CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

Hand-out No. 6: Energy

Hand-out No. 6 ENERGY Time Frame: 18 hours

Learning Objectives
 Demonstrate how to interconvert energy units
 Discuss the concept of specific heat capacity
 Discuss the processes involved when a substance changes from one state to another
 Show how to calculate the heat required to change a substance from one temperature to another, or from one
phase to another, or both

Content Outline
1. Electrochemical energy
2. Introduction to Thermodynamics

SOLIDS, LIQUIDS, AND ENERGIES OF PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

Gases are characterized by having little or no forces of attraction between their molecules. In contrast, the
forces between the particles of which liquids and solids are composed are significant. Substances that are liquid
or gaseous at room temperature are composed of molecules. In contrast, solids may be composed of
 macromolecules (atoms covalently bonded together in large networks),
 ions bonded together,
 molecules, or
 atoms bonded together by loosely held valence electrons.
The particles that make up solids are held more or less stationary in their positions; the molecules that make
up liquids and gases are much freer to move about. In gases, the distance between molecules is very large
compared with the size of the molecules themselves; in liquids and solids, the particles are essentially touching
one another. These characteristics are summarized in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1 Properties of the Particles of Solids, Liquids, and Gases

Solids Liquids Gases
Strength of attractive
Strong Moderately strong Negligible
forces
Molecules or bonded
Components Molecules Molecules
atoms or ions
Distance between
Touching Touching Far apart
particles
Permanence of position Permanent Variable Variable

The Solid State

Solids are classified as crystalline solids or amorphous solids. Crystalline solids, such as an ice
cube or a sodium chloride crystal, have a definite melting point. Amorphous solids, such as a chocolate bar or
glass, get softer and softer as the temperature is raised.
Crystalline solids may be classified as
 ionic solids, in which the repeating units are ions;
 network solids (or macromolecular solids), in which covalently bonded atoms are the repeating units;
 molecular solids, in which individual molecules are the repeating units; and
 metallic solids, in which individual metal atoms are held together by their loosely held valence electrons.
The four types of crystalline solids are summarized in Table 6.2.

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CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
Hand-out No. 6: Energy

Table 6.2 Types of Crystalline Solid

Relative Melting and
Type Units
Boiling Points
Molecular Small molecules Very low to moderate
Ionic Ions High to very high
Network Atoms convalently bonded throughout Very high
Metallic Metal atoms bonded by mobile valence electrons Low to very high

The Liquid State

The molecules of a liquid are in contact with one another, as in molecular solids, but the regularity of
their arrangement does not extend very far.
The molecules in a liquid are not arranged in any regular pattern, although some may form pairs or
small groups. Molecules in a liquid are able to slip and slide past one another, giving liquids their fluidity. In
contrast, molecules (or other particles) of solids cannot move past one another, giving solids their unyielding
structures.
A material is a solid because the energy available to its particles is not sufficient to overcome the
relatively strong attractive forces holding the individual particles together. The molecules of liquids exhibit
attractive forces strong enough to hold them in close proximity to one another but not to hold them relatively
motionless. Gases, of course, have very weak intermolecular forces relative to their energies, and their
molecules are almost completely independent of one another.

CHANGES OF PHASE
Any process of changing state (or phase) for a sample of matter is called a phase change. When a
solid changes to a liquid as a result of a rise in temperature, the process is called melting, or fusion. The
process of changing a liquid to a gas is called evaporation, or vaporization. A gas in contact with its liquid is
often called a vapor. Changing a solid directly into a gas is called sublimation. Changing a liquid to a solid is
called freezing, and changing a gas to either a solid or a liquid is called condensation.

Figure 6.1 Terminology of phase changes (Goldberg, 2007, p. 382)

A process called distillation is often used to purify liquids. The liquid is heated to vaporize it, and then
the vapor is cooled to condense it back to a liquid in a different place. Impurities that are less easily vaporized
are left behind in the original container, and those that are more easily vaporized distill first and are discarded
before the desired product distills.
Boiling occurs when the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure of the surroundings. At that
point, bubbles appear within the liquid itself. The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapor
pressure of the liquid equals the pressure on the system. The normal boiling point is the boiling point at a
pressure of 1.00 atm.

Measurement of Energy Changes

When we add energy to a sample of matter, we generally expect the sample to warm up. The sample
does warm up, unless it happens to be a pure substance at its melting, sublimation, or boiling point. Thus there
are two types of calculations required.
 Specific Heat Calculations

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CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
Hand-out No. 6: Energy

 Change of Phase Calculations

Specific Heat Calculations

The amount of heat required to warm a sample of matter is given by the equation

where m is the mass, c is the specific heat capacity, usually called the specific heat, and is the change in
temperature in either degrees Celsius or kelvins. The change in temperature is defined as the final temperature
minus the initial temperature. The SI unit of energy is the joule (J).
Specific heats of some substances are given in Table 6.3.

Table. 6.3 Specific Heat Capacities of Selected Substances

Specific Heat Capacity
Substance, Formula
(⁄ )
Covalent molecules
Carbon dioxide, 0.852
Carbon monoxide, 1.04
Hydrogen, 14.4
Nitrogen, 1.04
Oxygen, 0.922
Water, gaseous, 2.042
Water, liquid, 4.184
Water, solid, 2.089
Metals
Aluminum, 0.9
Chromium, 0.45
Cobalt, 0.46
Copper, 0.385
Gold, 0.129
Iron, 0.442
Lead, 0.13
Magnesium, 1.0
Silver, 0.24
Sodium, 0.293
Tin, 0.22
Zinc, 0.388

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CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
Hand-out No. 6: Energy

EXAMPLE 6.1
Calculate the specific heat of water if 83.68 J is required to raise the temperature of 4.0 g of water by 5°C.

SOLUTION
The given conditions of the problem are
𝑄 83.68 J
𝑚𝐻2𝑂 4.0 g
𝑡 5

To get the specific heat of water at this condition, we will use the formula

𝑄 𝑚𝐻2 𝑂 𝑐𝐻2 𝑂 𝑡

Rearranging the formula and substituting the given conditions, we have

𝑄 83.68 J
𝑐𝐻2 𝑂
𝑚𝐻2 𝑂 𝑡 4.0 g(5 )

𝒄 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 𝟒. 𝟏𝟖 𝐉⁄𝐠 ∙ °𝐂

EXAMPLE 6.2
Calculate the quantity of energy required to raise the temperature of 14.5 g of water by 31.3°C. The specific heat of water is
4.184 J⁄g ∙ .

SOLUTION
To determine the quantity of energy required to raise the temperature of 14.5 g of water by 31.3°C, we use the formula

𝑄 𝑚𝐻2 𝑂 𝑐𝐻2 𝑂 𝑡

𝑄 14.5 g(4.184 J⁄g ∙ °C)(31.3°C)

𝑸 𝟏, 𝟖𝟗𝟖. 𝟗𝟏 𝐉

EXAMPLE 6.3
Calculate the number of joules required to heat 123 g of water from 14.7°C to 31.3°C.

SOLUTION
To determine the number of joules required to heat 123 g of water from 14.7°C to 31.3°C, we use the formula

𝑄 𝑚𝐻2 𝑂 𝑐𝐻2 𝑂 𝑡

𝑄 123 g(4.184 J⁄g ∙ °C)(31.3 − 14.7)°C

𝑸 𝟖, 𝟓𝟒𝟐. 𝟖𝟗 𝐉

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CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
Hand-out No. 6: Energy

EXAMPLE 6.4
Calculate the final temperature after 1485 J of energy is added to 16.7 g of water at 23.4°C.

SOLUTION
To determine the final temperature after 1485 J of energy is added to 16.7 g of water at 23.4°C, we use the formula

𝑄 𝑚𝐻2 𝑂 𝑐𝐻2 𝑂 𝑡

𝑄 𝑚𝐻2 𝑂 𝑐𝐻2 𝑂 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖

𝑄
𝑡𝑓 𝑡𝑖
𝑚𝐻2 𝑂 𝑐𝐻2 𝑂

1485 J
𝑡𝑓 23.4°C
16.7 g(4.184 J⁄g ∙ °C)

𝒕𝒇 𝟒𝟒. 𝟔𝟓 °𝐂

Energy added to a system is defined as positive, and energy released from a system is defined as
negative. A process in which energy is added to a system is said to be an endothermic process. A process in
which energy is released from a system is said to be an exothermic process.

EXAMPLE 6.5
Calculate the final temperature after 987 J of energy is removed from 14.9 g of water at 22.0°C.

SOLUTION
To determine the final temperature after 987 J of energy is removed from 14.9 g of water at 22.0°C, we use the formula

𝑄 𝑚𝐻2 𝑂 𝑐𝐻2 𝑂 𝑡

𝑄 𝑚𝐻2 𝑂 𝑐𝐻2 𝑂 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖

𝑄
𝑡𝑓 𝑡𝑖
𝑚𝐻2 𝑂 𝑐𝐻2 𝑂

−987 J
𝑡𝑓 22.0°C
14.9 g(4.184 J⁄g ∙ °C)

𝒕𝒇 𝟔. 𝟏𝟕 °𝐂

When heat is transferred from one object to another, with no energy gained from or lost to anything else
(the surroundings), the total change in energy is the sum of the changes in energy of the two objects.
For example, if a piece of hot metal is placed in a sample of cold water, the water is warmed and the
metal is cooled. Both the metal and the water will reach the same temperature. The heat transferred to or from
the surroundings is zero. Thus,

( )( )( ) ( )( )( )

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CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
Hand-out No. 6: Energy

EXAMPLE 6.6
A 12.5-g sample of a metal at 67.7°C is placed in 27.6 g of water at 10.3°C and the final temperature of the system is
15.4°C. Calculate the specific heat of the metal. Which of the metals in Table 14.4 is it?

SOLUTION
The problem is asking for the specific heat of the metal. To do this, we use the formula

0 (𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠)

𝑄 (𝑚 )(𝑐 )( 𝑡 ) (𝑚 )(𝑐 )( 𝑡 )

(𝑚 )(𝑐 )( 𝑡 ) − (𝑚 )(𝑐 )( 𝑡 )

− (𝑚 )(𝑐 )( 𝑡 )
𝑐
(𝑚 )( 𝑡 )

− (27.6 g)(4.184 J⁄g ∙ °C)(15.4 − 10.3 )

𝑐
(12.5 g)(15.4 − 67.7 )

𝒄𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎𝟏 𝐉⁄𝐠 ∙ °𝐂

∴ The metal is aluminum.

EXAMPLE 6.7
Calculate the final temperature after 6.79 g of a metal (𝑐 0.892 J⁄g ∙ ) at 67.4°C is placed in 196 g of water at 19.6°C.

SOLUTION
To determine the final temperature, we use the formula

0 (𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠)

𝑄 (𝑚 )(𝑐 )( 𝑡 ) (𝑚 )(𝑐 )( 𝑡 )

0 (𝑚 )(𝑐 ) 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡 (𝑚 )(𝑐 ) 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡

0 𝑚 𝑐 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑚 𝑐 𝑡 𝑚 𝑐 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑚 𝑐 𝑡

𝑚 𝑐 𝑡𝑓 𝑚 𝑐 𝑡𝑓 𝑚 𝑐 𝑡 𝑚 𝑐 𝑡

𝑡𝑓 (𝑚 𝑐 𝑚 𝑐 ) 𝑚 𝑐 𝑡 𝑚 𝑐 𝑡

𝑚 𝑐 𝑡 𝑚 𝑐 𝑡
𝑡𝑓
𝑚 𝑐 𝑚 𝑐

(196 g)(4.184 J⁄g ∙ °C)(19.6 ) (6.79 g)(0.892 J⁄g ∙ °C)(67.4 )

𝑡𝑓
(196 g)(4.184 J⁄g ∙ °C) (6.79 g)(0.892 J⁄g ∙ °C)

𝒕𝒇 𝟏𝟗. 𝟗𝟓 °𝐂

Change of Phase Calculations

When energy is added to or removed from a pure substance and that substance changes phase as a
result, the temperature does not change. That is, when a pure substance melts, solidifies, sublimes, evaporates,
or condenses, it does so at a given temperature (under constant pressure). For example, when energy is added

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CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
Hand-out No. 6: Energy

to liquid water at 100°C and 1.00 atm, the water boils. However, as long as some liquid water remains, the water
and vapor are still at 100°C. The added energy is converted to potential energy as the molecules go from their
relative closeness in the liquid phase to their well-separated states in the gas phase. This energy is called the
enthalpy of vaporization, or less precisely the heat of vaporization.

The amount of heat associated with the phase change of a pure substance depends on the nature of
the substance and the quantity of substance in the sample. For example, the enthalpy of fusion, or heat of
fusion, of water— the heat necessary to change water from solid to liquid—is 335 J/g. The unit for this value
includes no degree because the temperature does not change when solid water melts. The heat of any process
has the opposite sign of the opposing process. Thus the heat of solidification of water is 335 J/g.
In general, the heat term is named according to the name of the process. Table 6.4 shows the terms used in
phase changes.

Table 6.4 Terms Used in Phase Changes

Process Name of Heat Term More Precise Name
Fusion (melting) Heat of fusion Enthalpy of fusion
Vaporization (evaporation) Heat of vaporization Enthalpy of vaporization
Sublimation Heat of sublimation Enthalpy of sublimation

Table 6.5 shows the heats of phase change of some selected substances.

Table 6.5 Selected Heats of Phase Change

Substance Phase Change (at 1 atm) Temperature (°C) Heat Involved (J/g)
Ammonia Boiling −33 1380
Carbon dioxide Sublimation −90 3680
CCl2F2 (a refrigerant) Boiling −29.8 165
CHClF2 (a refrigerant) Boiling −40.8 234
Sulfur dioxide Boiling −10 402
Water Melting 0 335
Water Boiling 100 2260

EXAMPLE 7.8
Calculate the energy required to melt 16.4 g of ice at 0°C.

SOLUTION
To determine the energy required to melt ice at 0°C, we use the formula

𝑄 𝑚𝐿𝑓

𝑄 16.4 g (335 J⁄g)

𝑸 𝟓, 𝟒𝟗𝟒 𝐉

When we add heat to a substance that is not at a temperature at which a phase change will occur, its
temperature rises. Suppose that the temperature rises to the temperature of a phase change. Then, the phase
change will occur at constant temperature until it is complete, after which the temperature will rise again.
For example, if we add heat to ice at -20°C, the ice will warm to 0°C. At that temperature, melting
begins, and the temperature stays at 0°C until all the ice has melted. Then the temperature of the liquid water
rises as we add even more heat. After the temperature of the liquid reaches the boiling point, the addition of
more heat causes it to boil. Further heating increases the temperature of the vapor. We can draw a graph that
shows what happens as we heat a pure substance. Such a graph is called a heating curve. Figure 6.2 shows
the heating curve of water.

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CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
Hand-out No. 6: Energy

Figure 6.2 Heating Curve of Water (Goldberg, 2007, p. 390)

How do we calculate the energy required to raise the temperature of a substance and cause it to
change phase? We do separate calculations for each step and then sum the results.

EXAMPLE 7.9
Calculate the energy required to change a 17.1-g sample of water from 87.7°C to steam at 121.0°C and 1.00 atm. Use
data from Tables 6.3 and 6.5.

SOLUTION

87.7 °C 100 °C 100°C 121°C

water water steam steam

Q1 𝑚𝑐 𝑡 Q 𝑚𝐿𝑓 Q3 𝑚𝑐 𝑡

The water in the liquid phase will be heated to 100°C. It will then boil, producing water vapor at 100°C. Finally, the water
vapor produced will be heated to 121°C.

𝑄𝑇 𝑄1 𝑄 𝑄3

𝑄 (17.1 g)(4.184 J⁄g ∙ °C)(100 − 87.7) 17.1 g (2,260 J⁄g)

(17.1 g)(2.042 J⁄g ∙ °C)(121 − 100)

𝑸𝑻 𝟒𝟎, 𝟐𝟓𝟗. 𝟑𝟎 𝐉

Enthalpy Changes in Chemical Reactions

Heat, symbolized Q, is different from other kinds of energy. All other kinds of energy can be converted
entirely to heat, but heat cannot be converted entirely to any other form of energy. We classify all other kinds of
energy as work, symbolized w. Thus, the change in energy of a system, , is merely the heat added to the
system plus the work added to the system:

This equation is merely an expression of the law of conservation of energy. By convention, energy,
heat, and work added to a system are regarded as positive, but any of these removed from a system is regarded
as negative.

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CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
Hand-out No. 6: Energy

EXAMPLE 7.10
a. A certain acid-base reaction in solution produces 117 kJ of heat but does no work. What is the sign of q?
b. All of the heat is used to warm the solution. What is the sign of q for the warming process?
c. What is the value of q for the overall process?

SOLUTION
a. Because heat is given off by the reaction, q is negative.
b. Because the heat is absorbed by the solution, this q is positive.
c. The overall q is zero because no heat was added to or taken from the surroundings. All the heat from the reaction
went into the warming process.

Because we cannot measure the heat produced by a chemical reaction directly, we measure it by
determining its effect on something. For example, the heat produced by burning 3.00 mol of methane (natural
gas) might be measured by determining the increase in temperature of a certain mass of water warmed by the
heat. In such an experiment, we must try to ensure that all of the heat produced by the combustion reaction is
used to warm the water and that none escapes to the surroundings.

EXAMPLE 7.11
Burning 2.0 mol of CH4 warms 10.0 kg of water by 42.5°C. Calculate the heat produced in the combustion process:
C 4 2O → CO 2 O

SOLUTION
To calculate the heat produced in the combustion process, we use the formula

𝑄 𝑚𝑐 𝑡

1,000 g J
𝑄 10 kg 4.184 (42.5 )
1 kg g∙

𝑄 1,778,200 J

𝑄 1,778.2 kJ

Because the heat is produced, the sign of Q is negative.

𝑸 𝟏, 𝟕𝟕𝟖. 𝟐 𝐤𝐉

EXERCISES:

1. Calculate q when 12.0 g of water is heated from 20°C to 100°C.

2. A 295-g aluminum engine part at an initial temperature of 3.00°C absorbs 85.0 kJ of heat. What is the
final temperature of the part (c of Al = 0.900 J/g.K)?

3. Two iron bolts of equal mass - one at 100°C, the other at 55°C - are placed in an insulated container.
Assuming the heat capacity of the container is negligible, what is the final temperature inside the
container (c of iron = 0.450 J/g.K)?

4. When 165 mL of water at 22°C is mixed with 85 mL of water at 82°C, what is the final temperature?
(Assume that no heat is lost to the surroundings; ρ of water is 1.00 g/mL.)

5. Calculate the heat required to warm 35.0 g of water from 10.5°C to 41.6°C.

6. Calculate the heat required to cool 35.0 g of water from 41.6°C to 10.5°C.

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CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
Hand-out No. 6: Energy

7. Calculate the final temperature after 127 J of heat is added to 51.5 g of iron at 23.0°C.

8. Calculate the specific heat of a metal if 46.0 g of the metal at 78.0°C warms 32.0 g of water at 23.1°C to
36.1°C. Which metal in Table 6.3 is this metal most likely to be?

9. How much energy is required to raise the temperature of 23.9 g of iron by 41.7°C?

10. Calculate the final temperature after 25.0 g of chromium at 54.5°C is placed in 215 g of water at 19.0°C.

11. A certain reaction emits 3.95 kJ of heat. What temperature change will 250.0 g of water at 16.0°C
undergo if the heat from the reaction is added to it?

12. Calculate the heat required to change 27.7 g of ice at -15.9°C to liquid water at 25.0°C.

13. Calculate the final temperature after 17.0 g of water at 20.0°C is mixed with (a) 17.0 g water at 50.0°C
(b) 34.0 g of water at 50.0°C.

NOTE: All Examples and Exercise Problems used in this module is taken from
the textbook Fundamentals of Chemistry by David E. Goldberg.

References:
Silberberg, Martin S. (2007). Principles of General Chemistry. 1st Edition
Goldberg, David E. (2007). Fundamentals of Chemistry. 5th Edition
The Periodic Table of Elements

Rubric No. 1 Assessing and Grading of Ability to Perform Mathematical Computations

Level 100% 70% 40% 0%
Criteria* Does not meet
Exceeds expectations Meets expectations Needs improvement
expectations
The task is worked out The task is worked out The task is worked An insignificant
to completion, the steps to completion and out partially and the amount of the task is
shown are steps shown are steps shown are done, and/or the
Mathematical mathematically error- mathematically error- correct and could steps shown are
Content free, and the result is free; the result is potentially lead to a mathematically
(70%) correct and expressed correct but still correct result if wrong, unrelated or
in its required form. requires one or two worked through. inappropriate.
steps to bring it to its
required form.
Timeliness The output is submitted The output is The output is The output is
(30%) on time. submitted a day after submitted two days submitted eight days
the set deadline. to a week after the after the set deadline.
set deadline.

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