Archiving Caribbean Identity: Records,

Community, and Memory John A.

Aarons & Jeannette A. Bastian &
Stanley H. Griffin
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Archiving Caribbean Identity

Archiving Caribbean Identity highlights the “Caribbeanization” of archives in

the region, considering what those archives could include in the future and
exploring the potential for new records in new formats.
Interpreting records in the broadest sense, the 15 chapters in this volume
explore a wide variety of records that represent new archival interpretations. The
book is split into two parts, with the frst part focusing on record forms that are
not generally considered “archival” in traditional Western practice. The second
part explores more “traditional” archival collections and demonstrates how these
collections are analysed and presented from the perspective of Caribbean peoples.
As a whole, the volume suggests how colonial records can be repurposed to surface
Caribbean narratives. Refecting on the unique challenges faced by developing
countries as they approach their archives, the volume considers how to identify
and archive records in the forms and formats that refect the postcolonial and
decolonized Caribbean, how to build an archive of the people that documents
contemporary society and refects Caribbean memory, and how to repurpose the
colonial archives so that they assist the Caribbean in reclaiming its history.
Archiving Caribbean Identity demonstrates how non-textual cultural traces
function as archival records and how folk-centred perspectives disrupt
conventional understandings of records. The book should thus be of interest
to academics and students engaged in the study of archives, memory, culture,
history, sociology, and the colonial and postcolonial experience.

John A. Aarons, now retired, was Executive Director of the National Library
of Jamaica (1992–2002), Government Archivist of Jamaica (2002–2008), and
University Archivist of the University of the West Indies (2009–2014).

Jeannette A. Bastian is Emerita Professor at Simmons University. She is

currently an Honorary Fellow in the Department of Library and Information
at the University of the West Indies.

Stanley H. Grifn is Deputy Dean, Undergraduate Matters (Humanities), and

Lecturer in Archival and Information Studies in the Faculty of Humanities and
Education, Department of Library and Information Studies, at the University
of the West Indies, Mona Jamaica.
Routledge Studies in Archives
Series Editor: James Lowry

The following list includes only the most-recent titles to publish within the
series. A list of the full catalogue of titles is available at: www.routledge.com/
Routledge-Studies-in-Archives/book-series/RSARCH

Archives, Recordkeeping and Social Justice

Edited by David A. Wallace, Wendy M. Duff, Renée Saucier,
and Andrew Flinn

Producing the Archival Body

Jamie A. Lee

Ghosts of Archive
Deconstructive Intersectionality and Praxis
Verne Harris

Urgent Archives
Enacting Liberatory Memory Work
Michelle Caswell

Archiving Caribbean Identity

Records, Community, and Memory
Edited by John A. Aarons, Jeannette A. Bastian, and Stanley H. Griffin

Exhibiting the Archive

Space, Encounter, and Experience
Peter Lester
Archiving Caribbean Identity

Records, Community, and Memory

Edited by John A. Aarons,

Jeannette A. Bastian, and
Stanley H. Griffin
First published 2022
by Routledge
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© 2022 selection and editorial matter, John A. Aarons, Jeannette
A. Bastian, and Stanley H. Griffin; individual chapters, the
contributors
The right of John A. Aarons, Jeannette A. Bastian, and Stanley H.
Griffin to be identified as the authors of the editorial material,
and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted
in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs
and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted
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explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
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ISBN: 978-0-367-61509-3 (hbk)
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ISBN: 978-1-003-10529-9 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003105299
Typeset in Bembo
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Contents

List of Figures vii

Routledge Studies in Archives viii
List of Contributors ix
Acknowledgements xv

Introduction 1
JOHN A. AARONS, JEANNETTE A. BASTIAN, AND STANLEY H. GRIFFIN

PART I
Tangible and Intangible Formats 15

1 Soca and Collective Memory: Savannah Grass as an

Archive of Carnival 17
KAI BARRATT

2 Jamaica Twitter as a Repository for Documenting

Memory and Social Resistance: Listening to the
“Articulate Minority” 30
NORMAN MALCOLM

3 Singing Our Caribbean Identity: Programming the

UWI, Mona Festival of the Nine Lessons With Carols 38
SHAWN R.A. WRIGHT

4 Archives “Cast in Stone”: Memorials as Memory 49

ELSIE E. AARONS

5 Landscape as Record: Archiving the Antigua

Recreation Ground 64
STEPHEN BUTTERS
vi Contents

6 Concert Dance in Barbados as Archive: Dancing the

National Narratives 79
JOHN HUNTE

7 Remembering an Art Exhibit: The Face of Jamaica, 1963–1964 97

MONIQUE BARNETT-DAVIDSON

8 Traditional and New Record Sources in

Geointerpretive Methods for Reconstructing
Biophysical History: Whither Withywood 108
THERA EDWARDS AND EDWARD ROBINSON

PART II
Collections Through a Caribbean Lens 129

9 Resistance in/and the Pre-Emancipation Archives 131

TONIA SUTHERLAND, LINDA STURTZ, AND PAULETTE KERR

10 Postcolonial Philately as Memory and History:

Stamping a New Identity for Trinidad and Tobago 150
DESARAY PIVOTT-NOLAN

11 Recasting Jamaican Sculptor Ronald Moody

(1900–1984): An Archival Homecoming 170
EGO AHAIWE SOWINSKI

12 St. Lucian Memory and Identity Through the Eyes

of John Robert Lee 183
ANTONIA CHARLEMAGNE-MARSHALL

13 Crop Over and Carnival in the Archives of Barbados

and Trinidad and Tobago 199
ALLISON O. RAMSAY

14 Ecclesiastical Records as Sources of Social History:

The Anglican Church of Trinidad and Tobago 213
JANELLE DUKE

15 Erasure and Retention in Jamaica’s Ofcial Memory:

The Case of the Disappearing Telegrams 227
JAMES ROBERTSON

Index 240
Figures

8.1 Location of Carlisle Bay. Old Parish of Vere shown as

grey-shaded area 109
8.2 Hard brick structure associated with remains of wharf/port
at Carlisle Bay. Left: as captured by terrestrial laser scan.
Right: as captured with a digital camera 111
8.3 Aerial photos acquired roughly a decade apart between
1941 and 1971 showing changes to Carlisle Bay coastline 113
8.4 Main sources of evidence used in reconstruction 114
8.5 Stratigraphy of maps, aerial photographs, and satellite imagery 115
8.6 1961 aerial photograph with boundary of Carlisle Estate
and course of the Rio Minho from plan done by Greene
in 1818 superimposed as a white line 116
8.7 1953 aerial photo showing submerged and emergent
structures of the port and fort 118
8.8 Left: Fort Augusta in 1961. Right: Fort and Port at Carlisle
Bay 1953 118
8.9 Section of a plan of Carlisle Estate prepared in 1879 showing
“Old Fort and Pusey Hall Estate Wharf ” 119
8.10 Google Earth images of Carlisle Bay 2003, 2013, and 2018 120
8.11 Historical shoreline recession at Carlisle Bay obtained from
measurements of distance of Old House relative to shoreline
on plans, aerial photographs, and satellite imagery 121
8.12 Changes in the meander of the Rio Minho – 2019 Sentinel
imagery, 1941 aerial photo, and 1879 plan 122
10.1 1990 – Birds of Trinidad and Tobago 156
10.2 1986 – Congratulations 60th birthday to your Majesty 158
10.3 1977 – Inauguration of a Republic 159
10.4 1975 – Dr Pawan 160
10.5 1985 – Decade for women 161
10.6 1976 – Carnival 162
10.7 The Parang 163
10.8 1994 – Steelpan Series II 163
10.9 1994 – Lord Kitchener 164
10.10 1973 – Anniversaries 165
Routledge Studies in Archives

Routledge Studies in Archives publishes new research in archival studies.

Recognizing the imperative for archival work in support of memory, identity
construction, social justice, accountability, legal rights, and historical under-
standing, the series extends the disciplinary boundaries of archival studies. The
works in this series illustrate how archival studies intersects with the concerns
and methods of, and is increasingly intellectually in conversation with, other
felds.
Bringing together scholarship from diverse academic and cultural traditions
and presenting the work of emerging and established scholars side by side, the
series promotes the exploration of the intellectual history of archival science,
the internationalization of archival discourse, and the building of new archival
theory. It sees the archival in personal, economic, and political activity; histori-
cally and digitally situated cultures; subcultures and movements; technical and
socio-technical systems; technological and infrastructural developments; and in
many other places.
Archival studies brings a historical perspective and unique expertise in
records creation, management and sustainability to questions, problems and
data challenges that lie at the heart of our knowledge about and ability to tackle
some of the most difcult dilemmas facing the world today, such as climate
change, mass migration, and disinformation. Routledge Studies in Archives is a
platform for this work.
Series Editor: James Lowry
Contributors

Elsie E. Aarons, a librarian, worked as Manager of Technical Information

Services of the Petroleum Corporation of Jamaica (1980–2000). She also
served as an adjunct lecturer in the Department of Library and Information
Studies at the University of the West Indies (UWI), Mona, Jamaica between
2001 and 2008, teaching the course Special Libraries and Information Man-
agement. Very involved in church activities, she worked for 15 years with the
Anglican Church, serving as the administrator at St. Andrew Parish Church
(2000–2005) and secretary/personal assistant to the Bishop of Kingston
(2005–2015). In retirement, she pursues her many interests, including gene-
alogy, for which she has developed an extensive family history. She holds
a BSc in geology and geography (1972), a postgraduate diploma in library
studies (1976), and an MA in theology (1997), all from the UWI, Mona.
John A. Aarons, an archivist and librarian, worked at the Jamaica Archives
as assistant archivist from 1972 to 1976 and as government archivist from
2002 to 2008. Between 1977 and 2002 he worked at the National Library
of Jamaica serving as the executive director from 1992 to 2002. He was
appointed university archivist at the University of the West Indies (UWI) in
2009 and served until his retirement in 2014, although he continued until
2018 as an adjunct lecturer in the Department of Library and Information
Studies at UWI, Mona, where he was involved in the development and
teaching of the archives and records management programme. In retirement,
he continues to research and write and serves as the Honorary Archivist of
the Anglican Church in Jamaica. He holds a BA (Hons.) in history, post-
graduate diplomas in both archives and librarianship, and an MA in heritage
studies.
Kai Barratt is a lecturer in the School of Humanities and Social Sciences at
the University of Technology, Jamaica. Her research focuses on the perfor-
mances of female soca artistes on and of the stage. Another aspect of her
research includes exploring social media platforms as a space for carnival
representations. She also looks at the extension of the Trinidad-style carnival
to other sites in the Caribbean. Some of her writings have been published in
x Contributors

peer-reviewed journals, and others are under review. She is currently work-
ing on projects related to the Trinidad Carnival as a transnational product
and the self-presentation strategies of soca artistes on social media.
Monique Barnett-Davidson, an interdisciplinary visual art professional, has
worked in various aspects of the visual arts in Jamaica, including art educa-
tion, exhibition programming and development, museum education, and
research. Currently the Senior Curator at the National Gallery of Jamaica,
as well as a part-time lecturer at the UWI, she presents on various topics on
Jamaican art movements and has contributed to publications, including the
books A-Z of Caribbean Art (2019) and De mi barrio a tu barrio: Street Art in
Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean (2012).
Jeannette A. Bastian is Professor Emerita at the School of Library and Infor-
mation Science, Simmons University, Boston, Massachusetts, where she
directed their Archives Management concentration from 1999 to 2019.
A former territorial librarian of the United States Virgin Islands, Jeannette
holds an MPhil from the UWI and a PhD from the University of Pitts-
burgh. She is currently an Honorary Fellow in the Department of Informa-
tion at the UWI. Her books include West Indian Literature: A Critical Index,
1930–1975 (Allis, 1982); Owning Memory: How a Caribbean Community Lost
Its Archives and Found Its History (2003); Community Archives: The Shaping
of Memory, ed. (2009); Archives in Libraries: What Librarians and Archivists
Need to Know to Work Together (2015); Decolonizing the Caribbean Record: An
Archives Reader, ed. with John A. Aarons and Stanley H. Grifn (2018); and
Community Archives: Community Spaces, ed. with Andrew Flinn (2020).
Stephen Butters is a recent graduate of the Archives and Records Man-
agement Master’s programme at the UWI, Mona. He was among the frst
cohort to have graduated from Mona in that discipline. He was born in
Guyana but now calls the island surrounded by 356 beaches – Antigua and
Barbuda – home. A lover of history, he pursued his bachelor of arts in
history at the University of Guyana. He worked for over 20 years at the
Antigua and Barbuda National Archives beginning as a binder and rising to
the post of archivist in 2017. He is now the investigations ofcer (ag) at the
Ofce of the Ombudsman where his primary role is assisting the Ombuds-
man in research.
Antonia Charlemagne-Marshall is a records management professional and
certifed archivist. She holds an MA in archives and records management
(distinction) and MSc in international management. She has also worked
with the records of the UWI, UNICEF, and the National University of
Samoa. In addition to the John Robert Lee Papers, she has also worked
on the Rubin S Davis Papers (digital preservation), Floyd Coleman Papers
(initial processing), and auditing of Latin American papers/collections at the
Smithsonian Institution’s Archives of American Art. She was awarded the
 Contributors xi

Society of American Archivist Harold T. Pinkett Minority Student Award

in 2019. Currently, she is embarking on the preservation of the Diocese of
Bridgetown (Roman Catholic) ecclesiastical records.
Janelle Duke has been a research ofcer at the National Archives of Trinidad
and Tobago since 2012. She earned her bachelor of arts in history and psy-
chology with international relations in 2009 from the UWI, St. Augustine.
She pursued a master of arts in history (2012), a certifcate in records man-
agement (2014), and later a master of arts in archives and records manage-
ment (2019) from the UWI, Mona, Jamaica. Janelle is currently pursuing an
MPhil/PhD in information Studies at the Mona Campus. She is involved in
numerous organizations including the Lions Club of Port of Spain North.
Her research areas include the Anglican Church in the Caribbean, Family
Genealogies, and the History and Records of the Sugar Industry in Trinidad
and Tobago.
Thera Edwards is Map Curator and Lecturer in the Department of Geog-
raphy and Geology at the UWI, Mona Campus in Jamaica. Her interdis-
ciplinary research includes landscape change and history, geomorphology,
climate change responses, vegetation ecology, and archaeology. Historical
maps, aerial photographs, satellite imagery, and geographical information
systems (GIS) are key components of her research and analyses. In the past
20 years, her work has focused on environmental management and sustain-
able development with particular emphasis on biodiversity, forestry, water-
sheds, agriculture, and protected areas management. Thera has written and
co-authored technical reports and papers for several development agencies
as well as for presentation at conferences and symposia. In 2016, she co-
edited the volume Global Change and the Caribbean: Adaptation and Resilience
along with David Barker, Duncan McGregor, and Kevon Rhiney.
Stanley H. Grifn is Deputy Dean, Undergraduate Matters (Humanities),
and Lecturer in Archival and Information Studies in the Faculty of Humani-
ties and Education, Department of Library and Information Studies, at the
UWI, Mona Jamaica Campus. Stanley holds a BA (Hons.) in history, a PhD
in cultural studies (with High Commendation), from the Cave Hill Barbados
Campus of the UWI, and an MSc in Archives and Records Management
(Int’l), University of Dundee, Scotland. Stanley’s research interests include
multiculturalism in Antigua and the Eastern Caribbean, the cultural dynam-
ics of intra-Caribbean migrations, archives in the constructs of Caribbean
culture, and community archives in the Caribbean. His most recent publica-
tions include Decolonizing the Caribbean Record: An Archives Reader (2018), a
co-edited work with Jeannette A. Bastian and John A. Aarons; several book
chapters; and journal articles on Caribbean archival and cultural issues.
John Hunte is a practitioner, producer, cultural studies activist, and teacher in
creative and cultural studies. He is armed with a diploma in dance theatre
xii Contributors

and production from the Edna Manley College of the Visual and Perform-
ing Arts in Jamaica, a BS in Dance from the State University of New York
– College at Brockport, an MFA in performing arts management from
Brooklyn College, New York City, in 2003, and a PhD degree in cultural
studies from the Faculty of Humanities and Education at the Cave Hill,
Barbados Campus of the UWI in 2014. His PhD thesis, Beyond the Silence:
Men, Dance and Masculinity in the Caribbean, interrogates where dance and
masculinity intersect for men who dance onstage. Among several things,
Hunte is executive director with Barbados Dance Project, a pre-professional
programme for budding dancers, and artistic director/principal with the
Barbados Dance Theatre Company Inc.
Paulette Kerr is campus librarian at the UWI, Mona, a position she has held
since 2015. Prior to this she was Head of the Department of Library and
Information Studies, UWI, Mona. She holds a PhD in library and informa-
tion science from the School of Communication and Information at Rut-
gers University and an MA in history from the UWI. Her research areas
coalesce around aspects of Jamaican social history, Library and Informa-
tion Studies (LIS), and in particular information literacy, LIS education,
and teaching learning in academic libraries. Her publications in these areas
include book chapters, edited works, peer-reviewed journal articles, and
conference proceedings.
Norman Malcolm is a senior secondary school teacher of history with degrees
in history education and heritage studies and is currently an MPhil/PhD
candidate in the Department of Library and Information Studies (DLIS)
at the UWI, Mona. He has taught history at a secondary school in King-
ston, Jamaica. Additionally, Malcolm serves as Adjunct Assistant Lecturer
in Information Studies in the DLIS, lecturing in research methodologies.
His research interests lie at the intersection of information studies, cultural
heritage, and history education. His MPhil/PhD research aims to investi-
gate Caribbean social media usage and its role in documenting memory,
perpetuating social resistance, and enabling individual and collective agency.
Desaray Pivott-Nolan hails from the twin island Republic of Trinidad and
Tobago. Desaray, a graduate of the UWI, Mona, and holder of a bachelor’s
degree in LIS, as well as a master’s degree in archives and records manage-
ment. With a library professional career of over 15 years, she is a proud
information specialist with a passion for continued learning.
Allison O. Ramsay is Lecturer in Cultural/Heritage Studies in the Depart-
ment of History at the UWI, St. Augustine. She holds a BA in history with
frst class honours from the UWI, Cave Hill, an MA in history from the
University of the South Pacifc, and a PhD in cultural studies from the UWI,
Cave Hill. Her research interests include fraternal organizations, museums,
festivals, landships in Barbados, Caribbean heritage, and Caribbean history.
 Contributors xiii

Her recent publications include “Jamettes, Mas, and Bacchanal: A Cul-

ture of Resistance in Trinidad and Tobago,” The Routledge Companion to
Black Women’s Cultural Histories: Across the Diaspora, from Ancient Times to
the Present; “Mapping a Musical Journey of Soca in the Crop Over Festival
of Barbados,” Regional Discourses on Society and History Shaping the Carib-
bean; “First-Day Covers: A Visual Archive of Caribbean History and Herit-
age,” Journal of Caribbean History 53.1.
James Robertson, a Londoner, is Professor of History in the Department
of History and Archaeology at the UWI, Mona, where he has taught since
1995, and since 2003 has sat on the National Archives Advisory Commit-
tee as the Jamaica Historical Society’s representative. He is a past-president
of both the Archaeological Society of Jamaica and the Jamaica Historical
Society. His “Gone Is the Ancient Glory!”: Spanish Town 1534–2000, was
published by Ian Randle in 2005. History Without Historians: Listening for Sto-
ries of Jamaica’s Past is in press from Arawak Press, Kingston. He is currently
working on a book on Oliver Cromwell’s Western Design and the resulting
mid-seventeenth-century English conquest and settlement of Jamaica.
Edward (Ted) Robinson is Professor Emeritus in Geology in the Depart-
ment of Geography and Geology at the UWI, Mona, where he worked from
the inception of the then geology department in 1961 until his retirement
in 2012. He is an author on more than 160 professional publications and
still maintains continued involvement in research with academic colleagues.
His interests include the geology of the Caribbean region, interpretation
of aerial photos and satellite imagery, hazards of the Jamaican coastline, and
fossil Foraminifera of the Caribbean and Florida.
Tonia Sutherland is Assistant Professor in the Library and Information Sci-
ence Program at the University of Hawaiʻi (UH) at Mānoa, where she
leads the Archives Pathway. Sutherland, a memory worker, is particularly
interested in critical and liberatory work in the feld of archival studies. At
UH, she teaches and conducts research in cultural heritage preservation and
management (intangible, material, and digital), community engagement,
and the unique archival challenges that face island communities worldwide.
Sutherland is also the author of Digital Remains: Race and the Digital Afterlife
(University of California Press, anticipated Fall 2023).
Ego Ahaiwe Sowinski is an archivist and mixed media artist/designer, cur-
rently pursuing a collaborative PhD at Chelsea College of Arts (UAL/
Tate Britain). Her doctoral research places much-needed critical attention
on Jamaican-born sculptor Ronald Moody and his niece Cynthia Moody.
She holds an MA in archives and record management, international (UCL).
She is a member of the Afrofeminist Transatlantic Collaboration, which
maps and archives the cultural resistance of Black feminist artists in the
United Kingdom and the Twins Cities. Most recently she co-edited Mirror
xiv Contributors

Refecting Darkly: The Rita Keegan Archive (Goldsmiths Press, 2021). She is
particularly interested in developing frameworks for interrogating what it
means to advocate and/or archive diasporic archives in the twenty-frst cen-
tury collaboratively, sharing skills and building capacity within the heritage
and memory work sector.
Linda Sturtz is Professor of History at Macalester College in Minnesota. Her
publications include a book, Within Her Power: Propertied Women in Colonial
Virginia, and articles on community-based performances in the Caribbean.
Her most recent articles are “Beyond the Nation Dance: Collective Mem-
ory as Archive in Olaudah Equiano’s Kingston, Jamaica” in American Cul-
tures as Transnational Performance: Traces, Bodies, Commons, Skills in Katrin
Horn, et al. (Routledge, 2021) and “Putting People in Songs: Music, His-
tory Making and the Archives,” Jamaica Journal 38 (April/May 2021). She
is currently working on the African-Jamaican “Sett Girls” performances,
historical soundscapes, and the relationship between public memory and the
archive. She divides her time between Saint Paul, Minnesota, and Kingston,
Jamaica.
Shawn R.A. Wright is the composer/arranger and musical director of the
University Chorale of the West Indies, Mona Campus; a graduate of the
UWI, Mona; and a Caribbean history educator at the secondary level. His
6 years of working with the late Noel Dexter and the secretariat of UWI,
Mona, have infuenced his research interest into Caribbean/Jamaica choral
music history and concert history which, today, stands as an underdeveloped
area of Caribbean cultural historiography. His aim is to bring attention to
this area of study through research and publication of not just academic
work but choral compositions that identify with a Caribbean choral sound
and practice.
Acknowledgements

A collection of chapters by its very nature requires cooperation and collabora-

tion. This book would not have been possible without the endorsement of the
Department of Library and Information Studies (DLIS) at the University of
the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica, who, in 2019, agreed to convene the confer-
ence, “Unlocking Caribbean Memory, Uncovering New Records: Discover-
ing New Archives,” that inspired this collection. We are particularly grateful
to the Head of the Department at that time, Dr Paulette Stewart, for her
encouragement and guidance as well as to key members of the DLIS faculty,
Dr Rosemarie Heath and Dr Ruth Baker-Gardner, and the entire DLIS staf
whose assistance at the conference was invaluable.
We also greatly appreciate the willingness of our 18 authors, not only for
converting their conference presentations into chapters but for working with
us through a process made all the more difcult by a worldwide pandemic.
And as always, we thank our families, in particular Elsie E. Aarons and Calvin
F. Bastian, for their constant and invaluable support.
Introduction
John A. Aarons, Jeannette A. Bastian, and
Stanley H. Griffin

As the nations and territories of the Caribbean reclaim their cultures and iden-
tities after centuries of colonial domination, archives and records are generally
not in the mix. This may be because of the strong connections between archi-
val records and the colonial enterprise. But it also may be because coloniz-
ers brought their textual record-keeping practices with them, imposing them
upon peoples who had already developed their own archiving traditions albeit
more orally based than textual. As the colonizers devalued the bodies of the
indigenous inhabitants, the enslaved and the indentured, they also depreciated
their cultural expressions and record-keeping traditions. European colonizers
imposed their own record-keeping practices upon populations that had for-
merly fourished with diferent traditions. Caribbean archivist Stanley H. Grif-
fn tracing the Jamaican National Archives from its early colonial beginnings
to the present day concludes that “the memory contained within the Jamaica
Archives is still framed by colonial thought, racist ideologies, and Eurocentric
memory practices” (Grifn & Timcke, 2021, p. 3).
This volume of 15 chapters, originally presentations at a 2019 conference at
the University of the West Indies (UWI), continues the editors’ eforts, initi-
ated in Decolonizing the Caribbean Record: An Archives Reader, to move Carib-
bean archives away from these colonial beginnings and towards a defnition that
refects the dynamic cultural life and lived experience of the region. Although
these chapters focus primarily on the English-speaking Caribbean, postcolonial
and decolonial concerns about archival representations touch the entire region.
For archives and records in the Caribbean are no longer just those textual
records of the colonial masters but rather the oral, performative, intangible, and
tangible products of Caribbean peoples.

Origins
In October 2019, the Department of Library and Information Studies at the
University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica, held its frst Symposium on
Archives and Records. Titled “Unlocking Caribbean Memory, Uncovering

DOI: 10.4324/9781003105299-1
2 Introduction

New Records: Discovering New Archives,” the focus was twofold. The frst
was to celebrate the graduation of the frst cohort of students from the new
Master of Arts in Archives and Records Management Programme, which
began ofcially in the department in 2015. The second was to highlight and
reimagine the “Caribbeanization” of archives in the region and explore the
potentials for new records in new formats.
The symposium organizers recognized that refecting both the heritage and
the dynamic cultures of the Caribbean was essential if archives were to have
relevance within the region. They encouraged participants to “unlock” their
perceptions of what constitutes a record, rethink, and redefne enduring values
and actively seek those materials that represented the widest possible social
and cultural diversity. This included not only ever-evolving tangible formats
(audiovisual, digital) but intangible ones as well – oral, perfomative, musical,
artefactual.
The legacies of colonialism and colonial record-creating and -keeping have
presented archival challenges for formerly colonized countries and territories,
nowhere more so than in the Caribbean region. The identifcation of record-
keeping with political control and domination is one legacy that might help
explain the paucity of ofcial archival records of the post-independence era in
many national archival institutions in the region. However, even if these ofcial
records survive, they are often only replicas of the types of records of the colo-
nial era and not fully representative of the lives and memories of the newly lib-
erated Caribbean peoples. Implicit in this is the realization that for developing
countries, such as those in the Caribbean, reliance cannot be entirely placed
on the record forms produced and archived in the countries of the colonizers.
The challenges are multifold: how to identify and archive records in the forms
and formats that refect the postcolonial and decolonized Caribbean; how to
build an archive of the people, one that documents contemporary Caribbean
society and refects Caribbean memory; and how to repurpose the colonial
archives so that they assist in an interpretation of the past from the viewpoint
of the colonized.

Defining the Caribbean Archive

Since colonial records are primarily the documentary legacy of colonial con-
quest, hegemony, and wealth extraction, what constitutes the archival records
of the pre-colonial and postcolonial Caribbean? The answer lies in the infor-
mation and communication practices of the peoples whom Europeans found in
the Caribbean and those who were brought to the region at the bidding of these
colonizers. Writing was not the primary form for creating and documenting
memory used by non-Europeans. In their examination of the destructive forces
of colonialism in postcolonial societies, literary theorists Bill Ashcroft, Gareth
Grifths, and Helen Tifn suggest,
 Introduction 3

In many post-colonial societies, it was not the English language which had
the greatest efect, but writing itself. In this respect, although oral culture
is by no means the universal model of post-colonial societies, the invasion
of the ordered, cyclic, and “paradigmatic” oral world by the unpredictable
and “syntagmatic” world of the written world stands as a useful model for
the beginnings of post-colonial discourse.
(Ashcroft et al., 2002, p. 81)

Accordingly, the Caribbean archival record can be found in non-written forms,

in expressions thought of only as cultural – that is, exhibits of ways of life – yet
imbued with informational content, historical evidence and context, and soci-
ocultural structures that are fxed in meanings and expectations of form. For
example, a calypso has distinct instrumentation, sounds, and rhythms which are
expected to be considered part of the genre, even though the lyrics difer and
convey situational meanings.
The successive waves of peoples who came to the Caribbean have shaped the
ways in which Caribbean people document, preserve, and share their endur-
ing memory in the very same ways that their identities have been crafted and
expressed. After all, their memories shape their identities. Cultural theorist Sha-
lini Puri ofers a perspective that seeks to account for the contributory presence
of all identities in the Caribbean. She contends that Caribbean cultural identi-
ties are hybrids of the cultural experiences/expressions of all persons within
the region, writing that “[t]he Caribbean has some of the earliest and richest
elaborations of cultural hybridity. . . . The Caribbean has had to negotiate its
identities in relation to Native America; to Africa and Asia, from where most
of its surviving inhabitants came; to Europe, from where its colonizing settlers
came; and to the United States of America, its imperial neighbor” (Puri, 2004,
p. 2). These Caribbean cultural identities are not mere imitations of former
ancestral customs or pure replications of traditional habits. Instead, Puri main-
tains, the identities that emerged in the Caribbean “elaborate a syncretic New
World identity, distinct from that of its ‘Mother Cultures’; in so doing, they
provide a basis for national and regional legitimacy” (Puri, p. 45). Undoubtedly
these infuences can be seen in the documentary and memory practices found
in the Caribbean, yet syncretic forms and practices have emerged that are dis-
tinct from other inherited memory expressions. Hence, Caribbean records can
be described as diverse, dynamic, and delicate.
The Caribbean’s diversity of records is rooted in its contextual history with
its pre-Columbian genesis. The indigenous civilizations that lived throughout
the western hemisphere created records. Caribbean historians acknowledge that
the various indigenous communities left evidences and traces of their existence
throughout the islands and territories they inhabited. Historian Karl Watson
observes, “The Amerindians occupied [the region] for some forty generations
prior to the arrival of Christopher Columbus. During this period of time, their
4 Introduction

societies produced a vibrant material culture as the archaeological evidence

attests” (Watson, n.d., p. 2). These materials, on rock and cave etchings, have
given us glimpses into the complex civilizations that Columbus encountered
and decimated. Their material cultures and legacies are multilayered and mul-
tidimensional and continue to infuence contemporary Caribbean life. Watson
afrms that, even though the formal indigenous societies Columbus met are
now long gone,

their presence lives on among us, either through some genetic inheritance,
as can be seen among the population of the Dominican Republic, or in
the features of individuals from Guadeloupe or St Lucia, in our language
and cuisine, or from the large quantity of artifacts strewn across our islands.
Field walking or even garden forking can produce Amerindian artefacts on
every Caribbean island.
(Watson, p. 2)

The challenge then is not a lack of evidence of material culture but a failure to
recognize the information and enduring values these materials convey.
The various mindsets, languages, expressions, memory forms, and prac-
tices that came across the Atlantic were also part of the “cultural equipage”
that travelled with the peoples who were enslaved, indentured, or otherwise
encumbered on the plantations of the region (Nettleford, 2003, p. 2). This
diversity continues to adapt and conform to the socio-political and techno-
logical advances made and expected of twenty-frst-century living. Thus, from
territorial home languages and dress styles to digital art works, these mem-
ory materials bear Caribbean aesthetics which are imbued with informational
detail, situational context, and cultural structure that are individually unique
yet are interrelated to the entire region in ways that a record item fnds rela-
tional meaning with its creator-fonds.
Caribbean records are dynamic. Cultural theorist Antonio Benítez-Rojo’s
description of Caribbean identities as products of the eruptions of the dynam-
ics of the plantation – the crucible cradle of Caribbean society – could easily
defne Caribbean records. The Caribbean, he writes,

is the product of the plantation . . . whose slow explosion throughout

modern history threw out billions and billions of cultural fragments in all
directions – fragments of diverse kinds that, in their endless voyage, come
together in an instant to form a dance step, a linguistic trope, the line of a
poem, and afterward repel each other to re/form and pull apart once more,
and so on.
(Benitez-Rojo, 1990, p. 55)

Our buildings, cuisine, dances, fashion, landscapes, rhythms, songs, stories, and
even tweets are as creative and vivacious as their antecedent forms. Culturalist
 Introduction 5

Rex Nettleford, in his refection on Jamaican dance, afrms that our contem-
porary cultural expressions are evolving articulations of previous generations
of expressions yet bearing strong infuences of its past. Dance, he writes, “has
given to the cultural heritage of Jamaica such enduring life sources as kumina,
pukkumina (popularly known as pocomania), etu, tambu, gerreh, dinkimini,
Zion revivalism, and Rastafarianism,” which can be seen and experienced in
the movements of religious worship and the popular cultural phenomenon,
dancehall (Nettleford, 1993, p. 99).
This dynamism marvels the visiting tourist and is a source of pride to the
citizen, both at home and abroad. Yet, somehow, the enduring informational
values of these expressions have generally escaped the policy defnitions of
regional archives simply because they do not subscribe to the rigid strictures of
format and static fxity. These expressions are living, changing in informational
content, yet bearing particular strands of structure that binds them to their
creative communities.
Focusing on the written word as the only possible mode for creating the
archival record has reduced the potential of society and memory institutions to
value and preserve the narratives and representations of its constituents. Debo-
rah Bird Rose, in her chapters on Aboriginal Australian epistemology, similarly
explains the conundrum Caribbean societies confront in coming to terms with
archival memory and colonial documentary heritage. Rose writes, “There is
no place without a history, there is no place that has not been imaginatively
grasped through song, dance, and design, no place where traditional owners
cannot see the imprint of sacred creation” (Rose, 1996, p. 18). Caribbean
landscapes were disturbed for the purposes of creating and governing planta-
tion societies. Yet those who laboured on the land formed informational and
cultural connections to the environment in ways Rose describes.
Both colonials and subjugates shaped the landscapes and built environments
by their histories, narratives, and meanings. Spaces of colonial grandeur are
countered and re/presented as places of resistance and triumph to colonial
oppression by song, dance, and design. A recreational ground in a small island
community such as St. John’s, Antigua, for example, shares similar meanings
with the large mass of greenspace in the heart of Port of Spain, Trinidad, in the
ways in which these landscapes are memorialized and performed. Accordingly,
these felds, like paper records, which were designed to spatially divide and
rule, are re/presented in song, dance, and design and imbued with meanings
and memories of performances.
Since Caribbean records are embedded in the performative culture, Carib-
bean memory workers and cultural practitioners must devise new strategies and
protocols to ensure that imaginative narratives are celebrated as archival repre-
sentations of their history and identities. For, as Jeannette A. Bastian explains,

[a]s an aggregate . . . each element, each record, or record grouping . . .

contributes to a coherent cultural whole – an archive that is both historical
6 Introduction

and at the same time dynamic, one that contains, enacts, and continually
reinvents its own cultural existence.
(Bastian, 2018, p. 506)

Finally, Caribbean records are delicate. While these performative materials

are central to the living creativity and memory of their communities, they
are precarious because they were not conceived to be fxed long-standing
articulations of information and culture in the conventional ways records and
archives are defned. Although, in their own way they can be seen as those
persistent representations that defne traditional Western records. Caribbean
records are living, breathing, performative materials and are dependent on
continued performance for survival. These performances are crucial to the
continued evolution of cultural identity. For, as cultural theorist Stuart Hall
maintains,

[i]dentities are about questions of using the resources of history, language, and
culture in the process of becoming rather than being: not “who we are” or
“where we came from”, so much as what we might become, how we have
been represented and how that bears on how we might represent ourselves.
(Hall, 1996, p. 4)

Thus, the fragility of Caribbean records is fourfold: these expressions are liv-
ing materials and are dependent on communal performance. These assets can-
not be preserved in conventional ways. Finally, regional institutions lack the
confdence and infrastructure to adequately preserve non-paper-based mate-
rials. How can Caribbean records meet conventional preservation standards
when the assets cannot be placed in boxes and shelves in sterile temperature-
controlled strong rooms?
If the starting point for archiving Caribbean identity and memory is vali-
dating its content and enduring values, the next step is to ensure that delib-
erate eforts are taken to create enabling environments for their long-term
practice and protection. Preservation ought to be reframed as a communal
activity rather than an institutional responsibility. Supporting community
practices as preservation initiatives certainly unites both institution and com-
munity in purpose and value. This unity in commitment is complementary
as the institution – invariably the sole government archives with its specifc
mandate to focus on the records and archives produced by the state – can sup-
port the activism of community documentation initiatives. Both need each
other to efectively capture, arrange and describe, preserve and make available
the mutually related records of enduring value. Networking with community
interests and cultural practitioner groups becomes a critical component of
archival services since the institution is dependent on the community eforts
in order to efectively form an archival ecosystem that represents all sectors and
includes all formats.
 Introduction 7

There are community groups doing the work of “community archives” in

the Caribbean that ofer examples of models of engagement between institution
and community even if they may not claim to be archives or even meet archival
disciplinary expectations. The “Dancehall Archives and Research Initiative”
in Jamaica and the “Caribbean Yard Campus,” which is a regional memory
project out of Trinidad, are fne examples of such movements. The former is
founded by a university academic “committed to the preservation and spread of
knowledge about dancehall culture.”1 The latter is “an educational enterprise
that is designed to network traditional knowledge systems in the Caribbean.”2
The Dancehall Archive ofers materials and activities that are not represented
in the government archival holdings and is totally independent of the Jamaica
Archives and Records Department. The Yard Campus is an informal gather-
ing of enthusiasts and professionals. The National Archives of Trinidad and
Tobago is listed as a collaborator and participates as a reference point for archi-
val professional practice and principles. Both community projects have the
potential to ofer diferent materials and contexts to their particular national
institutions.
However, there is also a third possibility, the example of the Saint Lucia
National Archives Authority, which ofers a diferent approach. Archivist
Margot Thomas has so imbedded outreach within the services of the national
archives that the record-diversity found within that institution is not typical of
regional archives. Thomas writes,

The approach to archiving at the National Archives Authority of Saint

Lucia is unique. The National Archives is a community-oriented institu-
tion which seeks to enable every Saint Lucian to make use of its holdings,
to see himself or herself as part of the on-going history of the country and
to de-mystify the word archive.
(Thomas, 2018, p. 361)

The Saint Lucian archive illustrates the possibilities for infusing living records
within its given traditional infrastructure to preserve the documentary heritage
of its peoples. Recognizing and including the various knowledge systems and
expressions of the Caribbean citizenry require both institution and community
to work in tandem. Failing this, the colonial principle of divide and rule will
persist in record forms.
Therefore, archiving Caribbean identity and memory goes beyond acknowl-
edgement of “new” sources of knowledge and decolonizing conventional
thought and practices. To archive Caribbean memory a reframing of archival
infrastructures and mandates is required. Rather than the archive being the
standalone “house of memory,” the Caribbean archive should be part of this
living cultural ecosystem that receives and releases life-giving knowledge ener-
gies to the identities and memory of all its constituents. Rose, in describing
Aboriginal communities’ perspectives on the relationship to their landscapes,
8 Introduction

which she called country and life, essentially captures the purpose of this text.
She writes,

Life is meaningful, and much human activity – art, music, dance, philoso-
phy, religion, ritual and daily activity – is about celebrating and promoting
life. Country is the key, the matrix, the essential heart of life. It follows that
much Aboriginal art, music, dance, philosophy, religion, ritual and daily
activity has country as its focus or basis. Not only is life valued, but the
systemic quality of life is valued too. Within this holistic system of knowl-
edge, each living thing is a participant in living systems. Celebration of life
is a celebration of the interconnections of life in a particular place which
also includes the humans who celebrate.
(Rose, 1996, p. 11)

The Caribbean archive is in the life of its people and needs to be appreciated
as such.

Constructing a Caribbean Archival Aesthetic

The 15 chapters in this book, drawn from almost 30 presentations at the
symposium, address the questions and challenges of documenting Caribbean
memory through a wide variety of formats – textual, material, tangible, and
intangible – as well as a wide variety of perspectives on what might be con-
sidered as an archive. Since the authors come from a spectrum of academic
disciplines and cultural practices in the English-speaking Caribbean, percep-
tions of what an archive could be are highly dependent on the authors’ own
intellectual spheres and areas of knowledge. Thus, for example, a cultural her-
itage theorist sees meaning and social documentation through popular music,
while a choir director fnds a nation and its history through evolving liturgy.
A geographer claims the landscape as a constantly documenting change agent,
while an archivist explores the landscape as a multilayered record and a dance
director traces conficting postcolonial attitudes through the development of
national dance companies.
Importantly, four of the chapters are by recent graduates of the newly estab-
lished University of the West Indies archival studies programme in its Depart-
ment of Library and Information Studies. As these authors discuss the archival
value of postage stamps, the landscape of the Antiguan Recreational Ground,
the value of ecclesiastical records, and the ways in which the collection of a
private individual refects the memory of a nation, it seems clear that innovative
thinking by a new generation of Caribbean archivists is paving the way for new
archival perspectives.
Dividing the 15 chapters into two parts, “Tangible and Intangible For-
mats” and “Collections Through a Caribbean Lens,” enabled an exploration of
archival records that excludes no formats and parallels the textual/traditional
 Introduction 9

along with the non-textual and non-traditional, thereby presenting Caribbean

records as “diverse, dynamic and delicate” while addressing the complex cul-
tural, evidential, and informational values of a wide spectrum of expressions
and materials.
In the twenty-frst century, defnitions of records, fuelled, at least partially by
digital afordances, social justice imperatives, and community exigencies, are
moving beyond the traditional “textual” and “fxed,” focusing on contextual
and inherent values rather than external formats. British archivist Geofrey Yeo
defnes a record as a “persistent representation,” explaining that

[i]t is a persistent representation because it has the capacity to remain

available after the ending of the activity or event that it represents. . . . .
Records may not last forever, but they outlive the immediate circumstances
in which they were created.
(Yeo, 2020, p. x)

Australian records manager Chris Colwell writes, “Site-specifc cultural-

discursive, material-economic and socio-political arrangements . . . actively
shape records. . . . Records are products of social practices” (Colwell, 2020,
p. ix). These contemporary defnitions, combined with the defnition of
Caribbean records presented earlier in this Introduction, ofer ample space for
the intangible and tangible formats considered in these chapters, giving long-
needed consideration to the many and varied ways that communities express
themselves, their histories, and their identities.
As these “new” characterizations of records open the archives to alternate
forms and expressions, they also suggest new approaches for existing colo-
nial and postcolonial collections, approaches that place these collections within
contexts that both open up the voices of the marginalized and support the
trajectories of the newly independent nation states. Thus, a collection of post-
age stamps also tells a popular history of a nation, a sculptor’s papers reveal
a national artist, and colonial records bring to light both the presences and
absences of Black women in Caribbean historiography.
In interpreting records and documentation broadly, the chapters therefore
cover a wide range of cultural issues from church liturgy to memorials, to folk
literature, to social media, and to even cricket. The perspectives demonstrate
the multiple and diverse eforts by Caribbean peoples to redefne and “Car-
ibbeanize” their society in all its aspects. It is notable that while the chapters
provide a wide range of perspectives, the chapters are also united by common-
alities. The shadowy presence of colonial history links the chapters through
the common desire of the authors to both renounce colonialism and replace it
with a new way – as true of records and archives as for other aspects of Carib-
bean life. And this search for a new way forward is coupled both with pride in
regional progress and a deep sense of identity with these island nations and the
wider Caribbean of which they are an integral part.
10 Introduction

The Chapters

Part I Tangible and Intangible Formats

The Caribbean is renowned for its music, whether traditional folk songs – born
out of the experiences of slavery and oppression – reggae, soca, or calypso. Two
chapters in this part deal with the archival qualities of various genres of music
within a Caribbean context. In “Soca and Collective Memory: Savannah Grass
as an Archive of Carnival,” Kai Barratt, considers a popular 2019 Carnival song
as a case study for examining soca (a musical genre invented in Trinidad defned
as “calypso with soul”) as a repository for the collective memories of place,
people, and emotions, which characterize carnival in Trinidad and Tobago.
Barrett analyses “Savannah Grass” as an archive of the carnival experience, a
perspective that is reinforced not only by social media but also by the musicians
themselves in a YouTube video that includes historical images of past Carnival
celebrations in the Port of Spain Savannah.
Performance as an embodied archive is also demonstrated in “Singing Our
Caribbean Identity: Programming the UWI, Mona Festival of the Nine Les-
sons With Carols,” by Shawn R.A. Wright who, through a variety of “records”
that include programme notes and music scores in addition to choir perfor-
mances, demonstrates how this annual Christmas Service has been “Caribbe-
anized” over the years as selections have moved from traditional British carols
to those of a more Caribbean nature and favour. Through this evolution, a
new Christmas music tradition developed as part of the creation of a regional
identity. Similarly, dance, also an embodied performance, can also be a celebra-
tion and a tool of liberation. As an archive it is a repository of history as well as
an expression of cultural memory. In “Concert Dance in Barbados as Archive:
Dancing the National Narratives,” John Hunte traces the continued contesta-
tion between Afro-centric and Euro-centric ideologies and methodologies in a
space that privileges the latter in post-independence Barbados and as expressed
through dance.
In this frst quarter of the twenty-frst century, Twitter has emerged as a
preferred form of social media. The archival qualities of Twitter are examined
by Norman Malcolm in “Jamaican Twitter as a Repository for Documenting
Memory and Social Resistance: Listening to the ‘Articulate Minority’,” who not
only discusses its particular relevance to Jamaican society but sees Jamaican Twit-
ter as a means of documenting those events, activities, personalities, and views
often neither represented in traditional media nor archived in traditional records.
Using examples to discuss this popular format and its counter-memory, Mal-
colm assesses Twitter as a new type of repository for Jamaica’s national memory.
At the opposite end of the documenting scale, stone is one of the old-
est methods of recording information but, in a world governed by text, not
traditionally considered archival. In “Archives ‘Cast in Stone’: Memorials as
Memory,” Elsie E. Aarons explores stone memorials as a recording format.
 Introduction 11

As she writes, “information of value can often be found ‘etched in stone’ on

murals, gravestones, statues, monuments, plaques, etc.,” noting that both the
documenting and memory value of memorials have been heightened by cur-
rent controversies.
As suggested earlier in this Introduction, cultural memory can be preserved
not only in events and activities but in broader forms such as in landscapes. In
“Landscape as Record: Archiving the Antigua Recreation Ground,” Stephen
Butters considers the ways in which this landscape, renowned as a cricket
ground and venue for cultural events, also functions as a repository for multi-
level records, from colonialism to independence, and thus has become a signif-
cant memory archive for the nation. Landscape as an archive is examined from a
diferent perspective by Thera Edwards and Edward Robinson. In “Traditional
and New Record Sources in Geointerpretive Methods for Reconstructing
Biophysical History: Whither Withywood,” they investigate the reconstruction
of a historical site in an area known as Wither Wood or Withywood in the par-
ish of Clarendon on the south coast of Jamaica. Utilizing a range of geographi-
cal and recording tools – aerial and underwater photography, satellite imagery,
terrestrial laser scanning, sonar, and global positioning system (GPS) – they
demonstrate that the ever-changing landscape also yields a historical record.
In the fnal chapter in this part, Monique Barnett-Davidson, in “Remem-
bering an Art Exhibit: The Face of Jamaica, 1963–1964,” explores a retrospective
exhibition presented via an online platform in 2012 of a Jamaican art exhibi-
tion called the Face of Jamaica, which toured cities in West Germany and Eng-
land between 1963 and 1964. Never before shown in Jamaica, this recovered
and reconstructed exhibit, and its supporting documentation, has itself become
an archive and a cultural record.

Part II. Collections Through a Caribbean Lens

The chapters in this part interrogate existing collections from a Caribbean
viewpoint, drawing on collections both in the region and elsewhere. The lead
chapter, “Resistance in/and the Pre-Emancipation Archives,” by Tonia Suther-
land, Linda Sturtz, and Paulette Kerr examines resistance by enslaved Black
women as documented in pre-emancipation era archives. Exploring the lives
of three women, Nanny of the Maroons, Mary Reid from Jamaica, and La
Mulâtresse Solitude, from Guadalupe through the scant evidence in legal histo-
ries, private and administrative correspondence, and oral testimony in order to
uncover their resistance (counter) narratives exemplifes the frustration and the
challenge of recovering the marginalized through colonial records.
Private personal collections have long been regarded as having important
and often unique archival values. The two chapters in this section dealing with
collections of individuals have particular signifcance in formulating a bet-
ter understanding of the career of a prominent artist and the cultural life of
the island nation of St. Lucia. Ego Ahaiwe Sowinski, in “Recasting Jamaican
12 Introduction

Sculptor Ronald Moody (1900–1984): An Archival Homecoming,” contex-

tualizes sculptor and philosopher Ronald Clive Moody as an international
networked fgure and artistic practitioner chiefy through the examination of
his artworks, exhibition history, and personal papers. Particularly intriguing are
the ways in which an interrogation of his archival papers in the Tate Gallery
helped in documenting his works and coming to a fuller understanding of his
career and his relationship to his native Jamaica. Similarly, the archival collec-
tions of Caribbean writers and artists also provide windows into the Caribbean
experience. A good example of this is Antonia Charlemagne-Marshall’s chap-
ter, “St. Lucian Memory and Identity Through the Eyes of John Robert Lee.”
These “eyes” are not only his own creative works but materials he accumulated
in his various capacities as librarian, information ofcer, cultural ofcer, and
member of the Nobel Laureate Week Organizing Committee. This collection
has an added value in that it has remained in St. Lucia, and just as a people
can be “of ” a place, archives can also be of a place. In this case, the place is the
author’s homeland, St. Lucia, which gives the collection an added signifcance
as it can be accessed by researchers in the “context of its creation.”
Although often overlooked as documentation, postage stamps created for
ofcial purposes contain a wealth of historical, social, and cultural information.
In “Postcolonial Philately as Memory and History: Stamping a New Iden-
tity for Trinidad and Tobago,” Desaray Pivot-Nolan traces the creation and
transformation of postcolonial Trinidad and Tobago and the formation of its
national identity through an examination of the great variety of postage stamps
issued over this period. When systematically examined, these stamps, currently
in the National Archives of Trinidad and Tobago, present a story of a nation’s
history and development captured in a unique format. Also utilizing archival
collections in Trinidad, Allison O. Ramsay, in “Crop Over and Carnival in the
Archives of Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago,” examines materials in newspa-
per repositories and on social media relating to these festivals. Crop Over and
Carnival are two of the best-known festivals in the region, cultural expressions
that originated during the period of African enslavement and tell stories of
race, class, colour, and gendered identities.
In addition to traditional records, Ramsay explores the documentation and
archiving opportunities of social media and websites, demonstrating that inter-
action with archival material in the digital world as well as the textual can also
unlock public memory.
Church records are often unrecognized and underutilized sources of archival
information in the Caribbean for, within a denomination, these materials tend
to be dispersed among various churches without an organized archival sys-
tem or structure. In “Ecclesiastical Records as Sources of Social History: The
Anglican Church of Trinidad and Tobago,” Janelle Duke discusses their social
and religious values as sources of history, collective memory, and the national
identity of Trinidad and Tobago. In the fnal chapter, “Erasure and Retention
in Jamaica’s Ofcial Memory: The Case of the Disappearing Telegrams,” James
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Iron boats:
Wilkinson builds the first, 14;
Symington, 14, 82;
Brunel, 32;
Onions & Sons, 14;
Jervons, 14;
at Horsley Works, 14;
“Great Eastern” and “Great Western,” 32;
Fairbairn, 73-74.
Jefferson, Thomas:
on interchangeable system in France, 129-131;
on Whitney, 135.
Jenks, Alfred:
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Jenks, Alvin:
cotton machinery, 124-125.
Jenks, Barton H.: 247.
Jenks, Eleazer:
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Jenks, Joseph: 115-116, 125.
Jenks, Joseph, Jr.:
founder of Pawtucket, 118.
Jenks, Joseph, 3d:
governor of Rhode Island Colony, 118.
Jenks, Capt. Stephen:
guns, 117;
nuts and screws, 124;
Jenks & Sons, 125.
Jennings gun:
origin of, 292-294.
Jerome, Chauncey:
brass clocks, 144, 171-172, 233.
Jervons:
iron boat, 14.
Jewelry industry in Providence: 126-127.
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Johnson, Iver: 226.
Johnson, Judge:
decision, Whitney vs. Fort, 155-157.
Jones & Lamson Machine Co.: 191, 193, 194, 197;
flat-turret lathe, 198-199;
Fay automatic lathe, 200.
Kaestner:
gearing, 64.
Kearney & Trecker: 276.
Kempsmith, Frank: 264-265, 271.
Kempsmith Manufacturing Co.: 271, 276.
Kendall, N., & Co.: 186, 189.
Key-seater: 61.
Lamson, Goodnow & Yale: 192, 193.
Lamson Machine Co.: 198.
Landis Tool Co.: 259-260.
Lane & Bodley: 267.
Lapointe, J. N.:
broaching machine, 183.
Lathes:
pole, 3, 41;
engine, 4;
in 18th century, 3, 4;
automatic, 5, 176;
French rose engine, 6;
screw-cutting, 19, 35, 40, 119-120;
tool-room, 182;
Lo-swing, 200;
Bramah and Maudslay, 17;
Ramsden, 38;
Bentham, 38;
Maudslay, 40-42, 46;
Wilkinson, 119-120;
Blanchard, 140, 142-143;
Spencer’s turret lathe, 176;
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Sellers, 250.
Lathe, Morse & Co.: 222.
Lawrence, Richard S.: 188-189, 195;
profiling machine, 143;
master armorer, Sharps Works, 170, 194;
lubricated bullet, 194;
miller, 191, 194;
split pulley, 194;
turret lathe, 197;
autobiography, 281-291.
Lawrence, Mass.: 127.
Lawrence Machine Shop: 219.
Lead screw: 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43.
Le Blanc:
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Le Blond, R. K.: 271.
Lee-Metford rifle: 105.
Leland, Henry M.: 214;
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Leonards: 116.
Libbey, C. L.:
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Limit gauges:
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Lincoln, Levi: 165, 171.
Lincoln Co., The: 165.
Lincoln, Charles L., & Co.: 165.
Lincoln, George S., & Co.: 137, 165.
Lincoln miller: 137, 165-166, 208.
Linear dividing engines: 206.
Lingren, W. F., & Co.: 274.
Locomotives:
early inventions, 56;
Sharp, Roberts & Co., 61-62;
Nasmyth, 93.
Lodge, William E.: 268-271.
Lodge & Davis:
policy of, 270-271.
Lodge & Shipley Machine Tool Co.: 270.
Lowell, Mass.: 127;
machine shops of, 218.
Lowell Machine Shop: 217, 218, 253.
Lucas Machine Tool Co.: 265.
McFarlan, Thomas: 268.
Macaulay, Lord:
on Eli Whitney, 161.
Machine tools:
effect of modern, 1;
crudity in 18th century, 3, 4;
developments of, 4, 5, 63, 107;
Fairbairn on, 10;
Bramah and Maudslay, 34;
Whitworth, 99;
Greek or Gothic style, 63;
developed by cotton industry, 120.
Machine Tool Works: 255.
Machinist Tool Co.: 222.
Madison, Wis.: 276.
Manchester, N. H.: 123, 127;
founding of, 217.
Manchester Locomotive Works: 217.
Manchester pitch: 70 note 66, 80.
Manville, E. J.: 237.
Map of tool building industry: Fig. 56.
Marshall, Elijah D.: 254.
Marvel, C. M., & Co.: 219.
Mason, William: 170, 173-174.
Massachusetts Arms Co.: 162.
Maudslay, Henry: 7, 8, Chapter IV;
estimates of, 9, 43, 44, 45, 48, 49, 88;
taps and dies, 10, 42, 88;
Portsmouth block machinery, 8, 29, 35;
 screw thread practice, 10, 40, 42, 88, 101;
cup-leather packing, 18, 34;
the slide-rest, 6, 35, 36, 38, 40, 43, 49, 143;
screw-cutting lathe, 35, 40, 41, 42, 50, 120;
engine improvements, 43;
work on plane surfaces, 44, 45, 99, 100.
Maudslay & Field: 8, 19, 35, 58, 98;
influence on English tool builders, 46;
Moon’s description of shop, 46-48.
Maynard Rifle Co.: 161.
Mechanics Machine Co.: 274.
Merrick, S. V.:
introduces steam hammer into United States, 96, 257.
Merrimac Valley:
textile works, 124, 127;
shops of, 216-219.
Michigan Twist Drill & Machine Co.: 266.
Midvale Steel Co.: 250.
Miles, Frederick B.:
steam hammer, 255.
Mill, Anton: 272.
Miller, Patrick: 82.
Miller, Phineas:
partner of Eli Whitney, 148-149, 153, 154.
Miller & Whitney: 149, 152.
Miller, universal:
origin of, 5, 138 note 163, 208-209.
Milling cutter, formed: 206-207, 208.
Milling machine:
Whitney, 142;
first in Hartford, 170, 194;
Lawrence, 191;
Lincoln, 137, 165-166, 208.
Millwork: Chapter VI;
Nasmyth on, 71.
Milwaukee, Wis.:
tool builders in, 276-277.
Milwaukee Machine Tool Co.: 277.
Moen, Philip L.: 225.
Montanus, Philip: 271.
Moody, Paul:
expert in cotton machinery, 218.
Moore & Colby: 252.
Morris, I. P., & Co.: 257, 258.
Mueller, Oscar: 271.
Murdock: 55;
D-slide valves, 51.
Murray, Matthew: 7, 54-57, 107;
planer, 50, 51, 55, 57;
D-slide valve, 55;
steam heating, 56;
locomotives, 56;
influence on flax industry, 56.
Nashua Manufacturing Co.: 124.
Nasmyth, Alexander: 81, 82, 83.
Nasmyth, James: 7, 8, Chapter VIII;
with Maudslay, 46, 48, 87, 88;
millwork, 71, 88;
steam road carriage, 86;
milling machine, 89;
shaper, 92;
method of invention, 92;
steam hammer and other inventions, 93-96;
study of the moon, 97;
on interchangeable system of manufacture, 140-141.
Nasmyth & Gaskell: 92.
National Acme Manufacturing Co.:
multi-spindle automatic lathe, 183, 265.
Naugatuck Valley: Chapter XVIII;
brass industry in, 231-238;
pin machinery, 233.
New Britain, Conn.:
hardware manufacture in, 171.
Newell, Stanford:
Franklin Machine Co.: 125.
New England industries:
early development of, 109-110;
cotton, 114;
iron, 116, 117, 118.
New England Screw Co.: 126.
Newton & Cox: 266.
Newton Machine Tool Works: 266.
New York:
early steamboat trade, 127.
Niles, James and Jonathan: 251.
Niles & Co.: 267, 273.
Niles-Bement-Pond Co.: 179, 222, 255, 259, 273.
Niles Tool Works: 267, 273.
Norris, Henry M.: 272.
North Chelmsford Machine & Supply Co.: 124.
North, Henry: 165.
North, Selah: filing jig, 142.
North, Simeon: 161-163;
gun contracts, 131, 133, 134, 135, 137, 162, 163;
interchangeable system, 133-134, 136, 142, 145, 162.
Norton, Charles H.:
precision grinding, 214, 224, 225.
Norton, F. B.: 224, 225.
Norton Company, The: 224, 225.
Norton Emery Wheel Co.: 224.
Norton Grinding Co.: 224, 225.
Norwalk Iron Works Co.: 184.
Oesterlien Machine Co.: 268.
Ohio Machine Tool Co.: 269.
Orr, Hugh:
early mechanic, 116-117.
Orr, Robert:
master armorer at Springfield, 117.
Otting & Lauder: 268.
Owen, William: 271.
Palmer, Courtland C.: 190.
Palmer, Jean Laurent:
screw caliper, 212, 213.
Palmer & Capron: 127.
Parallel motion: 3 note 6.
Parkhurst, E. G.: 182.
Parks, Edward H.:
automatic gear cutters, 214.
Pawtucket, R. I.:
manufacturing center, 118, 127;
Dr. Dwight on, 121;
manufactures of, 118-125.
Peck:
lifter for drop hammer, 143.
Pedrick & Ayer: planer, 53.
Phelps & Bickford: 222.
Phœnix Iron Works: 165.
Philadelphia, Pa.:
tool builders in, Chapter XIX;
early textile machinery, 246.
Pin machinery: 233.
Pitcher, Larned:
Amoskeag Manufacturing Co.: 123;
Pitcher & Brown, 124.
Pitkin, Henry and James F.:
American lever watches, 164.
Pitkin, Col. Joseph:
pioneer iron worker, 164.
Planer:
in 18th century, 4;
developed in England, 4;
Bramah, 18;
Clement, 19, 52;
inventors of the, Chapter V;
early French, 50;
 Roberts, 51;
Murray, 57;
Bodmer, 75, 76;
Sellers, 248.
Plane surfaces, scraping of:
Maudslay, 44, 45;
Whitworth, 44, 98-101.
Plume & Atwood: 234.
Plumier: French writer, 50.
Pond Machine Tool Co.: 222, 259.
Pope Manufacturing Co.: 170.
Portsmouth block machinery:
influence on general manufacturing, 5;
work of Bentham and Brunel, 8, 9, 22, 26, 27, 28;
Maudslay’s contribution to, 29, 35;
description of, 29, 30, 31;
Roberts, 60;
Maudslay and Bentham, 89;
approaches interchangeable system, 131.
Potter & Johnson: 183.
Pratt, Francis A.: 137, 170, 177;
Lincoln miller, 165, 191.
Pratt & Whitney: 137, 178-183;
Interchangeable system, 179;
gun machinery and manufacture, 179-180, 182;
screw threads, 180-182;
tool-room lathe, 182;
thread-milling, 183;
workmen, 183;
turret screw machines, 207.
Precision gear cutter: 206.
Prentice, A. F.: 224.
Prentiss, F. F.: 266.
Priority in invention: 5.
Pritchard, Benjamin: 216.
Profiling machine: inventors of, 143.
Providence, R. I.:
 early cannon manufacture, 117;
trading center, 118;
textile industry, 123;
manufactures in, 118-126;
jewelry industry of, 126-127.
Providence Forge & Nut Co.: 125.
Providence Tool Co.: 125;
turret screw machine built for, 207;
universal miller built for, 209.
Providence & Worcester Canal: 219-220.
Punching machine, Maudslay’s: 43.
Putnam, John: 227-228.
Putnam, Salmon W.: 227-228.
Putnam Machine Co. Works: 200, 227-228.
Ramsden, Jesse: lathe, 38.
Randolph & Clowes: 236.
Reed, F. E.: 224.
Reed & Prentice Co.: 222.
Remington Arms Co.: 161.
Remington, E., & Sons: 175.
Rennie, George: 54;
planer, 50, 51.
Rennie, Sir John: 54.
Rennie, John: millwright, 54.
Rhode Island Tool Co.: 125.
Richards, Charles B.: 173.
Richards, John: on Bodmer, 79.
Robbins & Lawrence: Chapter XV;
interchangeable system, 138;
turret lathe, 143, 197;
miller, 165, 191;
government contracts, 190;
Enfield rifle and gun machinery, 191-192;
cause of failure, 192;
successive owners of plant, 192-194, 200.
Robbins, Kendall & Lawrence: 189-190.
Roberts, Richard: 7, 9, 59-60, 62, 107;
with Maudslay, 46, 60;
planer, 50, 51, 60;
locomotives, 61-62;
Sharp, Roberts & Co.: 61, 62.
Robinson, Anthony:
screw thread, 39.
Rockford, Ill.:
tool builders in, 274-275.
Rockford Drilling Machine Co.: 274.
Rockford Iron Works: 274.
Rockford Lathe & Tool Co.: 274.
Rockford Machine Tool Co.: 274.
Rockford Milling Machine Co.: 274.
Roemer: epicyclic curve, 63.
Rogers, William A.:
Rogers-Bond comparator, 180-182.
Root, Elisha K.: 168-169, 170;
influence on die forging, 137;
profiling machine, 143;
drop hammer, 143, 169;
Colt Armory, 169;
machinery invented by, 169;
horizontal turret principle, 197.
Roper Repeating Arms Co.: 175.
St. Joseph Iron Co.: 253.
Savage Fire Arms Co.: 161.
Saxton: gear teeth, 66-67.
Schneider, M., and Nasmyth’s steam hammer: 95-96.
Scituate, R. I.: Hope Furnace, 117.
Scovill Manufacturing Co.: 232.
Screw machines, multi-spindle automatic: 265.
Screw-thread practice:
Maudslay and Clement, 10, 19, 42, 58-59, 88;
Whitworth standardizes, 10, 101;
early methods of screw cutting, 38-40;
 Pratt & Whitney, 180-182;
history of Sellers’ or U. S. Standard, 249.
Sellers, Dr. Coleman: 251-252;
design of railway tools, 251;
screw thread, U. S. Standard, 249.
Sellers, William: 247-251, 255;
inventions, 247-248;
planer, 248;
system of screw threads, 248-249;
bridge building machinery, 250;
great lathe, Washington Navy Yard, 250.
Sellers, William, & Co.: 251, 252.
Sentinel Gas Appliance Co.: 160.
Shapers:
developed in England, 4;
Brunel’s, 27;
Nasmyth’s “Steel Arm,” 92.
Sharp, Roberts & Co.: 61, 62.
Sharpe, Lucian: 202;
American wire gauge, 205.
Sharps, Christian:
breech loading rifle, 170, 192.
Sharps Rifle Works: 192, 194, 195.
Shaw, A. J.: 214.
Shepard, Lathe & Co.: 222.
Shipley, Murray: 270.
Slater, Samuel: 114, 119, 121;
Arkwright cotton machinery, 120, 121;
textile industry, 122;
Amoskeag Co., 216-217.
Slide-rest:
in 18th century, 4;
inventors of, 6;
early forms of, 6, 36;
Bramah and Maudslay, 17;
Maudslay, 35, 36, 38, 40, 43, 49.
Sloan, Thomas J.:
 screw machine, 126.
Slocomb, J. T.: 214.
Slotter: 61.
Smeaton, John: 2, 3;
boring machine, 2, 13;
cast iron gears, 64.
Smith, George: 214.
Smith & Mills: 270.
Smith & Phelps: 234.
Smith & Silk: 271.
Smith & Wesson: 138.
Snyder, J. E., & Son: 22.
Southwark Foundry & Machine Co.: 173, 256-257.
Spencer, Christopher M.: 170, 175-177;
turret lathe, 143, 176;
board drop, 143;
silk-winding machine, 175;
repeating rifle, 175.
Spencer Arms Co.: 177.
Spring: planer, 50, 53.
Springfield, Mass.: 230.
Springfield Armory: 103, 136, 138, 143, 163;
Blanchard’s lathes, 142-143.
Springfield Machine Tool Co.: 271.
Standard Tool Co.: 266.
Stannard, Monroe:
with Pratt & Whitney, 178.
Steam boats:
early, 82;
Wilkinson’s, 119.
Steam engine, Watt’s:
new element in industry, 1;
problems in building, 1-3;
first built at Soho, 12;
Maudslay’s improvements, 43.
Steam hammer: 4;
Nasmyth’s invention of, 93-96.
Steam heating apparatus:
Murray, 56.
Steinle Turret Machine Co.: 277.
Stephenson, George: 6, 32, 56, 150.
Steptoe, John: 267-268.
Steptoe Co., The John:
shapers and milling machines, 268.
Stone, Henry D.: 192, 193, 196;
turret lathe, 143, 197.
Swasey, Ambrose: 183, 262, 263;
dividing engine, 264.
Syme, Johnie: Nasmyth on, 84.
Symington, William: iron boat, 14, 82.
Taps and dies:
developed in England, 4;
Maudslay’s, 10, 42;
Clement’s, 59.
Taylor, Frederick W.:
high-speed tool steels, 250, 277.
Taylor & Fenn Co.: 165.
Terry, Eli: clocks, 144, 171, 172.
Textile industries:
Arkwright and Strutt, 53;
influence of Whitney’s cotton gin, 114;
in New England, 114, 120, 123, 127;
Slater’s influence on, 122.
Textile machinery:
Robert’s spinning mule, etc., 61;
Bodmer, 77;
in New England, 114, 120-121;
Wilkinson, 122;
Alfred Jenks, 123.
Thomas, Seth: clocks, 144.
Thomaston, Conn.:
clock manufacture, 171.
Thurber, Isaac:
 Franklin Machine Co., 125.
Thurston, Horace: 214.
Tool builders:
general estimate of early, 107;
in Central New England, Chapter XVII;
Western, Chapter XX.
Tool building centers: 127;
map of, Fig. 56.
Torry, Archie:
Nasmyth’s foreman, 91.
Towne, Henry R.: 257, 258.
Towne, John Henry: 256-257, 258;
screw thread, U. S. Standard, 249.
Traveling crane, first: 77, 80.
Trevithick:
steam road engine, 56.
Turret lathes: 140;
early producers of, 143;
Spencer, 176;
Howe and Lawrence, 197;
Hartness’ flat-turret, 198;
Warner & Swasey, 262.
Turret screw machine, improvements on: 207.
Union Steel Screw Works: 198, 265, 266.
Universal Radial Drill Co.: 273.
Wadsworth, Capt. Decius:
on Whitney’s interchangeable system, 134-135.
Waldo, Daniel:
Hope Furnace, 117.
Wallace, William: 237.
Wallace & Sons: 234.
Waltham Watch Works, see American Watch Co.
Warner, Worcester R.: 183, 262, 263.
Warner & Swasey Co.: 261-265;
building of astronomical instruments, 263-264.
Washburn, Ichabod: American Steel & Wire Co., 225, 226.
Washburn & Moen Co.: 225.
Waterbury Brass Co.: 234, 237.
Waterbury Button Co.: 234.
Waterbury Clock & Watch Co.: 234.
Waters, Asa: 226.
Waston, William: Nasmyth on, 84.
Watt, James: 3, 6, 82, 83, 150, 161;
invention of steam engine, 1, 2, 145;
parallel motion, 3 note 6;
dependence on Wilkinson’s boring machine, 3;
opposed by Bramah, 18.
Weed Sewing Machine Co.: 170, 174, 175.
Weeden, W. N.: 237.
Wheeler, William A.: 221.
Wheeler & Wilson: 192.
Whipple, Cullen: 126.
Whitcomb, Carter, Co.: 222.
Whitcomb-Blaisdell Machine Tool Co.: 222.
White, Zebulon: J. S. White & Co., 122.
White Sewing Machine Co.: 193, 266.
Whitman-Barnes Co.: 266.
Whitney, Amos: 137, 170, 177, 219.
Whitney, Baxter D.: 177, 230.
Whitney, Eli: 6, 146-147, 161, 177;
interchangeable system, 76, 132-133, 134-135, 136, 145,
146, 158-159;
cotton gin, 114, 131, 145, 148-158;
U. S. contract of 1798, 131-132, 158, 159;
Whitneyville plant, 132, 162, 158, 160;
method of manufacture, 158-159;
milling machine, 142;
Miller & Whitney, 149.
Whitney, Eli, Jr.:
contract for “Harper’s Ferry” rifle, 160;
steel-barreled muskets, 160, 162.
Whitney Arms Co.: 160-161;
first Colt revolvers made by, 167.
Whitworth, Joseph: 7, 8, 9, 93; Chapter IX;
screw-thread practice, 10, 59, 101, 102 note 105;
manufacture of plane surfaces, 44, 45, 98-101;
with Maudslay, 46, 98;
shaper and improvements in machine tools, 99;
improved methods of measurement, 101;
ordnance and armor, 104-105;
on American automatic machinery, 102-104;
William Armstrong, 105.
Wilcox & Gibbs Sewing Machines: 208, 210, 213.
Wilkinson, Abraham: 119.
Wilkinson, Daniel: 119, 122.
Wilkinson, David: 123, 124, 125;
patent on slide-rest, 6;
steamboat, 119;
slide lathe, 119-120;
textile machinery, 122;
nail manufacture, 122.
Wilkinson, Isaac: 119, 125.
Wilkinson, John: 2, 8, 11, 15;
boring machine, 3, 10, 11, 12, 13, 60;
first iron boat, 14;
first iron bridge, 15;
relations with Boulton & Watt, 12, 13.
Wilkinson, Ozeal: 118-119, 121, 122.
Wilkinson, William: 119, 121.
Willimantic Linen Co.: 175, 178.
Willis, Robert: 69 note 64;
gear teeth, 63, 64, 69-70.
Wilmot, S. R.:
micrometer, 212.
Winchendon, Mass.:
woodworking machinery, 230.
Winchester Repeating Arms Co.: 160, 174.
Windsor, Vt.: 127, 186.
Windsor Machine Co.:
Gridley automatic lathes, 194, 200.
Windsor Manufacturing Co.: 193.
Wolcott, Oliver: 132.
Wolcottville Brass Co.: 233-234.
Wood, Light & Co.: 222.
Woodruff & Beach: 165.
Woodward & Powell Planer Co.: 224.
Woodworking machinery:
Bramah, 18, 19, 24;
Bentham, 24, 25;
Brunel, 31;
in Massachusetts, 229.
Worcester, Mass.: 127;
tool builders in, 219-226;
early textile shops of, 220;
gun makers in, 226.
Worm-geared tilting pouring-ladle, Nasmyth’s: 91-92.
Worsley, S. L.:
automatic screw machine, 208.
Wright, Sylvester: 200, 228.
Yale & Towne Manufacturing Co.: 258.
 Transcriber’s Notes

Inconsistencies in spelling, hyphenation, etc. have

been retained, in particular in quoted material.
Minie rifles and Minié rifles both occur in the text.
Depending in the hard- and software used to read
this text and their settings, not all elements may
display as intended.
Page 20, Group portrait Eminent Men of Science:
there are 50 people in the portrait, but only 48 are
identified in the accompanying list.
Page 217, ... he and his brother, Ziba Gay, ...: also
referred to as Zeba Gay in this text.
Page 223, Figure 45: The source document does
not show any links to or from the entry A. F.
Prentice.
Page 235, F. J. Kingsbery, Sr. and F. J. Kingsbury,
Jr.: as printed in the source document; either one
may be an error or misprint.
Index: sorting errors have not been rectified.
Changes made
Footnotes, illustrations and charts have been moved
out of text paragraphs; footnotes have been
renumbered consecutively throughout the book
(and footnote references have been adjusted
where necessary).
Some obvious minor typographical and punctuation
errors have been corrected silently.
Text in
dashed boxes
 have been transcribed from the accompanying
charts, and give a (very) approximate indication of
the relative positions of chart elements.
List of names after page 20: Patrick Millar changed
to Patrick Miller.
Index: the inconsistent lay-out has been
standardised; some entries (mainly proper names)
have been changed to conform to the spelling
used in the text.