Electric Generation Systems Design Criteria: Company Specification

Eni S.p.A.
Exploration & Production Division
COMPANY SPECIFICATION
ELECTRIC GENERATION SYSTEMS

DESIGN CRITERIA
20211.VAR.ELE.SDS
Rev. 0 November 2004
0 NEMA TAGLIAFERRI FASOLI 11/2004

REV. DESCRIPTION COMP. VERIF. APPR. DATE
ENGINEERING COMPANY STANDARD
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Eni S.p.A. 20211.VAR.ELE.SDS
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INTRODUCTION
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November 2004
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INDEX
1. OBJECT............................................................................................................................ 4
2. FOREWORD..................................................................................................................... 4
2.1 TERMINOLOGY ............................................................................................................... 4
2.1.1 TERMINOLOGY FOR THE USERS ................................................................................. 4
3. MAIN GENERATION SYSTEMS...................................................................................... 5

3.1 GAS TURBINE GENERATORS ....................................................................................... 6
3.2 STEAM TURBINES .......................................................................................................... 9
3.3 GAS ENGINE GENERATORS ....................................................................................... 11
4. OTHER MAIN GENERATION SYSTEMS...................................................................... 12

4.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS............................................................................................. 12
4.2 WIND TURBINE GENERATORS ................................................................................... 14
4.3 CLOSED CYCLE STEAM TURBINES ........................................................................... 16
4.4 GAS MICROTURBINES ................................................................................................. 18
4.5 THERMOCOUPLES (TEG) SEEBECK EFFECT .......................................................... 19
5. SELECTION CRITERIA AND COMPARATIVE TABLE................................................ 21
6. EMERGENCY GENERATION : SPARE AND SECURITY............................................ 23

6.1 DIESEL GENERATION GROUPS.................................................................................. 23
6.2 BATTERIES .................................................................................................................... 25
7. GENERATION SYSTEMS MANAGEMENT .................................................................. 26

7.1 PARALLEL OPERATIONS ............................................................................................. 26
7.2 LOAD SHEDDING .......................................................................................................... 28
8. SIZING CRITERIA .......................................................................................................... 29

8.1 ELECTRIC LOAD-BALANCE ......................................................................................... 29
8.2 FUTURE DEVELOPMENT ............................................................................................. 32
8.3 TECHNICAL-ECONOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS......................................................... 33
9. INSTALLATION.............................................................................................................. 34
9.1 INSTALLATION IN SAFE AREA (NON CLASSIFIED AREA) ........................................ 34
9.2 INSTALLATION (CLASSIFIED AREA) ........................................................................... 34
10. STANDARDS.................................................................................................................. 35
11. DIMENSIONING AND CHECK SIMPLIFIED FORMULAS............................................ 36

11.1 GENERATOR DIMENSIONING ..................................................................................... 36
11.2 SHORT CIRCUIT COMPUTATION ................................................................................ 38
11.3 BATTERIES .................................................................................................................... 40
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1. OBJECT
This guide presents the various types of on-shore and off-shore electric generation systems
with functional details for a better pick-up decision of these systems, in order to satisfy the
various plant engineering necessities
2. FOREWORD
The following indications offer a general information support as the final solutions have to
be adapted to the technical and economical requests of a particular project. They represent
a synthesis of the traditional knowledge from the plant engineering field of the company
2.1 TERMINOLOGY
For a better understanding of this document and its annexes it is given the terminology
To define the various types of generation the following terminology has been used:
– Main generation systems: includes generation systems that supply parts of the
process and/or auxiliaries services, as electric motors for pumps and compressors,
lighting, HVAC, packages, cranes and hoists, workshops and storehouses, cathodic
protection systems, electric tracing etc.
For the E&P applications the main generation systems are different one from another
as follows: high level demand (on-shore or off-shore installations) or low level demand
(off-shore BEAF type installations or on-shore isolated wells).
– Emergency generation systems (spare or safety): refer to the generation systems

that, in case of not availability of the main ones, supply the PREFERENTIAL users
and/or the essential services (or security ones) of the plant.
The spare supply is necessary from the technical and operational point of view - the
continuous supply for air compressors, oil pumps of the rotating machines, lighting, air
conditioning and pressurization for cabins/electric stations/control rooms etc.)
Safety supply means guaranteed supply of the installations NECESSARY FOR THE
SAFETY OF PERSONNEL.
The system is made up of the source, the circuits and other components.
Typical users are: control system, ESD, Fire & Gas, emergency lighting of escape ways
and radio communications.
This type of supply requires specific standards to consider.
2.1.1 Terminology for the users

Based on the consumer’s function inside the process and on the personnel’s
safety there can be defined the following types of consumers:
Usual consumers
In case of supply failure there are no consequences on the process.
Preferentials
In case of supply failure there are no particular damages but need some time
to restart the process.
Failures in the supply not lager than 15-20 s are allowed.
Essentials (privileged or safety users)

They are those that in case of supply failure can produce damages of systems
and cause partial or total lack of personnel’s security. Supply failures are not
allowed (i.e. emergency lighting).
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3. MAIN GENERATION SYSTEMS
The main typical generation systems used in the E&P installations are:
– Gas turbine generator

– Steam turbine generator
– Gas engine generator
In the E&P installation plans are normally used gas turbine generators or gas engine
generator while steam turbo generators are less employed.
For all the systems the electric generator is a three phased synchronous alternator that,
depending on the rated turns number, is connected to the prime mover shaft directly or
through a gear reduction unit. The gear reduction unit normally is put inside the gas or
steam turbine, excepting the high power units provided with two poles turbo-generators
(3000rpm)
For the gas engine generator groups the rated turns number is 1500 rpm, 1000 rpm or 750
rpm and the alternator is directly connected to the prime mover.
The rated power alternators up to 60-100 MVA are generally brushless type, the larger
ones being static excitation type. The alternators up to 1000÷1500 kVA are generally low
voltage (400V) , the lager ones being medium voltage type up to 20 kV.
For the brushless type alternators the primary excitation voltage is delivered by an
alternator with rotating armature that supplies a rotating diodes system put on the same
main alternator shaft. The voltage for the automatic voltage regulator system (AVR) can be
supplied either by an auxiliary generator with permanent magnets (PMG) put on the same
shaft as the main alternator, in this case we have a total autonomy system, or through a
dedicated transformer connected to the generator output, and in this case the system start-
up needs an auxiliary d.c. supply.
For the large alternators with static excitation the energy necessary for the excitation
system is delivered through a power transformer connected to the plant general services
bus bars. During the start-up period the general services station are supplied from an
external source and then, when generator reached at its rated operation, they are transfer
on the internal source.
The off-shore generation systems are designed for island operation and the on-shore
generation systems for both island and parallel with an external electric network.
The parallel operation whit external network, increases the electric system reliability, as the
external electric system can deliver the required energy in case of internal failure. Moreover
gives the possibility to the generators to work without load variations with the maximum
efficiency for the longest lifetime as the external system can cover the various internal
demands. In case of lower internal energy demand the surplus of energy can be sold
according to the contract.
Another important point is the effect on the environment of the emission combustion
products (CO2; SO2; NOx; ecc:).
This problem has to be considered from the beginning when selecting the generation
system with peculiar attention to the internal national laws according to the Kyoto Protocol
(for example the countries from the European Community decided to reduce the emissions
to less than 8% from the 1990 values).
To reach this aims the generation plants has to be provided where necessary with
appropriate control and treatment systems for the liquid/gas fuel and also discharge smoke,
such as desulphurization system, over combustion system (post burning system), dust
convey system ecc.
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The necessity for such systems depends on the fuel characteristics and on the combustion
control system of the prime motor and/or boilers (gas turbine, gas engine, combustion
chamber, ecc)
Another important point that can reduce the emissions level and increase the system
efficiency is the recovery of the high temperature gas turbine exhaust smoke to produce
steam, that can be used for steam turbine or heating.
It is obvious that the solar and wind generation systems, discussed later in chapter 4, could
be the best solution for the emissions’ problem, but the energy produced this way is just a
small part of the necessary, used only for special requirements.
3.1 GAS TURBINE GENERATORS
The prime mover of this systems is the gas turbine.

In outlines, a gas turbine (see fig. 1) is made of:
– A burning air compressor
– A combustion chamber where are put together the compressed air and the injection
fuel (gas or liquid) at the necessary pressure.
– A turbine where the combustion gas expansion produces mechanical energy.
GAS
COMBUSTION CHAMBER
TURBINE
COMPRESSOR GENERATOR
AIR DISCHARGE
Fig. 1 – Schematic gas turbine generator

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The mechanical energy produced by the turbine is partially used by the air compressor and
the remaining shaft energy, usually through a gear reduction unit, for the electric generator.
Generally the air compressor, turbine and generator (including the gear reduction unit) are
put on the same shaft defining an one-shaft structure.
As information only, have to be cited the two-shaft structures, that are rarely used for
electric power generation but for mechanical-drive and/or propulsive applications, where
large speed variations are requested on the final charge.
In a two-shaft structure on the first shaft are put together the air compressor and the high
pressure module of the turbine. The discharge gas from the high pressure turbine module
expands in the low pressure turbine module, that stands on the same shaft with the
generator (see fig. 2).
GAS
COMBUSTION CHAMBER
TURBINE
COMPRESSOR
LOAD
AIR
DISCHARGE
Fig. 2 – Two-shaft gas turbine generator

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Gas turbines can also be classified as follows:
– Heavy – Duty
Are industrial applications, simpler, heavier, cheaper, low maintenance, higher lifetime
and lower level of the maximum temperature.
– Aero derivative
Are the terrestrial application of the aeronautical gas turbine model, more advanced
from a technological point of view, smaller outline dimensions, less heavy, more
efficient but demand a more accurate maintenance. Are used where low space and low
weight are requested (i.e. off-shore applications).
The gas turbine power range available on the market is large enough, from hundreds of kW
(400 – 500 kW) up to 300 MW; the last ones are generally used associated to the steam
turbines for the combined cycle power plants.
For lower power range there are the micro-turbines discussed in chapter 4.4.
For the gas turbine start-up, an auxiliary motor is required on the compressor-turbine shaft,
to bring them to the ignition speed. The start-up motor is usually asynchronous, low or
medium voltage depending on the rated power, and requires an adequate auxiliary supply.
Sometimes, when the electric auxiliary supply is not available, as prime motor can be used
a Diesel engine or a gas microturbine.
Generally for the main power generation system gas turbines are used when the rated
power is equal or lager than 1500 – 2000 kW.
The gas turbine rated power depends a lot on the atmospheric conditions and mostly on the
temperature. The shaft power delivered lowers with the atmospheric temperature
increasing.
As an example the gas turbine power, defined generally for ISO conditions (15 Celsius
degrees at sea level) is reduced by 20 % at 40 Celsius degrees.
In the figure and table below are showed the variations of power and other miscellaneous
characteristics of the gas turbine versus the atmospheric temperature variations (-40°C ÷
40°C).
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
%P 70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-4 0 -3 0 -2 0 -1 0 0 10 20 30 40
°C
Gas Turbine Power Output Vs Inlet Air Temperature Typical Curve

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o
Ambient Temperature C -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Nominal Output Power kW 30546 31186 31570 31605 30572 28161 25750 23429 21172
Fuel Type: Natural gas
Nominal Fuel Flow kg/h 5897 6056 6171 6225 6081 5701 5330 4983 4654
Nominal Heat Rate kJ / kWh 9481 9537 9600 9673 9769 9941 10165 10444 10795
PT Speed RPM 4800 4800 4800 4800 4800 4800 4800 4800 4800
o
PT Exit Temp C 392,6 422,7 450,1 474,6 490,6 498,7 507,9 518,2 529,3
PT Exit Flow kg/s 108,77 106,58 104,39 102,02 98,56 93,32 88 82,73 77,43
Exhaust Nitrogen % %Vol 76,03 75,9 75,79 75,64 75,47 75,22 74,74 73,9 72,5
Exhaust Oxygen %Vol %Vol 15,088 14,801 14,548 14,328 14,22 14,219 14,156 13,988 13,666
Ex Carbon Dioxide %Vol %Vol 2,713 2,8418 2,9534 3,0452 3,0763 3,0423 3,0093 2,9801 2,9531
Ex Water Vapour %Vol %Vol 5,26 5,542 5,804 6,077 6,327 6,618 7,197 8,245 10,008
Exhaust Argon %Vol %Vol 0,9093 0,9078 0,9064 0,9047 0,9026 0,8996 0,8939 0,8838 0,8671
Exhaust Neon %Vol %Vol 0,0029 0,0029 0,0029 0,0029 0,0029 0,0029 0,0029 0,0028 0,0028
Exhaust Mol Weight MW 28,631 28,612 28,593 28,572 28,547 28,512 28,446 28,329 28,133
Performances and Characteristics of a Gas Turbine Vs Inlet Air Temperature
The gas turbines are provided with a greasing system, with chilling circuits that require
generally an external air-cooler, and oil pumps that have to stay active even after the
turbine stop (emergency stop); there are emergency pumps, d.c. supplied from batteries.
For the turbine auxiliaries supply, generally the supplier delivers a dedicated MCC.
The efficiency of the gas turbine depends on the type, environment conditions,
maintenance factors etc. As a medium value goes from 25 % for small ones to 35-38% for
large ones.
The turbine overall efficiency can be improved using discharge gas heat for the steam
production, required by other steam turbines (combined cycle) or by other various heating
necessities.
3.2 STEAM TURBINES
Steam turbines become convenient for processes that require steam or use high
temperature heat coming from discharge smoke, delivered by process ovens or gas
turbines, in order to produce steam with the recovery boiler (HRGS = Heat Recovering
Steam Generator)
The steam turbines transform thermal potential energy from high temperature-high
pressure steam into mechanical energy.
The main steam turbine parts are:
– The distributor, that transforms the potential energy into kinetic energy.
– The rotor that transform the kinetic energy and the remaining of the thermal potential
energy into mechanical energy, used by the shaft to transmit the movement to the
generator, through the gear reduction unit.
Considering the mechanical characteristics and the various ways to transform energy, the
turbines can be classified as follows:
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simple (De Laval)
speed jump (Curtis)

ACTION TYPE
pressure jump (Rateau)
speed and pressure jump

STEAM TURBINE
simple
REACTION TYPE
multiple expansion (Parsons)
MIXED TYPE (action and reaction)
The necessity to use low pressure steam for other internal services determine the following
turbines functional classification:
– Condensation turbines
All the high pressure steam is transformed into mechanical energy. The discharge
steam from the turbine is cooled inside the condenser and the water resulted brought
back to the boiler using supply water pumps.
– Extracting and condensation turbines

Parts of the steam are extracted from the turbine for some other plant internal use and
the rest of it transformed into mechanical energy, cooled into the condenser, and the
water resulted brought back to the boiler using supply water pumps.
– Counter pressure turbines

The downstream steam of the turbine is used for other plant necessities. The electric
power generated depends upon the pressure jump inside the turbine and the steam
quantity required from plant necessities.
The counter pressure turbine are most suitable for a parallel operation with other
generators and/or the external electrical network system, in order to have the balance
of the plant energy requirements (difference between the load demand and the power
produced by the counter pressure turbine).
The steam turbine power range is quite large going from few tenths of kW up to 1000 MW.
The steam turbines also are provided with auxiliaries, lubrification circuit with cooler
system, shaft turning motor, rotor lifting pumps for start-up and stop of the large units, etc.
that usually ask an emergency auxiliary supply from power generation groups and/or safety
supply from batteries and/or UPS.
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3.3 GAS ENGINE GENERATORS

The prime mover of these systems is a four stroke cycle, spark ignited, internal combustion
motor, that uses aspirated or turbocharged gas.
The engine rated power depends on the displacement and the number of pistons.
The motor power range available on the market for power generation and sometimes
combined with heat production, goes from tenths of kW up to 4-5 MW. The size normally
used in the E&P installations do not exceed the maximum of 900 kW, that sometimes goes
up to 2000 kW.
The characteristic turns number is 1500 rpm for smaller sizes and 1000 and sometimes
750 rpm for lager sizes. The electric generator is a 4, 6 or 8 poles type put directly on the
shaft without gear reduction unit.
The start-up system for Diesel generation groups is usually based on a d.c. motor,
supplied from batteries, or on a compressed air system.
Based on same power the gas engine is cheaper than equivalent gas turbine. As above
stated the gas engine generators are used up to 2000 kW, for the lager sizes being
preferred the turbo gas one. This pick-up strategy is based mainly on the good reliability
and the practical experience growth in this range of size.
It has also to be considered the necessary frequency of maintenance for the power
generation groups, that is much higher for the gas engine than for the turbines, as the later
requires more low powered units.
The fuel consumption depends on the functional load percentage, gas specific calorific
power, atmospheric characteristics, maintenance level, ecc.
In the best conditions it can be considered a gas requirement of 10.5 ÷ 11.5 MJ/kWh for an
efficiency of about 31 ÷ 34 %.
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4. OTHER MAIN GENERATION SYSTEMS
The other main generation types, that are discussed later, are usually used to supply low
power installations in areas without permanent operational personnel, such as off-shore
platforms, where usually are active only the control and signaling systems for the navigation
aids (BEAF platform) and the cathodic protection stations that use current injection
alongside the oil pipeline. In this range are included the wind and solar generation systems,
and those with low maintenance requirements (closed cycle turbines, thermocouples) and
gas micro turbines.
The considered types are the following:
– Photovoltaic panels
– Wind turbine generators
– Closed cycle steam turbine
– Gas micro turbines
– TEG thermocouples
In particular among the above mentioned generation systems for the E&P installations are
mostly used the Photovoltaic Panels and the closed cycle steam turbines, the other ones
having low application.
This power generation types can be integrated by other generation systems to cover the
power demand during main supply system’s failure. Generally is considered an emergency
Diesel generator that can be used also during difficult atmospheric conditions (thick clouds
for photovoltaic systems and no wind for wind generators).
To improve the availability one can consider an integrated solution of wind and photovoltaic
generation as the possibility to have no wind and no cloud at the same time is quite low.
4.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS

These systems are based on the photovoltaic technology, that allows a direct
transformation of the sun energy into electric energy. It is used the photovoltaic effect of
some semiconductors materials as silicon, considered as thin slabs, treated on both faces
with phosphorus and boron to make a p-n junction, that generates energy under the sun
light. This effect allows generation of the electric energy without fuel.
The photovoltaic cells are installed inside transparent modules appropriate interconnected.
Each module generally has 36 cells that cover an area of 0.5 m2 and delivers a 12V rated
energy.
Only partially the sun energy becomes electric energy. The conversion efficiency for the
photovoltaic commercial cells is generally around 10-14 %. For very special cases only the
efficiency reaches 20 %.
That means that for each kW of sun energy one can get 100-140 W electric energy only.
The d.c. current depends not only on the cells area but on the sun, variable with the time of
the day, season and atmospheric conditions (temperature, intensity, light composition). For
the stand-alone installations one needs a battery to charge the extra energy from the day
time in order to use it by night or on cloudy weather.
As a rule the batteries are dimensioned to cover 6-7 days at the rated charge. This period is
considered enough to pass possible cloudy weather or to repair faulty photovoltaic panels.
As a result the photovoltaic panels have to cover not only the average load but also to
charge and maintain the batteries. The batteries function is also to cover the eventual extra
charge without the necessity to over sizing the photovoltaic panels
The photovoltaic generation system has the following main parts:

– Photovoltaic panels
– Regulation system: voltage converters that allow to the energy produced by the
photovoltaic panels to stay at the same voltage level.
– Batteries
– d.c. distribution system
– d.c ./ a.c. inverter and the appropriate a.c. distribution system.
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For various installations, especially off-shore platforms without permanent operational

personnel, besides the photovoltaic panels there is a Diesel generator that covers the load
demand during maintenance time. The Diesel generator has to charge also the batteries in
order to reduce the photovoltaic panels dimensioning.
For the installations placed at a high latitude, where the natural light time reduces a lot in
winter, in order to guarantee the total electric autonomy from the photovoltaic panels, one
should over dimension a lot the panels area or, more convenient, integrate a Diesel
generator.
DIESEL
G EMERG.
PHOTOVOLTAIC
PANELS
RECTIFIER
AC MAINTENANCE LOADS
DC DC
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
DC
INVERTER
DC
AC
BATTERIES
DC LOADS AC LOADS
TYPICAL SCHEME FOR THE PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM
Another important part for the photovoltaic panels is the area. As information only, one has
to consider that for 1kWp(peak) is necessary an area of about 12-20 m2.
The generation system power range depends a lot on the available area but generally is
available for small or medium-small sizes. As an example on the off-shore platforms just
because of the lack of space the size is up to 12 kWp. On-shore where the available space
is larger the limit power is higher.
The electric equipment of the photovoltaic systems requires low maintenance, but to
maintain efficient the whole, frequent panel cleaning is required. Special care for the
electrolyte of the battery with its frequent charge-discharge regime. The batteries are of the
low maintenance-no ventilation dryfit type. The medium lifetime for the batteries with a
frequent charge-discharge regime reduces to 6-8 years from the 15 years guaranteed by
the manufactuers for a normal regime. During the photovoltaic panel medium lifetime, of 20
years, there are to be considered three times the replacement of the battery.
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4.2 WIND TURBINE GENERATORS
The wind turbine generators use the wind force upon a blade system put on the same shaft
with the electric generator. From the construction point of view there are two types of
generators:
-with vertical shaft rotor
-with horizontal shaft rotor, parallel to the wind direction.
the last one being the most used, studied and improved.
Lately the wind generators rated power is in the range that goes from few tenths of Watt up
to 2 MW, the last ones being destined to large wind parks.
For the E&P installations the wind turbine generators rated power is generally of about
tenths of kW used especially off-shore.
Obviously the wind generators are installed in windy area. They are adapted for a wind
speed higher than 2-3 m/s. For larger wind generators the upper speed limit is 25-30 m/s
for stability reasons. The type of the electric generator depends on the rated power and
function conditions: island or in parallel with electrical network.
The wind generators for the E&P installations (as the off-shore ones) are for island
operation and, similar to the photovoltaic generation, they have to be provided with
batteries that charge during windy periods and discharge the rest of the time. The type of
the generator depends upon the rated power, generally being of the permanent magnet or
brushless type, with rectifier and conversion for the battery charge.
In this case also the battery dimensioning has to cover the energy demand during periods
without wind. The data about wind characteristics in the area are to be searched or
measured.
The large wind turbine generators that are destined to electrical network connection (large
wind area) deliver all the produced energy directly to the network. These ones are usually
provided with asynchronous generators and transformers and the air generator blades’
position can be regulated to maintain constant the speed with the wind possible variations.
Otherwise they are provided with synchronous generators and inverters to correct the
voltage and frequency generator values, variable with the wind speed, to make them
suitable for the system connection.
In the off-shore installations integrating wind and photovoltaic generation helps to improve
the generation system availability and in the meantime to reduce the associated batteries
capacity.
In this case besides the wind generator a power generation group is installed in order to
cover the demand during maintenance periods on the platform. The power generation
group has also the duty to charge the battery after the discharge period.
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DIESEL
G EMERG.
GEN EOLIC
GENER.
~
RECTIF.
RECTIFIER AND ~ DC
CHARGE REGULATOR
=
INVERTER
DC
AC
BATTERIES
DC LOADS AC LOADS
TYPICAL DIAGRAM FOR THE ISLAND FUNCTIONING OF THE WIND GENERATION SYSTEM
DIESEL
G EMERG.
PHOTOVOLTAIC GEN EOLIC

PANELS GENER.
~
RECTIFIER
= RECTIFIER AND ~ DC
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
= =
INVERTER
DC
AC
BATTERIES
DC LOADS AC LOADS
TYPICAL SCHEME FOR THE INTEGRATED WIND AND PHOTOVOLTAIC GENERATION

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4.3 CLOSED CYCLE STEAM TURBINES

This generation systems are delivered as packages. The principle of the system is similar
to the Rankine closed cycle, totally sealed. The energy is furnished by the gas that supplies
a burner provided with a control system for the gas flow.
The functioning cycle is represented below:
An organic fluid , with special characteristics for the evaporation and condensation
temperature (freon or similar), contained in the boiler, is vaporized by the burner and sent
to the turbine, that is put on the same shaft with the permanent magnets alternator and the
supply pump. The discharge steam from the turbine is sent to the condenser where is
chilled to the liquid state and recycled with the supply pump.
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The alternator produced energy is rectified and filtered to supply the d.c. system with its
users and battery, that has to be maintained fully charged.
A control system for the energy demand, provided with the package, controls the gas
quantity to the burner according to the charge demand.
The system can produce electric energy from 200 to 6000 W continuously without
maintenance. The bearings (on the common shaft for the turbine, alternator and supply
pump) are lube film type, to avoid metal to metal direct contact.
All the liquid steam circuit is in a sealed steel container to avoid the process losses. The
medium lifetime of these generators is 20 years approximately.
PACKAGE
DIESEL
G EMERG.
BOILER T GEN
~
CONDENS.
RECTIF.
GAS AC MAINTENANCE LOADS
RECTIFIER AND LOAD ~ DC

REGULATOR
=
INVERTER
DC
AC
BATTERIES
DC LOADS AC LOADS
TYPICAL DIAGRAM FOR THE SYSTEM WITH THE CLOSED CYCLE TURBINE
As described for the other systems, these generators are generally accompanied by a
battery that has to cover the eventual extra demands and guarantee a certain autonomy
during the stop procedure (as the gas system interlocking). Naturally the battery capacity is
dimensioned for a 1-2 days autonomy , much lower comparing to the photovoltaic systems
and/or the solar systems.
For the off-shore installations there is also an emergency Diesel generator to cover the
eventual necessities during maintenance periods. The Diesel group has also to charge the
batteries after a long discharge period.
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4.4 GAS MICROTURBINES
The gas microturbines are a compact and miniaturized construction of the classical gas
turbines described in chapter 3.1 with a similar functioning principle
The available characteristic power for these engines varies from 30 kW up to 80 kW for the
ISO conditions (15 Celsius degrees) and reduces with the temperature as shown in the
characteristic diagram.
The microturbines are one-shaft type sustained by special maintenance-free air bearings
(turbine, air compressor, generator and the eventual gas compressor are all on the same
shaft), characterized by a high turns number 96.000 rpm and provided with permanent
magnets generator.
Another characteristic of these engines is that they need no greasing system, no chilling
circuits, no gear reduction unit or other mechanical auxiliaries, that makes them interesting
for the minimum required maintenance.
The microturbines emissions are particular low with respect to the other engines. 9 ppm -
Nox and 40 ppm - CO2.
The average necessary for a 30 kW micro-turbine is about 14÷17 Nm3/h natural gas with a
medium efficiency of 25 %.
The typical overall dimensions of the micro turbine are quite small making them very
interesting for the reduced installing areas.
The high frequency generator voltage is converted to 50Hz (or 60 Hz) three phased energy
through an inverter controlled by the turbine control system provided on the engine itself.
The microturbine package is provided also with a battery which scope is to cover the
eventual extra energy demands (inductive charges) or to support the stop procedure when
the accumulator batteries will be charged by the kinetic energy of the turbine shaft. A
completely automatic control system checks the battery charge level and avoids the deep
discharges.
The micro turbines are adapted to island and system connection functioning, among them
and/or other power generating systems.
In the case of several micro turbines working in parallel, the control system provided on the
engines themselves determine the load sharing among the turbines and the starting or
stopping procedure for one or more units in order to get the maximum efficiency.
MICROTURBINE
DIESEL
T GEN G EMERG.
~
~
~
~
=
AC LOADS DC LOADS
BATTERIES
TYPICAL DIAGRAM FOR A GAS MICROTURBINE SYSTEM

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MICROTURBINE’S DETAILS MICROTURBINE’S FRONT VIEW
4.5 THERMOCOUPLES (TEG) SEEBECK EFFECT
The thermocouples based generator (TEG) produces electrical power through the direct
conversion of heat into electric energy directly without moving parts.
It is based on the characteristic of two different metallic materials joined together at one end
(thermocouple), when overheated in the junction point (hot junction) with respect to the
opposite extremities (cold junction), to produce a voltage proportional to the temperature
difference between the hot joint and the cold joint. In case of a charge (R) connected
between the extremities there is an direct current that can supply the load.
The produced power (P = V2 / R) varies with the square of the temperature.
Inside the thermoelectric generators the hot junctions of the thermocouples are maintained
at 540 Celsius degrees using a burner for fuel gas. The cold part of the thermocouple is
maintained at a low temperature (140 Celsius degrees) using a natural air circulating heat
exchanger.
The thermocouples are chain connected for a final voltage as requested, usually of 6V,
12V, 24V or 48V, determined by the number of thermocouples.
The thermoelectric generators are produced for rated power from 15W up to 550W per unit.
It is possible to connect more generators in series to obtain a max of 5000 W rated power.
Generally the TEG are installed in the non classified area but there are also available low
rated power units (100W approximately) suitable for the installation in the Zone 2
(ventilated area).
The main components of the systems with thermoelectric generators are:
– The burner
– The thermocouples
– The cooling exchanger
– The ignition automatic module
– The automatic modules for extinction, interception and gas depressurization.
– The battery charger and distribution panel.
– The back-up battery usually dimensioned for 1-3 days autonomy.
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The main characteristics of this generation type are:
– The continuity of generation (24hours/day), no moving parts, demanding 0.1 m3/day

fuel gas for each W installed.
– Low autonomy battery to cover the eventual demand peaks or gas shortage.
– Negligible maintenance operations are requested
– Generator medium lifetime of 20 years.
– Adapted for external installation does not required wide room. As an example a 400 W
generator demands an area of L=1.6 m; W=1.6 m; H= 1 m. A photovoltaic panels
system for the same daily production would require a 13 x 4.5 m area. (considerando i
valori medi e non di picco e le ore di irraggiamento)
For the off-shore installations there is also an emergency Diesel generator to cover the
eventual necessities during maintenance periods. The Diesel group has also to charge the
batteries after a long discharge period
TEG
COOLING
DIESEL
G EMERG.
CONTROL
RECTIF.
MODULE
GAS AC MAINTENANCE LOADS
BATTERY CHARGER = DC
REGULATOR
=
INVERTER
DC
AC
BATTERIES
DC LOADS AC LOADS
TYPICAL DIAGRAM FOR THE THERMOCOUPLES GENERATION SYSTEM (TEG)

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5. SELECTION CRITERIA AND COMPARATIVE TABLE
In the Table 1 are summarized the main characteristics for the various electric generation
types described above.
To remember that, as the main generation prime system, the steam turbo generators are
scarcely used in the E&P installation, being preferred electric gas engine generators for
rated power up to 2 MW and gas turbine for more than 1.5-2 MW. The intermediate sizes
are to be technical and economical studied, in order to decide between a gas engine or a
turbine.
For low power generation systems it is preferred the photovoltaic panels or closed cycle
turbines, that proved to have a high reliability.
The elements of the comparison are extremely variable and is not possible to put them
together to make a classification list. The pick-up of one of the various generation types is
based on technical/economical criteria, on the future possible growth and/or environment
requirements (for example for the photovoltaic generation).
A special attention has to be paid during the basic engineering for the systems that are
supposed to grow in the future, in order to start with the appropriate solutions.
Sometimes one has to consider the geographic disposal of the plant. For example, for an
off-shore platform field, a study is required to compare the solution for a sole power station,
placed on one platform with the necessary interconnection cables to the other platforms,
against the solution with several power stations placed on each single platform. For the
evaluation cost one has to consider besides the cost for the equipment (CAPEX) the
operational and maintenance ones (OPEX).
One has to remember that for the alternative main generation systems, dedicated to low
rated power, such as:
- Photovoltaic panels
- WIND generators
- Closed cycle steam turbine
- Micro turbines
- Thermocouples generators
the c.a. electric distribution section is always supplied through an inverter (in the micro
turbines case this inverter is already installed inside the package).
The loads that demand a high start-up current (such as the motors) has to be considered
properly for the inverters’ dimensioning.
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TABLE 1
TYPE CHARACTERISTICS LIMITS APPLICATIONS ESTIMATED COST
Prime mover: gas Rated power larger than Main power generation Approximately 700 $/kW
GAS TURBINE turbine. 1,5-2 MW. for medium and large for rated powers up to 3
GENERATORS Medium voltage three Operational personnel is rated power. MW. Then reduces
phased alternator. necessary. gradually to 350 $/kW for
rated powers up to 100-
150 MW
Prime mover: steam Not so much used for the Main generation and/or Generally associated to
turbine. generation systems of energy recovery for the the turbo gas in the
Medium voltage three E&P. The steam generation large rated power combined cycles.
STEAM TURBO phased alternator. requires auxiliaries for the installations. Approximately 350÷500
GENERATORS thermal cycle (boiler, $/kW for the combined
condenser, cooling system, cycle.
demineralization plant for The specific price lowers
water reintegration). for lager rated power
The operational personnel units.
is necessary.
Prime mover: internal Unit rated power up to 2 Main generation for Package with cabin
GAS ENGINE combustion motor. MW. medium rated power approximately 500÷600
ELECTRIC Generally, low voltage The operational personnel installations. $/kW
GENERATION three phased alternator. is preferable.
Fuel not required. Large installation area is Electric supply for low Complete systems for off-
No moving parts. request. The peak rated power shore platforms, structure
Low maintenance is production is 1 kWp for an installations in sunny included:
2
PHOTOVOLTAIC requested to the panels area of 20m . regions.
PANELS cleaning. The generation system is 400 W ~ 80.000 $
totally stand alone. 1700 W ~ 150.000 $
Operational personnel is
not required.
Fuel not required. Company used them to Electric supply for low
Requires recurrent produce few tenths of power demand rated
maintenance for the Watts. installations.
WIND TURBINE moving parts. The generation system is Associated to
GENERATORS totally independent. There photovoltaic panels to
is no need for operational improve the system
personnel. availability.
Requires gas for energy Electric supply for low 3 kW unit ~ 300.000 $
CLOSED CYCLE production. Maximum generation rated rated power
STEAM TURBINE Totally sealed system, power 6 kW per unit. installations.
maintenance not Generation system
required. completely stand alone. No
operational personnel are
requested
Requires fuel gas Generation unit rated Generation mainly for Approximately
Overall dimensions power up to 80kW max low rated power 2000÷2500 $/kW :
extremely reduced. Low (ISO condition) installations. Larger i.e.
GAS maintenance. Generation system totally rated power with more 30 kW unit ~ 75.000 $
MICROTURBINES independent. Operational parallel units is 60 kW unit ~ 120.000 $
personnel not necessary. possible.
Requires fuel gas. Maximum available rated Electric supply for a Complete systems for off-
Has no moving parts. power 5 kW with more units low rated power shore platforms, gas
Low maintenance. connected. demand. treatment included:
THERMOCOUPLE Generation system totally
GENERATORS independent. Operational 400 W ~ 70.000 $
personnel not necessary. 1700 W ~ 200.000 $
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6. EMERGENCY GENERATION : SPARE AND SECURITY
In the case of electrical black-out the guarantee for an electric supply to the preferentials
and the privileged users, is entrusted respectively to the emergency Diesel generators and
to the UPS for a.c. or battery for d.c.
6.1 DIESEL GENERATION GROUPS

Electric generation Diesel groups as emergency groups are used mainly for the facility to
store the fuel into spare tanks, very important during shut-down of process plant when gas
is not available to feed similar gas engine generators groups.
The rated power range for the Diesel groups for fixed installation, available on the market,
comes from few tenths of kW up to some MW.
In case of the main supply shut-down the emergency groups have to start-up immediately.
To maintain this availability degree during stand-by they are continuously surveyed by
their own control systems, that maintain the efficiency of the preheating for oil and air, that
guarantees the immediate loading procedure, together with the automatic charge of the
battery and/or starting-up compressors and the recurrent start-up tests.
The emergency groups supply generally a privileged distribution system, usually a

dedicated board, provided with transfer from main supply to the Diesel and vice versa.
The electric generation group start-up time is variable from 15 s approximately, for low
rated power engines, up to 1 min , generally being considered several start-up procedures
that repeat in case of the start-up failure (generally 3+3 that can be variable with the battery
capacity). This means that in the period of time between the automatic request for the start-
up procedure and the effectively group start, on the preferentials’ bus bars there is no
voltage. It is absolutely necessary to evaluate the functional characteristics of the load in
order to appreciate the availability for the temporary voltage shortage.
In some isolated installations the electric generators groups have the goal to supply the
auxiliaries of the main groups (start-up motors of the gas turbines). In this case the electric
generator group is provided with a synchronizing system, to guarantee the passage from
the emergency group to the main supply.
The alternators of the emergency groups are usually low voltage up to 1000-1500 kW and
medium voltage for lager rated powers.
When the preferential loads are supplied from the emergency group an automatic start-up
sequence is necessary, to avoid the blocking of the system caused by the whole load
start-up procedure. Similar to all the other loads the privileged ones also are to be started
up automatically from DCS. For the emergency group dimensioning one has to consider
besides the individual loads their start-up sequence.
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For information only the loads supplied from the emergency groups are:
– Emergency lighting
– Battery chargers
– Auxiliary services for the main generation groups (to guarantee the start-up).
– Auxiliary services for the emergency groups itself.
– Instrument air compressor
– Fire water pumps
– Essential process load
– Auxiliaries of the main process engines (compressors, engines etc)
– HVAC system for the control room. Note: to avoid the overload of the emergency
generator one has to stop the compression unit maintaining the ventilation only for
security reasons (especially for off-shore installations).
– The electric system for the personnel’s accommodation off-shore and on-shore.
The plant can be provided with several such emergency groups based on the necessary
and the electric system extension.
In the case of several emergency groups working in parallel there is necessary to install an
automatic control and synchronizing system and also check the necessity for load sharing
and load shedding system.
The fuel demand of a power generation group depends on the efficiency, load regime,
specific power of the fuel, etc. For the fuel tank dimensioning, one can consider
approximately 200-220 grams of oil for each kWh produced energy. To determine the fuel
tank capacity it can be used the following formula:
C = 0,3 x P x h where
C = tank capacity (liter)

P =power of the electric generation group (kW)
h = hour number for the requested autonomy
Normally the requested autonomy for the oil tanks’ dimensioning depends upon the
logistics and dislocation besides the necessity or not for operational personnel.
For example, for an off-shore platform, without operational personnel, placed some marine
miles away from the nearest logistic base, one should provide a fuel tank, to guarantee at
least 24 to 48 hours autonomy for the vital systems of the platform. On the contrary, for an
on-shore platform, provided with operational personnel, where the fuel supply is simpler, a
guaranteed autonomy of 12 hours is enough.
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6.2 BATTERIES
The batteries represent for the installations the spare and secure power supply.
The batteries for the fixed installations are of the stationary type, to distinguish them from
those used for traction.
Usually in the installations of the company are used the Ni-Cd or Pb-Ca batteries.
Constructively the batteries can be open type (CEI EN 60896-1) or sealed type (valve
regulated type) (CEI EN 60896-2).
For the open type batteries the container of the electrodes and electrolyte usually has a
valve to limit the gas from charge/discharge of the battery and to stop a possible flame; an
improvement are the batteries with valves that allow gas recombination into H2O reducing
the electrolyte demand. On the cover the open type batteries have a cap for the electrolyte
reintegration. This type of battery has to be installed with the elements vertical on
appropriate shelves and the necessary space for the filling up.
The sealed type batteries (Pb or Pb-Ca) have sealed containers and gel type electrolyte.
Are provided with an one-direction discharge valve for the eventual internal over pressure
release. The gas produced inside the battery is recombined inside and there is no demand
for electrolyte refill; that’s why they are called without maintenance. This battery type needs
small installation area; moreover they can be installed horizontally inside appropriate
panels. The battery delivers small quantities of gas meaning that natural air ventilation is
necessary.
Despite the alternative generation systems (photovoltaic, WIND, TEG, ecc), described in
chapter 4, where the batteries are a part of the generation systems themselves, for some
other installations the batteries are charged and maintained charged by dedicated rectifiers,
in order to be used, in case of the main system failure, for the essential loads supply that
does not allow supply breakdown.
Typical essential loads are: various control and survey circuits, protection system, data
transmission system, security systems (gas survey/fire, emergency lighting, security
lighting, navigation auxiliary system, etc), some lubricating emergency pumps that
sometimes are provided with dedicated batteries, etc.
For the batteries installation there are dedicated rooms, natural or electrical ventilated. The
ventilation has to ensure a proper removal after the charge/discharge cycles.
The battery room must be provided with electric facilities (lighting, extractor ventilation),
EX-d execution, floor and walls with anticorrosive protection, depending on the type of the
battery.
The rated voltages for the batteries are defined in the basic technical rules of the
installation (basic engineering). The voltages normally used are: 110 V d.c., for control and
protection systems; 24V and/or 48 V, for auxiliary regulation systems, telecommunications
etc. Based on the reference voltage is defined the number of specific elements of the
battery.
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7. GENERATION SYSTEMS MANAGEMENT
7.1 PARALLEL OPERATIONS

To cope with the power demand, usually several parallel generation units are provided .
The number of parallel installed units depends on the installation dimensioning, availability
degree required, and sometimes on the installation history (evolution, subsequent
enlargements, ecc ).
The number of parallel generation units and their rated power has to consider also the
spare philosophy (2x100%; 3x50%; 4x33%; etc.), and especially for off-shore installations
also space reduction, weight and platform layout. The solution with only two generators
(2x100%) is not recommended and can be accepted only in few particular cases.
For a classical installation, provided with gas turbine generators or gas engine groups, a
configuration of N+1 generators is recommended: where N is the number of generators,
usually on-line (minimum two) with rated power 20-25% lager than the installation power
demand. This over dimensioning has the goal to cover the eventual peak demands (values
are to be checked on the target of the generator) and also the lower shaft output power due
to the prime mover ageing. A generator (+1) usually is in stand-by or for maintenance.
The pick-up of the stand-by engine considers such a turnover to determine for all the
engines the same functioning process / ageing.
Another aspect that points to the N+1 configuration is the possibility in case of sensible load
reducing to stop one of the generators to make the other ones in best efficient work load.
To be consider that low power demand, especially for gas engine groups, are particular
critical for the performances and will require frequent maintenance operations. To overpass
such inconveniences one has to provide passive loads such as resistances to load the
engines for at least 60-70 % of the rated power.
Two synchronous generators can work in parallel if they have the same voltage, same
frequency and same phase of the voltage systems. The parallel operation is generally
completely automatic and regulate the parameters (voltage and frequency) for the engine to
be connected and close the engine circuit breaker when the conditions are fulfilled. The
operation can be done manually also, helped by the apposite measuring devices (double
voltmeter, double frequency-meter and synchronizer), in this case the circuit breaker
closing being controlled by a supervision device (Synchrocheck) to avoid dangerous
commutation errors. The parallel operation is generally initiated from the control desk or the
DCS, that has an interface with the supervision electric system ECS. Sometimes the control
operations are local, from the generator or turbine/motor control panel.
Once reached the parallel conditions the new engine divides the load with the other ones.
This asks to increase the shaft power (increase the speed) for the newest engine and in the
same time to lower the speed of the other ones, to balance the power generation with the
power demand.
This operation can be automatic, using a centralized control system, that has to divide the
load between the various generators according to their rated powers or based on
programmable sharing parameters. The load sharing system divides active power and also
reactive power among the various generators on-line.
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For the less complicated power plants the load sharing is done by the “droop” characteristic
of the engines’ speed regulators. The droop characteristic is a functional feature for the
speed regulators of the prime movers (turbines, gas enginess, ecc.), defined as the
percentage frequency variation for a 100 % variation of the rated power (kW).
Usually the droop characteristic is 4 %. That means that, with reference to the rated
frequency of 50 Hz, for a load variation of 100% results a frequency variation of 2 Hz, for a
load variation of 50% results a frequency variation of 1Hz ecc.
For the engines with the same droop characteristics, as the frequency variation is the same
for all the generators, working in parallel, they divide the same percentage of load variation.
For the engines with different droop characteristics the load division is no longer
proportional, the engines with lower droop characteristic being those that mostly responds
to the load variations.
F [Hz] F [Hz]
G1 G2
∆F%
∆P% P [kW] ∆P% P [kW]
ENGINES WITH THE SAME DROOP CHARACTERISTIC

(THE SAME % LOAD REPARTITION)
F [Hz] F [Hz]
G1 G2
∆F%
∆P% P [kW] ∆P% P [kW]
ENGINES WITH DIFFERENT DROOP CHARACTERISTIC

(THE ENGINE WITH THE LOWER DROOP CHARACTERISTIC (G1) RISPONDS WITH LARGER POWER
VARIATIONS)
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Naturally after a positive or negative load variation, the system frequency goes up or down,
depending on the droop characteristic of the engines.
To maintain the same frequency, the droop characteristic has to equal zero, that
corresponds to the isochronous engine.
For a system with several parallel engines, only one can be isochronous the other ones
being necessary to have active droop characteristic (droop regulation). In case of more
isochronous engines there can be load oscillations between the engines, with a strong
influence upon the regulation systems.
All the load variations, are absorbed by the isochronous engine that will keep constant the
frequency, the other engines staying on the previous load level. Then the operational
personnel of the plant or auxiliary control system will divide the load between the engines.
The same concept of the active power distribution between the engines, as a function of the
frequency, goes also for the reactive power demand. In this case becomes active the
generator’s AVR (Automatic Voltage Regulator) that has also a droop characteristic,
defined as the percentage variation of the voltage reported to the 100 % reactive power
variation of the engine (kVAR).
In this case also for more parallel engines , the voltage is nothing but equal for all , the
generators with the same droop characteristic deliver the same percentage of reactive
power variation.
7.2 LOAD SHEDDING

As described in the previous chapter, generally in the power plants a certain number of
generators are in parallel to cover the load demand with a spare rated power of about
20-25 % for the best.
In case of failure and/or malfunction that stops one or more generators, and the power
demand is higher than the power delivered by the generators, there is an unstable situation
for the electric system that collapses, called black-out.
To stop such inconvenience, load shedding is required, meaning some of the loads are
disconnected, to balance the available power delivered by the on-going generators.
For this purpose the power plants are provided with load shedding that can be activated in
two ways:
– Frequency check
– Logic control for the generation system configuration
Frequency check
One or more relays are checking the electric system frequency. The frequency lowers when
the power demand is larger than the generated one. The load shedding becomes active
when is reached a certain minimum frequency. To speed up the load shedding a df/dt
function is used because they are sensible to the frequency drop long before the minimum
value is reached.
This simple, practical and economical system is adapted for small systems and for the
systems that require no accurate load selection for disconnection. The load to disconnect is
approximately determined so, in order to prevent the collapse of the system, there is the
tendency to sacrifice more.
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Control logic for the electric system configuration
The system is based on PLC, that controls the configuration of the electric system,
measures the power demand for each individual load, memorizes the power capability by
the running generators, computes on-line the electric balance and determines, in case of
load shedding, the load to discharge based on their priority.
This more accurate system allows not only to keep safe the generators but to adapt the
shedding according on the power availability and the process requirements.
8. SIZING CRITERIA
8.1 ELECTRIC LOAD-BALANCE
The auxiliaries of an electric plant can be divided as follows:
A- Process utilities
Generally are electric motors for pumps, compressors, fans, heating packages, ecc.
B- Process Auxiliary services (Privileged loads)
Refers to the services that are independent to the process, such as telephone,
communications, radio, air and marine signaling, DCS, d.c. and a.c. security
systems.
Belong also to this category the logistics systems such as: auxiliaries water system,
drinking water, and all the other installations inside the plant but not connected to the
process.
C- Auxiliary installations
To this category belong the installations that work with intermittence during the day
and season, such as lighting, socket, heating, air conditioning
All the loads indicated at the A – B – C points have a service and a contemporaneity factor.
8.1.1. Electric load sizing
A- The process electric auxiliaries, usually motors, are dimensioned based on the
maximum requested mechanical shaft power and on an increasing factor, indicated
in the table below; as suggested by the international practice(UOP SPEC. 358 –
REV.2 JULY 5, 1972 – ELECTRIC MOTORS)
MAX. REQUESTED INCREASING

MOTOR’S SIZE
SHAFT POWER FACTOR
Standard motor size, with
power equal or lager to the
0 ÷ 18,5 kW +25 %
computed one.
MOTOR
22 ÷ 55 kW +15 % power equal or lager to the
computed one
75 kW and above +10 % power equal or lager to the
computed one
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The motor’s functioning regime can be as follows:

• Continuous regime for more than 8 hours/day continuously
• Discontinuous regime frequent start-ups and stops a day
• Spare stand-by load, not included in the electric balance, but
ready to replace the running unit. Some particular cases
require the spare start-up before the main one stops. This
case generally has no influence upon the electric load-
balance but on the equipment’s dimensioning.
B- The process auxiliary services are generally considered to have a continuous regime
with an load factor KU=0,9.
C- The auxiliary installations are considered from the functioning regime point of view:
• For lighting installation variation day/night to be considered
• For the socket installation a simultaneity factor of 0,2 is considered
• For the heating and air conditioning installations one has to consider the
season.
The medium load factor is reported to 24 hours and season
8.1.2 Electric load-balance computation
The electric load-balance has the goal to give the necessary data for the dimensioning of
the main electric components such as:
1- Main and stand-by power generation dimensioning

2- Power transformer dimensioning
3- Bus bars rated power dimensioning
4- Short circuit level dimensioning for all the electric equipment.
The sum of the relative rated powers for the A – B – C groups multiplied by the indicated in
the previous paragraph with relevant correction factors determine the electric balance of the
installation.
To this final value usually one adds a 5 % from the total to cover the losses for transforming
and distribution of the electric energy.
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The following table gives an overview for the data that are to be considered by a preliminary computation. A more
accurate computation has to be done after, to cope with the various installation types.
LOAD FACTOR
CATEGORY LOAD POWER NOTES
( K U)
Motor Up to 18,5 kW 0,8

Motor From 22 to 55 kW 0,9
A
Motor Greater equal to 75 kW 0,95
Process auxiliary
Other loads 0,9
such as heating, etc.
Process auxiliary
B services 0,9
( Preferential)
Lighting 1
Socket 0,2
C Auxiliary installations Air conditioning 0,8 In the balance has to
Heating 0,8 be considered the
biggest load between
the two.
D Plant electric losses 5 % di A+B+C 1
The power resulted for the B category is used to determine the emergency power
generation.
The load factors KU indicated in the table consider only the effective power demand without
no other reduction criteria for the simultaneity (KC = simultaneity factor)
The criterion to define KC depends on the service condition defined by the process
(continuous, spare, intermittent, discontinuous, irregular, etc). Intermittent services is when
the working and stand-by periods are very frequent in a day (i.e. air compressors) and than
the intermittent is considered similar to the continuous services; discontinuous and/or
irregular services is when after the running operations there are very long stand-bay
periods (i.e. tanks charging pumps), for this reason it important to evaluate the amount of
working hours.
The applicable values for KC are:

- KC = 0 for spare loads (usually in stand by)
- KC = 1 for continuous or intermittent functioning
2
 8000 − h 
- KC = 1 −   for discontinuous or irregular functioning
 8000 
where h = yearly functioning hours
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8.2 FUTURE DEVELOPMENT
For every new installation is considered a possible future development of the process and
the auxiliary services.
The future demands are studied considering the electric balance. The new rated powers of
the auxiliaries and accessories are normally established as percentage (max 20 %) from
the future process load.
For the future a lot of things are to be evaluated and last but not least the economic ones.
As a general rule one has to do as follows:
a - Short time and low importance expansions;
b - Medium/long time and high importance expansions.
For the short time and low importance developments (10-20 % from the basic load-balance)
usually one has to consider everything from the beginning to satisfy the new demands.
Sometimes is postponed only the purchasing of the equipment, for future demands, to be
installed in the switchgears.
- Generation: Usually the generation is dimensioned for the final load
- Electric panels Usually are dimensioned and equipped for the future
development also.
- Transformers: Usually are dimensioned for the final load balance including the
expansion.
Medium/long time and high importance expansions introduce the modularity concept for the
installations and components, but remain the same the electric dimensioning for short
circuit and bus bars rated current.
- Generation: The initial rated power is accurately esteemed to allow the
installation of one or more future expansions. Usually one has to
consider also the necessary area for the future installations.
- Electric panels: Medium Voltage Panels
For the large installations with the rated power >30 MW, the
medium voltage panels are divided into two categories and two
voltage levels.
The first category at a higher voltage (10÷30 kV), includes the
panels for generation and primary distribution. For these panels
usually is considered the necessary space for further panel
expansion.
The second category at a normal voltage level (3÷6÷11 kV) is
dedicated to the large motors’ supply. For these panels the
necessary space is provided in the cabin for further panel
expansion.
For the installations with more restrained rated powers one tries
to unify the two voltage levels.
Low voltage panels

In the cabin or substation are considered some spare spaces for
future new low voltage panels.
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- Electric cabins Brickworked cabins

Generally are realised to contain also the future panels.
For large future expansions one has to consider the necessary
spaces and building work.
Prefabricated cabins
Generally are realised to contain also the future panels.
- Transformers: The same way, similar to the panels, applies the concept of
modularity / expansibility. Usually in the cabins, in the
transformer’s area, corresponding to the spare spaces for future
panels, has to foresee spare space for the future transformer
units.
8.3 TECHNICAL-ECONOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS

As defined in the previous chapter, the technical-economical considerations for the electric
installation are similar, meaning that for the short time and low importance expansions is
better to buy all the equipment, the spares inclusively, from the begin, as the initial higher
cost is partially payed back by the fact that one uses the same design project and
installation with all the other ones.
For long time and/or high importance expansions is preferable to make the investments
when necessary. However, in order to avoid supply interruption during expansion, some
equipment has to be considered already in the basic design.
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Pag. 34 di 41
9. INSTALLATION
Generally for the power supply it is good practice to select a safe area with (no explosion or
fire risk). Such eventual phenomena can cause all sort of damages including those coming
from lack of process supply.
When placing the generation systems one has to consider the possibility to deliver the
extra energy to national network or some other client.
On this purpose the generation systems have to be installed in some peripheral area of the
plant, to allow a future development and to separate the area with proper fence due to
fiscal and/or management destinations.
9.1 INSTALLATION IN SAFE AREA (NON CLASSIFIED AREA)

Usually the electric power station is located in the area dedicated to the general services of
the whole plant.
Near by the power station will be located the main electrical substation in which the power
switchgears, control and auxiliary electric panels are installed.
9.2 INSTALLATION (CLASSIFIED AREA)

It is not recommendable to install the electric power generation in a classified area. In case
it can’t be avoided because of not enough available space (for example on the off-shore
platforms) there are some possible solutions that consider the type and the dimensions of
the electric power supply.
• Small and medium electric power generation systems (max. 30 kW) usually can be
adapted for installation in places with explosion and fire risk. Obviously that means an
important increase of the prices for the main equipment and the auxiliaries.
• Electric power systems with rated power lager than 30 kW and up to 2-3000 kW are
installed in zone make artificially secure placing protective barriers and/or dedicated
rooms. These rooms are provided with ventilation and pressurizing systems that
transforms the zone from classified one in a non classified one. In case of ventilation
and/or pressurizing systems breakdown, for security reasons, it will determine the stop
of the electric power system.
• Electric power systems with rated power lager than 3000 kW (usually gas turbines) are
provided with completely autonomous containers for all the ventilation and pressurizing
systems that allows to install them where required. For the areas with low available
space is to consider the dedicated container instead of the unique one for all the electric
power systems.
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Pag. 35 di 41
10. STANDARDS
In the table below are considered the main reference standards.
NATIONAL INTERNATIONAL EUROPEAN TITLE

STANDARDS STANDARDS STANDARDS
( CEI (IEC) (CENELEC)
Classification ) (IEEE)
Power installations with rated
CEI 64-8 voltage up to 1000 V a.c. and 1500
V d.c.
Power installations exceeding 1 kV
CEI 11-1 a.c.
Electric enrgy production system
CEI 11-20 and uninterruuptable system
connected to l and ll class
networks.
CEI 11-35 Electric substations (not for public
system). – Designe and installation
criteria
Guide to the environment insertion
CEI 11-61 of the electric overhead lines and
electric stations.
Electrical Installations of Buildings
IEC 60364-7-712 - Part 7-712: Requirements
for Special Installations or
Locations - Solar Photovoltaic (PV)
Power Supply Systems - First
Edition
Electrical Installations of Buildings
IEC 60364-1 - Part 1: Fundamental principles,
Assessment of General
Characteristics, Definitions
Design Guide for Electric Power

IEEE 666 Service Systems for Generating
Stations
IEEE recommended practice
IEEE STD 141- Electric Power Distribution
1993 for industrial plant
API RP 540 Recommended Practice for
Electrical Installation in Petroleum
Processing Plants
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Pag. 36 di 41
11. DIMENSIONING AND CHECK SIMPLIFIED FORMULAS
Below are presented some procedures for the analysis and/or computing examples, useful
for the preliminary dimensioning of the installation’ s equipment.
11.1 GENERATOR DIMENSIONING
For the generators dimensioning one has to consider first of all the maximum active power
demand Pmax from the load balance.
In case there are no programmed future developments which impose different choices
criteria, the rated power of the generation system has to be greater or equal to Pgen = 1.2 ÷
1.25 Pmax (computed value for the site’s most difficult conditions)
For a (2+1) generation system (meaning two running generators and a stand-by generator),
the rated power for each unit has to be greater equal to Pu = Pgen / 2.
For a (N+1) generation system the rated power for each unit has to be greater equal to
Pu = Pgen / N.
One has to check that one generation unit is capable to start-up directly (DOL) the largest
motor of the plant, with the generator already pre-charged with running loads.
As a general information this condition is fulfilled when the remaining available shaft power
on the prime mover (gas turbine, gas engine group, ecc), before the largest motor’s start-
up, is 2-2.5 times lager the rated power of the motor. Otherwise one has to consider an
indirect start-up or to provide an interlocking system that allows the motor start-up only for
more generators working in parallel.
In case of more parallel generators one has to consider the total remaining power available
on the running generators. The indicative value of 2-2.5 times the motor’s power comes
from the fact that during start-up of an asynchronous motor, the start-up current as
modulus/phase, as seen in the high point of circular diagram, which correspond an
absorbed power equal to 2-2.5 times the rated power, that has to be delivered by the
generator.
The admissible drop voltage on the generation bus-bars during motor’s start-up (max 10-
14%), depends on the generator’s characteristics (power and transient reactance) and the
start-up current of the motor. Usually this condition is fulfilled for the direct start-up of the
motor if the apparent power of the generator (kVA), independent from the pre charge
condition, is at least 8 times the load’s power. Obviously this is an approximate evaluation
and needs further load flow and stability computation.
When the above mentioned conditions are not fulfilled for the large rated power motors’
start-up, one has to provide alternative methods that reduce the absorbed current and
power during start-up to guarantee the generators’ stability.
In particular are the following start-up methods:
a) Start-up with the autotransformer

b) Soft start-up
c) Start-up with the reactance connected in series
d) VSD start-up(speed driver with combined voltage-frequency variation)
e) Winding rotor motors
Rev.0 November 2004
Pag. 37 di 41
The a), b) and c) start-up systems fed the motor during start-up with a reduced voltage,
meaning a reduced torque as the last one depends on the square of the voltage. One has
to check that the resultant torque is higher than the resistant one of the load during start-up.
The d) method (VSD) starts-up the motor supplying it with variable voltage and frequency
from zero to rated values, that allows to start-up the motor keeping constant to the rated
values the torque and the current and also allows a variable speed regime. This system is
more expensive than the other ones.
The e) system that uses winding rotor motors is not very frequent as the motor’s price and
the maintenance demanded by the brushes are very high. This system, that requires
start-up resistors, has the advantage of the rated current and high torque during starts-up.
Example:
Gas turbine 2500 kW and generator 3200 kVA, with preload 1800 kW.
Motor 400 kW (direct start-up)
Available power on the turbine Pav= 2500 – 1800 = 700 kW being less than 2 x 400 kW, is
not possible the direct start-up of the motor , so an alternative start-up method has to be
considered (for example with autotransformer)
For a turbine’s preload of 1500 kW; Pav= 2500 – 1500 = 1000 kW > 2 x 400 kW and a
being the generator 3200 kVA ≥ (8 x 400kW) the system would be adapted also for the
direct start-up.
Rev.0 November 2004
Pag. 38 di 41
11.2 SHORT CIRCUIT COMPUTATION
Synchronous generator stand-alone operation. Short circuit current contribution.
The three phase short circuit power delivered by a synchronous generator in case of fault is
determined by the following formula:
Sk3 = c • ( Sr / X”d )
where:
Sk3 = three phased short circuit power
Sr = generator apparent rated power
X”d = subtransient reactance (saturated) of the generator (p.u.)
c = voltage factor (c=1.1 for MV; c=1 for l.v.)
Examples::
– synchronous generator 5 MVA – 6 kV - X”d = 15 % (0.15 p.u.)
Sk3 = c • ( Sr / X”d ) = 1.1 • (5 / 0.15) = 36.7 MVA
– synchronous generator 900 kVA – 400 V - X”d = 13.3 % (0.133 p.u.)

Sk3 = c • ( Sr / X”d ) = 1 • (900 / 0.133) = 6770 kVA
Synchronous generators in parallel. Short circuit current contribution.
In case of several parallel generators on the same bus bar system the total short-circuit
power on the bars is the sum of the individual short-circuit powers:
Sk3tot = Sk3g1 + Sk3g2 + ….+ Sk3gN
For the short-circuit dimensioning of the bus bars one has to consider also the contribution
of the stand-by generator (that periodically runs to make its test or to back-up another one)
and also the contribution of the electric motors.
Motors. Short circuit current contribution.
The eventual synchronous motors are considered for the short circuit current contribution
just like any other generator.
The asynchronous motor’s short circuit contribution depends on the motor’s apparent rated
power and start-up impedance:
Sk3m = c • Srm • ( ILR / Ir )
where:
Sk3m = motor’s short-circuit contribution
Srm =motor’s rated apparent power : Srm = Prm / ( η • cosϕ)
ILR / Ir = motor’s starting current reported to the motor’s rated current.
c = voltage factor (c=1.1 for MV; c=1 for l.v.)
Rev.0 November 2004
Pag. 39 di 41
Example:
Asynchronous motor 500 kW; 6 kV; η=0.96; cosϕ=0.92 (566 kVA) with the starting
current ILR = 5 Ir
The motor’ s short-circuit contribution will be:
Sk3m = c • Srm • ( ILR / Ir ) = 1.1 • 566 • 5 = 3113 kVA
For the simplified computation instead of each individual evaluation one can consider all the
motors complex connected on the same bus bars as an unique equivalent motor, with the
rated power equal to the sum of the individual rated powers, of the running motors, and the
ILR / Ir report as the medium value of the individual ones.
The total motors contribution depends on the installation’s structure, on the number of the
motors directly connected to the bus bars and/or those connected through the distribution
transformers, on the report between the rotating and non-rotating loads, etc. The motors
contribution equals 35 – 65 % from the short-circuit contribution of the running generators.
In the case the load is mainly composed of motors directly connected the contribution is
closed to 65%, in case the static loads represent the major part of the total the contribution
decrease to 35%.
The short circuit contribution of the motors is summarized, as modulus, to the short circuit
contribution of the generators.
Short circuit downstream a transformer
The short-circuit downstream a transformer is calculated as shown below:
Sk3T = SrT  (ucc + SrT S’k3 )
or with equivalent relation:
Sk3T = (S’k3 x SrT ucc ) (S’k3 + SrT ucc )
where:
Sk3T = three phased short circuit power delivered by the transformer
ucc = short circuit voltage of the transformer (p.u.)
SrT = rated apparent power of the transformer
S’k3 = short circuit power upstream the transformer
Example:
Transformer rated power 1.6 MVA, with Ucc= 6% (0.06 p.u), and upstream short circuit
power equal to 160 MVA.
The downstream short circuit power of the transformer is:
Sk3T = SrT  (ucc + SrT S’k3 ) = 1.6  (0.06 + 1.6 160 ) = 22.86 MVA
Rev.0 November 2004
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11.3 BATTERIES
Capacity
The rated capacity of the battery is measured in Ah. This value multiplied by the battery’s
voltage measured in V represents the electric energy accumulated of the battery measured
in Wh.
The battery’s capacity is reported to the nominal discharge regime that is equals 10 h for
the Pb-Ca batteries noted as C10 and 5h for the Ni-Cd batteries noted as C5 .
The battery’s capacity is variable with the discharge current. The capacity reduces for
larger discharge currents.
For example a Pb-Ca battery with C10 = 250 Ah, can deliver :
– 25 A for 10h as a whole 250 Ah
– 31A for 8h as a whole 240 Ah
as consequence for the battery dimensioning it is necessary to consider the values of the
loads currents.
In the following table are presented some hypothetical power demands.
LOAD POWER TIME (h) ENERGY (Wh)

(W)
Emergency light 8000 2 16000
Control circuit 1500 10 15000
Lubricating oil pump 7000 5 35000
Navigation aids 1000 48 48000
Compressor’s auxiliaries 1000 1 1000
Spare 1000 3 3000
Total !Errore di sintassi, ) !Errore di sintassi, )
For the 110 V voltage level, the total capacity of the battery should be 1072 Ah
(118000Wh/110V), that guarantees 107 A, with a discharge current of 10 h.
As the load demand can reach 19500 W and discharge current 177A, one has to consider
some correction factors given by the batteries’ catalogues, that require the use of larger
batteries.
For the accurate computation of the battery’s capacity, the suppliers have specific software
programs based on the discharge regime.
That’s way one has to give the specific discharge diagram as represented in the figure
below.
Rev.0 November 2004
Pag. 41 di 41
190
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
h
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50
Example for a discharge diagram of the battery
Short circuit current of the battery
It is necessary to know the short circuit current of the batteries to select suitable automatic
circuit breakers. Even if the power cables between the battery and the various distribution
panels lower the short-circuit current values, an accurate computation being necessary.
The short-circuit current delivered by the battery depends on the voltage and the own
internal resistance and is defined by the supplier.
The internal resistance depends on the elements’ capacity, the charging level and the
battery’s age. Anyway one can consider the following characteristic values for the new
battery: approximately 2,5÷3,3 mΩ / 100 Ah for the Pb-Ca battery and 0.3÷0.4 mΩ / 100 Ah
for the Ni-Cd battery.
To make it more simple it is possible to evacuate the short circuit current with the following
approximate formulas:
Icc = 6÷8 • C10 for the Pb-Ca batteries
Icc = 30÷40 • C5 for the Ni-Cd batteries
Example:
The Pb-Ca battery 110 V – C10 = 600 Ah at the beginning has a short circuit current of
Icc = 8 • C10 = 8 • 600 = 4800 A

Electric Generation Systems Design Criteria: Company Specification

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Eni S.p.A.

Exploration & Production Division

ELECTRIC GENERATION SYSTEMS

Rev. 0 November 2004

0 NEMA TAGLIAFERRI FASOLI 11/2004

ENGINEERING COMPANY STANDARD

Documento riservato di proprietà di Eni S.p.A. - Divisione Exploration & Production.

3. MAIN GENERATION SYSTEMS...................................................................................... 5

4. OTHER MAIN GENERATION SYSTEMS...................................................................... 12

5. SELECTION CRITERIA AND COMPARATIVE TABLE................................................ 21

6. EMERGENCY GENERATION : SPARE AND SECURITY............................................ 23

7. GENERATION SYSTEMS MANAGEMENT .................................................................. 26

8. SIZING CRITERIA .......................................................................................................... 29

11. DIMENSIONING AND CHECK SIMPLIFIED FORMULAS............................................ 36

– Emergency generation systems (spare or safety): refer to the generation systems

2.1.1 Terminology for the users

Essentials (privileged or safety users)

3. MAIN GENERATION SYSTEMS

– Gas turbine generator

3.1 GAS TURBINE GENERATORS

The prime mover of this systems is the gas turbine.

Fig. 1 – Schematic gas turbine generator

Fig. 2 – Two-shaft gas turbine generator

Gas turbines can also be classified as follows:

Gas Turbine Power Output Vs Inlet Air Temperature Typical Curve

Performances and Characteristics of a Gas Turbine Vs Inlet Air Temperature

3.2 STEAM TURBINES

simple (De Laval)

speed jump (Curtis)

speed and pressure jump

MIXED TYPE (action and reaction)

– Extracting and condensation turbines

– Counter pressure turbines

3.3 GAS ENGINE GENERATORS

4. OTHER MAIN GENERATION SYSTEMS

4.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS

The photovoltaic generation system has the following main parts:

For various installations, especially off-shore platforms without permanent operational

TYPICAL SCHEME FOR THE PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

4.2 WIND TURBINE GENERATORS

PHOTOVOLTAIC GEN EOLIC

TYPICAL SCHEME FOR THE INTEGRATED WIND AND PHOTOVOLTAIC GENERATION

4.3 CLOSED CYCLE STEAM TURBINES

The functioning cycle is represented below:

GAS AC MAINTENANCE LOADS

RECTIFIER AND LOAD ~ DC

4.4 GAS MICROTURBINES

TYPICAL DIAGRAM FOR A GAS MICROTURBINE SYSTEM

MICROTURBINE’S DETAILS MICROTURBINE’S FRONT VIEW

4.5 THERMOCOUPLES (TEG) SEEBECK EFFECT

The main components of the systems with thermoelectric generators are:

The main characteristics of this generation type are:

– The continuity of generation (24hours/day), no moving parts, demanding 0.1 m3/day

GAS AC MAINTENANCE LOADS

TYPICAL DIAGRAM FOR THE THERMOCOUPLES GENERATION SYSTEM (TEG)

5. SELECTION CRITERIA AND COMPARATIVE TABLE

TYPE CHARACTERISTICS LIMITS APPLICATIONS ESTIMATED COST

6. EMERGENCY GENERATION : SPARE AND SECURITY

6.1 DIESEL GENERATION GROUPS

The emergency groups supply generally a privileged distribution system, usually a

C = tank capacity (liter)

7. GENERATION SYSTEMS MANAGEMENT

7.1 PARALLEL OPERATIONS