Animal Test Review

L1-4: Digestive System

Macromolecules
carbs:
- main source of energy
- monosaccharides: monomer of carbs, glucose & fructose
- disaccharides: two simple sugars, lactose & sucrose
- polysaccharides: many joined sugars, starch & cellulose (plant), glycogen
(animal)
proteins:
- most complex nutrient
- amino acids: monomer of proteins
- 20 different amino acids needed in body, 12 made by body, 8 need to be obtained
from food
fats:
- long-term energy
- fatty acid & glycerol: monomer of fats
- help in absorption of vitamins & insulate
nucleic acids:
- phosphate group, ribose group & nitrogenous base
- DNA stuff… ATCG
Vitamins & Minerals
vitamin:
- molecule required as an essential nutrient in body
- fat soluble: dissolve in fats, hard to eliminate, stored in fats
- water soluble: dissolve in water, easy to eliminate, cannot be stored
mineral:
- naturally occurring elements in body
- calcium & phosphorus: bone formation
- sodium: nerve impulse & muscle contraction
- iron: blood hemoglobin
- oxygen: transported by blood hemoglobin
Eating disorders
anorexia:
- psychological disorder that leads to extreme dieting & exercising
- perceive as overweight even when they are the opposite
bulimia:
- psychological disorder that leads to binge-purge habit
- excessive eating followed by vomiting or excretion to prevent weight gain
 obesity:
- excessive amounts of body fat
General points/functions
mouth:
- physical digestion: chewing
- chemical digestion: salivary amylase breaks down carbs into disaccharides
- epiglottis: flap that covers the trachea
- bolus: food mixed with saliva
esophagus:
- tube that carries food from pharynx to stomach
- peristalsis: activated by food entering esophagus, muscles that push food towards
stomach
- gastroesophageal sphincter: sphincter from esophagus to stomach, open to allow
food in, closed to prevent stomach fluids from coming back up
stomach:
- physical digestion: stomach muscles churn food, stimulate the release of gastrin, a
hormone that tells your stomach to release its juices
- chemical digestion: mucus is formed to protect the stomach wall, hydrochloric
acid is released to activate pepsin, pepsinogen is released which is converted to
pepsin which breaks down protein
- chyme: the mix of stomach acid and bolus
- absorption in the stomach: water, medicine & alcohol
- acid reflux: stomach acid coming back up, causes burning sensation, caused by
overeating or smoking (incomplete closure of the gastroesophageal sphincter)
- ulcer: stomach acid burning through the stomach wall
- pyloric sphincter: sphincter between stomach and small intestine, periodically
opens to release chyme into small intestine
small intestine:
- duodenum: beginning of digestion, little to no absorption
- jejunum: digestion continues, absorption begins
- ileum: little to no digestion, absorption continues
pancreas:
- prosecretin: active form secretin, active in the pancreas, stimulates pancreas to
release bicarbonate to neutralize chyme
- cholecystokinin: secreted from duodenum lining, tells pancreas to secrete juices
- pancreatic amylase: breaks down carbs
- lipase: breaks down fats, not fully
- trypsinogen: active form trypsin, activated by a hormone called enterokinase,
breaks down protein
liver:
 - bile: emulsifies fats, breaking into smaller pieces, allows lipase greater surface
area to break down
- stored in the gallbladder, lipids in small intestine activate it to secrete the bile
large intestine:
- cecum: receives material from the small intestine
- colon: longest part, four sections, absorption of water, vitamins B & K, minerals
Na & Cl
- e. coli: symbiotic relationship with colon, it can live and survive in colon, helps
produce vital vitamins
rectum & anus:
- internal sphincter: smooth muscle, involuntary
- external sphincter: skeletal muscle, voluntary
Absorption in the small intestines
structures:
- villi & microvilli: finger-like projections that increase surface area for absorption
- capillaries: blood vessels in villi, all nutrients except fat go through capillaries,
fats go through lacteals, into lymphatic system and then into bloodstream
passive transport:
- diffusion: move down the concentration gradient, particles constantly moving
- osmosis: movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane
- facilitated diffusion: diffusion with the use of transport proteins
active transport:
- energy used, low to high concentration

L5: Respiratory System

Need for oxygen
air is a mixture of gases:
- 78% N, 21% O, 1% Ar, 0.04% CO2
without oxygen, you can’t survive
aerobic cellular respiration:
- where cells use oxygen to obtain energy from food
- glucose reacts with oxygen to produce energy, CO2 is a waste product
- 64% of energy is released as thermal energy, 36% is stored as ATP (each molecule
of glucose becomes 36 ATP molecules)
gas exchange:
- process where oxygen is diffused into cells and CO2 is diffused out of cells
- O2 diffuses from air, into bloodstream, transported to the body, into body cells
- CO2 diffuses from body cells, into bloodstream, transported to the lungs, into air
simple & complex organisms:
- simple diffusion: O2 directly from environment, into cell membrane, into cells
 - complex diffusion: special organ systems to supply O2 and remove CO2
Respiratory system
4 structural features:
- thin, permeable membrane for diffusion
- large surface area for gas exchange
- good supply of blood
- breathing system to bring in oxygen
lungs:
- major organs
- ¾ of the requirements are fulfilled by the lungs
- in chest cavity, protected by ribs
nose & mouth:
- air enters through nose & mouth
- lined with tiny hairs and mucus to trap and filter dust
- air is warmed and moistened
pharynx:
- nose & mouth join at pharynx
- connects nose & mouth to larynx, then trachea, then lungs
- epiglottis: flap that covers trachea so you don’t choke and die of food going into
your windpipe
larynx:
- voice box, contains vocal cords made of elastic ligaments, larger = lower voice
- air is forced up from lungs, making vocal cords vibrate, creating sound
trachea:
- windpipe, tube leading from mouth to lungs & vice versa
- semi-rigid tube of soft tissue surrounded by c-shaped bands of cartilage to keep
windpipe open
cilia & goblet cells:
- cilia: tiny hair-like structures on cells, sweep foreign particles up and out
- goblet cells: produce mucus to trap dust & bacteria
bronchi/bronchioles:
- trachea branches out into two bronchi, each connected to a lung, then branching
into smaller bronchioles
Alveoli
alveoli:
- bronchioles branch off into small clusters of air sacs called alveoli
- where gas exchange occurs
- 150 million alveoli per lung (!!!)
gas exchange:
- large surface area for gas exchange
 - membrane is very thin for O2 and CO2 to easily diffuse
- network of capillaries to ensure there is blood for O2 to diffuse in to and CO2 to
diffuse out of
- air in alveoli and its membranes are moist because oxygen has to be dissolved in a
liquid to be able to diffuse
- oxygen diffuses from air, into alveoli, into capillaries
- carbon dioxide diffuses from blood, into alveoli, into air
L6: Respiratory System
Ventilation
breathing:
- air moves from area of high pressure to area of low pressure
diaphragm:
- large dome-shaped muscle
- Separated chest cavity from abdominal cavity
intercostal muscles:
- Strenuous exercise/forced exhalation causes internal intercostal muscles to
relax/contract
- pull the rib cage down when contracting, increasing air pressure
inspiration:
- pressure inside lungs is less than atmospheric pressure
- diaphragm contracts, moving down
- intercostal muscles contract, pulling rib cage up & out
- chest volume increase, air pressure decreases, air moves into lungs
expiration:
- pressure inside lungs is more than atmospheric pressure
- diaphragm relaxes, moving up
- intercostal muscles relax, rib cage returns to rest
- chest volume decreases, air pressure increases, air moves out of lungs
pleural membranes:
- constant movement can cause friction, pleural membranes eliminate that
- thin layer of connective tissue that covers lungs and lines inner walls
pleural cavity:
- space between pleural membranes
- filled with fluid, allow membranes to slide past each other easily, prevents
membranes from slipping
- pneumothorax: air entering the pleural cavity, caused by stabbing or a broken rib,
membranes separate and the lung collapses, ribs can move but nothing it pulling
the lung up causing no change in air pressure, thus, no air circulating in and out
Lung capacity
total lung capacity (TLC):
 - max volume of air that can be taken in
tidal volume (TV):
- volume of air inhaled/exhaled under normal conditions
inspiratory reserve volume (IRV):
- additional volume of air that can be forced in after normal inhale
expiratory reserve volume (ERV):
- additional volume of air that can be forced out after normal exhale
residual volume (RV):
- volume of air that remains after full exhale (TV + ERV)
- during high demand, RV can decrease and TV can increase
vital capacity (VC):
- max. air that van be inhaled/exhaled
- 4.4 - 4.8L in male, 3.4 - 3.8L in female
L7: Respiratory System
Oxygen Usage
VO2 & VO2 max:
- measured in mL/kg/min, calculated with a spirometer
- tells us how efficient out body is at using oxygen (volume & rate)
- higher value = better
- VO2: rate oxygen is used in the body
- VO2 max: maximum rate oxygen can be used during intense physical activity
structures in fish:
- gills: folded & branched structures, allows max surface area for O2 absorption
and CO2 removal, water enters through the mouth, exits through the gills
O2 & CO2 transport
oxygen transport:
- attached to hemoglobin (98.5%): iron in RBCs bind to oxygen, give blood its red
colour, increases the blood’s capacity to carry oxygen
- dissolved in blood plasma (1.5%): liquid component of blood
carbon dioxide transport:
- dissolved in blood plasma (7%)
- attached to hemoglobin (20%)
- react with water to form carbonic acid (73%): bicarbonate & hydrogen ions
created, hydrogen ions lower the pH level
- hemoglobin transports the hydrogen ions
- bicarbonate ions remain dissolved in the blood plasma
effects of altitude on respiration:
- high altitude: low air pressure, less oxygen, increased breathing rate
- low altitude: high air pressure, less oxygen, breathing tanks with a specialised
mixture of gases
 erythropoietin:
- secreted by kidneys
- stimulates RBC production
- increased amount of RBC = more oxygen absorption
- live high, train low
Control of breathing
medulla:
- part of the brain that regulates breathing
- stimulates inspiratory muscles (diaphragm & intercostal muscles)
- brain monitors CO2 levels in the blood through the pH level, increased CO2
levels = more carbonic acid = lower pH, brain tells body to speed up breathing &
heart rate, and contract muscles quicker
exercise on breathing
- needs more energy, more oxygen needed & carbon dioxide produced
- brain detects increased CO2 and increases breathing rate and heart rate to remove
CO2 quicker and get more oxygen into our system
Interferences
disorders & infections:
- Asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, influenza, tuberculosis,
pneumonia, cystic fibrosis
vaping & smoking:
- don’t do it. makes your lungs black yuck

L8: Circulatory System

Need for system
functions:
- circulate necessary materials: O2 & nutrients
- remove waste: CO2
- regulate body temperature
- carry materials: hormones & antibodies
- clotting at wounds
components:
- fluid (blood): transports/circulates materials
- blood vessels: for fluid to move around
- pump (heart): pushes fluid through blood vessels
open circulatory system:
- circulating fluid is pumped into a system of body cavities
- hemolymph: mixture of blood and tissue fluid
- transports nutrients and other chemicals to cells, transports waste out of cells, not
all used for oxygen transport
 closed circulatory system:
- blood is contained within vessels, separate from tissue fluid
- blood circulates in only one direction
- efficiency determined by its rate of transporting substances
Human circulatory system
pulmonary circuit:
- circulates blood to lungs for gas exchange with environment
- right side of the heart (deoxygenated blood), lungs (picks up O2), left side of the
heart (oxygenated blood)
systemic circuit:
- circulates blood around body, deliver O2, nutrients & remove CO2
- left side of the heart (oxygenated blood), body (picks up CO2), right side of the
heart (deoxygenated blood)
Blood components
plasma:
- fluid that transports dissolved gases, nutrients, waste products and hormones
- 90% water
- albumins: maintain osmotic balance
- globulins: carry antibodies
- fibrinogens: initiate blood clotting
erythrocytes:
- contains hemoglobin which allows cell to bind to oxygen
- biconcave disk (increase surface area) to carry more hemoglobin and oxygen,
carry CO2 back from body cells to lungs
- formed from bone marrow
- has a nucleus when developing, when mature, released into the blood and nucleus
dissolves
leukocytes:
- granular: small particles in cytoplasm, neutrophils, eosinophils & basophils
- agranular: clear, lymphocytes, monocytes (macrophages)
- formed from bone marrow
- several types, has a nucleus, less plentiful than RBC
- protects body from invading microorganisms & toxins, producing antibodies &
chemicals for attacking
- phagocytosis: engulf bacteria, enzymes destroy
- macrophages: clean up bacteria, dead cells, other debris
- pus: whitish substance, remains of leukocyte and what it engulfed
platelets:
- formed from small cell fragments in bone marrow
- initiates blood clotting
 - stick to collagen fibres in blood vessel wall when broken
- many stick together to seal the hole
- once clot is formed, process continues below the surface
- permanent clot stops blood leakage, allows healing, then absorbed by blood
- risk of clot dislodging into vessel, blocking the flow of blood elsewhere, can
cause a stroke
Blood cell counts
anemia:
- low red blood cell of hemoglobin levels
- leads to low oxygen
- caused by iron deficiency, internal injuries or bleeding
infection:
- higher than normal white blood cell count
- body is fighting something
Blood
blood types:
- A, B, AB (universal recipient), O (universal donor)
- determined by presence (or lack thereof) of sugars (markers) on RBC
- type A = marker A, type B = marker B, type AB = marker AB, type O = none
- markers act as antigens (foreign body)
- if detected, an immune response will attach antibodies to antigens
rhesus factor:
- affects compatibility
- from blood of rhesus monkeys
- antigen on RBC that produces antibody reaction
- present in 85% of population: Rh+
- not present: Rh-
- Rh- can donate to Rh+, but not vice versa
L9: Circulatory System
Arteries
aorta:
- carries blood from heart to body
- biggest artery from the heart (left ventricle) that branches into smaller arteries
throughout the body
arteries:
- three layers of tissue
- elastin fibres: allow arteries to expand and contract to pump blood
- when the heart contracts, arteries expand, when the heart relaxes, arteries return to
normal size, this is your pulse
 arterioles:
- arteries branch off into smaller vessels called arterioles
- control blood flow into capillaries
- nerve impulses cause the muscles in the arterioles to relax or contract
vasodilation:
- increase in diameter in arterioles, increasing blood flow to tissues
- muscles relax
- cooling strategy, blood near surface loses thermal energy to the environment
vasoconstriction:
- decrease in diameter in arterioles, decreasing blood flow to tissues
- muscles contract
- warming strategy, restricting blood flow to the skin preventing thermal energy
loss to the environment
Veins
capillaries:
- arterioles become very VERY small blood vessels
- RBCs travel single file
- no RBC is more than two cells away from a capillary, allows for diffusion
between blood and body cells
- precapillary sphincters: sphincters where capillaries connect to arterioles to
control blood flow through capillaries
venules:
- capillaries merge to become venules
veins:
- lesser blood pressure than arteries, greater internal diameter
- venules merge to become veins
- valves that open in one direction to prevent blood from travelling backwards,
along with muscles, push blood towards the heart
vena cava:
- carries blood towards the heart
- veins merge to become vena cava(s)
- biggest vein to the heart (right atrium)
valves:
- varicose veins are a result of damaged valves in the legs
- veins lose elasticity over time, sitting or standing for long periods of time causing
blood to pool, skeletal muscles fail to move, circulation to brain decreases, higher
chance of clots
Blood pressure
systolic blood pressure:
- first sound heard when cuff is deflated
 - blood pressure when arteries contract
- normal = 120mm Hg
diastolic blood pressure:
- when sound goes away as cuff is deflated
- blood pressure when arteries relax
- normal = 80mm Hg
hypotension:
- low blood pressure
- reduces body’s ability to transport blood (less force to push blood through)
hypertension:
- high blood pressure
- high-sodium diets cause more water to enter bloodstream, more blood volume
- heart has to work harder, weaken arteries (too much force = rupture)
Lymphatic system
circulatory system:
- ensure blood volume is maintained
- proteins leak into tissue fluid from blood through osmosis
- lymph: excess tissue fluid/blood
- maintain a balance of fluids, keeps body tissues from swelling
- contains fluid, foreign bodies, dead/damaged cells, fat molecules, all are delivered
back into the bloodstream or removes from body
immune system:
- filters bacteria and other components from blood
- lymph nodes: enlarged lymph vessel, filter & remove foreign bodies, WBC
destroy viruses/harmful cells
- spleen: largest organ, filter and stores RBC & WBC
- tonsils: red/swollen = better for trapping/stopping bacteria
- thymus: secretes hormones to mature lymphocytes & WBC to attack foreign
bodies
L10: Circulatory System
Structure of heart
atrium:
- thinner, upper chambers of heart, receive blood from veins, pump blood to
ventricles
ventricle:
- thicker, lower chambers of heart, receive blood from atriums, pump blood to other
locations (body or lungs)
pericardium & septum:
- septum: two sides of the heart separated by septum
 - pericardium: two layers of membrane filled with fluid, surrounds heart to prevent
friction between heart & other organs/structures
coronary blood vessels:
- blood vessels that cover the surface of the heart
- coronary arteries: branch from aorta, have freshly oxygenated blood
- coronary veins: empty into right atrium, sent to lungs to be oxygenated
pulmonary circuit (expanded):
- right side of the heart (deoxygenated blood), lungs (picks up O2), left side of the
heart (oxygenated blood)
- right ventricle, pulmonary artery, lungs, pulmonary vein, left atrium
systemic circuit (expanded):
- left side of the heart (oxygenated blood), body (picks up CO2), right side of the
heart (deoxygenated blood)
- left ventricle, aorta, body, vena cava, right atrium
valves:
- prevent blood from travelling backwards when heart contracts
- semilunar valves: between ventricle & arteries
- atrioventricular valves: between atria & ventricles, under high pressure, supported
by chordae tendineae (attached to muscles inside heart that prevent valve from
opening backwards)
Cardiac cycle
diastole:
- period of relaxation
- heart (atria/ventricles) is (are) filling with blood
systole:
- period of contraction
- blood is pushed out of heart (ventricles empty)
lubb-dubb:
- lubb: when AV valves close, ventricles contracting
- dubb: when SL valves close, ventricles relaxing
- abnormal sounds caused when improper closure of valves
Regulation of heart rhythm
sino-atrial node:
- acts as pacemaker, sets rhythm and stimulates the contraction of atria
atrioventricular node:
- passes nerve impulses so the ventricles contract simultaneously
sympathetic nervous system:
- fight or flight response, prepares for stress, increase heart rate
parasympathetic nervous system:
- rest & digest (???), relaxation, relaxed heart rate
Heart beat ECG
electrocardiograph:
- device that detects electrical activity of heart, through electrodes placed on the
body’s surface
- shows strength and duration of signals, one repetition = one heartbeat
p-wave:
- contraction of atria
qrs complex:
- contraction of ventricles
t-wave:
- recovery of ventricles
L11: Circulatory System
Coronary artery disease
arteriosclerosis:
- loss of elasticity and hardening of artery walls
plaque:
- fatty deposits building up within arteries
- fat, cholesterol, calcium and other materials present in blood accumulate
atherosclerosis:
- hardening of artery due to plaque buildup
- can occur in any part of the body
coronary artery disease (CAD):
- atherosclerosis in the coronary arteries
- risks include high BP, high cholesterol, diabetes, obesity, smoking, physical
activity (lack thereof), sex, genetics & age
angina:
- common symptom of CAD
- pain in chest, left shoulder, arm or neck
- Caused by reduced blood supply to cardiac muscles, triggered by physical activity
that increases demand for oxygen
myocardial infarction:
- death of an area of heart muscle tissue due to lack of oxygen, heart attack
- in atherosclerosis, if the plaque ruptures, blood will clot at the area causing lack of
oxygen
- can be fatal if a lot is targeted, or heart rhythm is affected, cardiac arrest
angioplasty:
- balloon angioplasty: inflate a small balloon into the clogged artery pushing the
buildup against the walls of the artery, a mesh tube is then inserted into the artery
to hold the artery open
 bypass surgery:
- rerouting the flow of blood away from the clogged artery
- grafts from the leg are used
- done when heart is not beating, only used on severe cases
Imaging technologies
cardiac catheterization:
- thread a long tube (catheter) into heart through a blood vessel (femoral or brachial
artery)
- special dye is injected into bloodstream, opaque in x-rays
angiogram:
- combined with cardiac catheterization, shows the blood circulation in coronary
arteries
- decreased (or lack thereof) blood shows extreme blockage
computerised tomography (CT) scan:
- takes many x-ray cross sections of the body to create a many 2D images
- machine rotates around patient that is laying on a table
positron emission tomography (PET) scan:
- uses gamma rays to take cross sections of body
- tracer is injected into body or ingested which allow the rays to be detected by the
camera in the scanner
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan:
- uses radio waves and large magnet to produce images
- large magnet surrounds patient and changes the orientation of H+ atoms in
tissues, creates change in energy, which computer detects and turns into image
- basically some fancy chemistry stuff