficiency for
continuous loads; it is commonly used for
intermittent loads such as a punch press.
Electric Drives and Control/Dr. RSW /SELECT/ VIT University 18
 Speed Control methods

18-03-2024 Electric Drives and Control/Dr. RSW /SELECT/ VIT University 19

Introduction
3 K 2Vs2
Tmax =
2 K s  R 
2

Rs + K 2 ( X ls + X lr ) 
3Rr' Vs 2 2
Te =
ss  Rr' 
2
  s 
 Rs +  + ( X ls + X lr ) 
2

Te  s  
Rr'
smax = 
Rs + K 2 ( X ls + X lr )
2 2
Pull out
Torque Intersection point
(Tmax) Te (Te=TL) determines the
steady –state speed

TL
Trated
What if the load must
be operated here?

r
sm rotors
rated Requires speed
s rotor’
control of motor
1 0
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SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS
• Operating speed of an induction motor depends on the slip or the
synchronous speed of the given load.
• Therefore the speed control of an induction motor can be classified
into two methods as follows:

➢Slip control: inefficient, restricted speed control range

In the speed control methods of varying the stator voltage or the rotor resistance,
the speed is considered to be changed by varying the slip at a constant stator
frequency.

➢Synchronous speed control: efficient, wide speed control range

Electric Drives and Control/Dr. RSW /SELECT/ VIT University 21

Speed Control of IM
• Given a load T– characteristic, the steady-state speed can be changed by
altering the T– curve of the motor

Te =
3R '
r Vs
2
2 Varying voltage
(amplitude)
ss  ' 2
Rr  
 Rs +  + ( X ls + X lr ) 
2

 s  

2 4
s =  = f 3 Varying line
frequency
P P

1 Pole Changing
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  Maximum torque or pullout torque occurs
when slip is:

Rr'
smax = 
Rs + K 2 ( X ls + X lr )
2 2

Te  The pullout torque can be calculated using:

Pull out
3 K 2Vs2
Torque Tmax =
(Tmax) 2 K s  R  Rs + K 2 ( X ls + X lr ) 
2 2
 s 

Trated  The Starting torque can be calculated using:

3Rr' Vs2
Tst =
r K s  R + R ' 2
 
 s r  + ( X ls + X lr )
2

0 smax rated
s
 K 
 
 
s
1 0

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• At a constant stator frequency, the speed of an induction motor can be varied according to the slip. The slip can be changed by
varying the stator voltage or the rotor resistance.
• Stator voltage: Torque developed by an induction motor is proportional to the square of the stator voltage

Speed control by varying the stator voltage is available only for a limited range.
• The controllable speed range depends on the value of the slip (i.e., the maximum slip) at which the maximum torque occurs.
• By comparing Fig. A with B, we can see that the Design C or D motors have a wider speed control range than the Design A or B
motors.

AC
Variable
Voltage
IM
Sources  Td
Vs

Electric Drives and Control/Dr. RSW /SELECT/ VIT University 24

Rotor resistance Control:
• the slip at which the maximum torque occurs is proportional to the rotor resistance Rr as

• changing the rotor resistance will alter the shape of the speed torque curve and in turn, adjust the operating
speed of the motor. Fig. shows the speed torque curves for different rotor resistances.
• Applicable to the wound-rotor type induction motors.
• Speed can be varied by adding an external rheostat or a
resistor bank to the rotor windings via the slip rings.
• Changing the value of the rheostat will change the
operating speed of the motor.

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• Similar to the applied voltage varying method, the rotor resistance varying method also gives a limited
controllable speed range. Moreover, inserting extra resistances into the rotor circuit seriously reduces the
efficiency of the drive.

• As we can see since the efficiency of induction motors depends on the operating slip, the speed reduction by
these methods will lead to a reduction in efficiency. Nevertheless, these speed control methods are applicable to
small-sized motors that drive loads requiring a torque proportional to the square of the operating speed such as
fans or blowers. For such loads, since the power consumption is reduced significantly according to the reduction
in the speed, the reduction in efficiency is relatively small.

• Instead of wasting energy in the rotor resistance (referred to as the slip energy), there is a better approach to
improve the efficiency, which is known as a slip energy recovery system.
• In the slip energy recovery system, the slip energy can be returned back to the electric power source. There are
two types of the slip energy recovery system: Kramer drive system and Scherbius drive systems.
• These systems exploit a power electronic converter connected to the rotor circuit instead of external resistors.
Such a system can recover the energy taken from the rotor through the slip rings to decrease the speed and feed
it back into the power source.

Electric Drives and Control/Dr. RSW /SELECT/ VIT University 26

Synchronous speed control
• The rotor of an induction motor follows the stator magnetic field which rotates at the synchronous speed
proportional to the applied stator frequency.
• Thus, changing the stator frequency is more fundamental to the speed control. The relationship between the synchronous
speed ns and the stator frequency fs is

• Synchronous speed can be altered by changing the number of poles, this requires a complex motor construction. Moreover, it
is not possible to provide a continuous change in the synchronous speed. Thus, it is more effective to change the stator
frequency.
• When changing the stator frequency to adjust the speed, if the stator voltage remains constant, then the stator frequency
variations lead to the change of the developed torque as well as the operating speed
• At normal operating conditions, since the voltage drop across the stator resistance and leakage reactance are negligible in
comparison to the applied voltage, the torque of Eq. can be simplified as

Electric Drives and Control/Dr. RSW /SELECT/ VIT University 27

 Speed Control of IM

Variable Frequency
 Speed control above rated (base) speed
 Requires the use of PWM inverters to control frequency of motor
 Frequency increased (i.e. s increased)
 Stator voltage held constant at rated value
 Airgap flux and rotor current decreases
 Developed torque
decreases
Te  (1/s)
 For control below
base speed –
use Constant
Volts/Hz method
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 Constant Volts/Hz (V/f) Control

 Airgap flux in the motor is related to the

induced stator voltage E1 :
E1 Vs Assuming small voltage drop
ag =  across Rs and Lls
f f
 For below base speed operation
 Frequency reduced at rated Vs - airgap flux
saturates
(f  ,ag  and enters saturation region oh B-H curve):
- excessive stator currents flow
- distortion of flux wave
- increase in core losses and stator copper loss
 Hence, keep ag = rated flux
 stator voltage Vs must be reduced proportional to
reduction in f (i.e. maintaining Vs / f ratio)
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 Constant Volts/Hz (V/f) Control

 Max. torque remains almost

constant
2
 For low speed operation: ag =
E1 Vs
 Tmax 
Vs
 can’t ignore voltage drop across Rs and f f s
Lls (i.e. E1  Vs)
 poor torque capability
(i.e. torque decreased at low speeds
shown by dotted lines)

 stator voltage must be boosted – to

compensate for voltage drop at Rs and
Lls and maintain constant ag

 For above base speed operation (f

> frated):
 stator voltage maintained at rated value
 Same as Variable Frequency control
(refer to slide 13)
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Constant Volts/Hz (V/f) Control

• For operation at frequency K times rated frequency:

➢ fs = Kfs,rated  s = Ks,rated (1)
(Note: in (1) , speed is given as mechanical speed)

➢ Stator voltage: KVs ,rated , when f s  f s ,rated (2)

Vs = 
 Vs ,rated , when f s  f s ,rated
➢Voltage-to-frequency ratio = d = constant:
Vs,rated
d= (3)
s,rated

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Constant Volts/Hz (V/f) Control

Constant
Torque Area
(below base speed)
Field Weakening Mode (f > frated)
Rated (Base) • Reduced flux (since Vs is constant)
frequency • Torque reduces
Constant Power Area
(above base speed)

Note:
Operation restricted
between synchronous
speed and Tmax for
motoring and braking
regions, i.e. in the
linear region of the
torque-speed curve.
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Constant Volts/Hz (V/f) Control

Constant Torque Area

Constant Power Area

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 ➢ The stator voltage can be varied by three-phase

1. AC voltage controllers,
2. voltage-fed variable DC-link inverters, or
3. pulse-width modulation (PWM) inverters.

➢ However, due to limited speed range requirements, the AC voltage controllers are normally used
to provide the voltage control.
➢ The ac voltage controllers are very simple. However, the harmonic contents are high and the
input PF of the controllers is low.
➢ They are used mainly in low-power applications, such as fans, blowers, and centrifugal pumps,
where the starting torque is low.
➢ They are also used for starting high-power induction motors to limit the in-rush current.

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Speed control by adjusting the slip frequency with constant
V/f control

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OPERATION REGIONS OF INDUCTION MOTORS
Operation range of an induction motor can be divided into three regions according to the output torque capability
• Constant torque region: speed range below the base speed
• Constant power region: speed range above the base speed
• Breakdown torque region: speed range above the base speed maintaining the maximum slip frequency
• The speed range above the base speed can be further divided into two subregions: constant power region and breakdown
torque region.
• Because the field flux is reduced for operation in these regions, they are called field-weakening regions. Fig. 3.47 illustrates the
output toque characteristic in each region.

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Synchronous Speed & Slip

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Static Kramer Drive

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Static Scherbius Drive

SlipEnergyRecoveryisoneofthemet
hodsofcontrollingthespeedofanIndu
ctionmotor.Thismethodisalsoknow
nasStaticScherbiusDrive.Intherotor
resistancecontrolmethod,theslippo
werintherotorcircuitiswastedasI2Rlo
ssesduringthelow-
speedoperation.Theefficiencyisalsor
educed.Theslippowerfromtherotorci
rcuitcanberecoveredandfedbacktoth
eACsourcesoastoutilizeitoutsidethe
motor.Thus,theoverallefficiency

Electric Drives and Control/Dr. RSW /SELECT/ VIT University 39

• The basic principle of slip power recovery is to connect an
external source of the EMF of theslip frequency of the rotor
circuit
• The slip energy recovery method provides the speed control
of a slip ring induction motor below its synchronous speed
A portion of rotor AC power (slip power) is converted into
DC by a diode bridge
• The smoothing reactor is provided to smoothen the rectified
current The output of the rectifier is then connected to the
DC terminals of the inverter
• The inverter inverts the DC power to the AC power and
feeds it back to the AC source
• The inverter is a controlled rectifier operated in the
inversion mode This method of speed control is used in
large power applications where the variation of
speed over a wide range involves a large amount of slip
power

Electric Drives and Control/Dr. RSW /SELECT/ VIT University 40

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 Thank you

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