Course Materials

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Fluid Machinery
Fundamentals of Fluid Flow

Prepared
By
DR. A. R. ENRIQUEZ JR
 Lesson 1: Fundamentals of Fluid Flow

A. Discharge: This refers to the volume of fluid passing a cross-section of a stream in unit time. This is
also called volume flow rate. Use 𝑽̇ = symbol for discharge or volume flow rate.

FYI about Discharge:

1. Discharge may be classified as either steady flow, uniform flow, and continuous flow.

1.1. Steady flow is the name given to a flow when the discharge passing through a given cross-section of
a stream is constant with time.

1.2. Uniform flow is the name given to a flow when the average velocity at every cross-section is the
same.

1.3. Continuous flow is the name given to a flow when, at any instant, the number of particles passing
every section of a stream is the same, meaning, there is continuity of flow.

3. To determine the discharge, use the formula: 𝑽̇ = 𝑨𝒗 → ft3/s m3/s

Where: A = cross-sectional area (ft2, m2) and v = velocity (fps, m/s)

4. When the fluid passes through cross-sections with different sizes or shapes, compute the discharge
using MASS CONTINUITY EQUATION or VOLUME CONTINUITY EQUATION

FYI about mass continuity equation and volume continuity equation:

4.1. Continuity equation is an equation that describes the transport of some quantity particularly fluids.

4.2. Mass continuity equation and volume continuity equation are equations primarily used in the
calculation of mass flow rate or volume flow rate of fluid passing through a given section.

4.3. Volume continuity equation is used to determine the discharge when the fluid is non-compressible
fluid. Theorem: For non-compressible flow, the volume flow rate is the same regardless of the size
or shape of the sections. So, when the fluid passes through different sections, then:

𝑽̇ = 𝑪 so 𝑽̇ = 𝑽̇𝟏 = 𝑽̇𝟐 = 𝑽̇𝟑 …… 𝑽̇𝒏 = C where: 1, 2, 3, …, n are the sections

𝑺𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒇𝒚𝒊𝒏𝒈: 𝑽̇ = 𝑨𝟏 𝒗𝟏 = 𝑨𝟐 𝒗𝟐 = 𝑨𝟑 𝒗𝟑 = ……𝑨𝒏 𝒗𝒏 = C ≈ volume continuity equation

4.4. Mass continuity equation is used to determine the mass flow rate when the fluid is compressible
fluid. Theorem: For compressible flow, the mass flow rate is the same regardless of the size or shape
of the sections. So, when the fluid passes through different sections, then:

𝒎̇ = 𝑪 so 𝒎̇ = 𝒎̇𝟏 = 𝒎̇𝟐 = 𝒎̇𝟑 …… 𝒎̇𝒏 = C also: 𝒎̇ = ρAv

𝑺𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒇𝒚𝒊𝒏𝒈: 𝒎̇ = 𝝆𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝒗𝟏 = 𝝆𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝒗𝟐 = 𝝆𝟑 𝑨𝟑 𝒗𝟑 = ……𝝆𝒏 𝑨𝒏 𝒗𝒏 = C ≈ mass continuity equation

N.B: Mass and volume continuity equations are used by engineers in computing mass flow rate,
volume flow rate, size of the cross-section or fluid velocity.
Sample Problems:

▪ Discharge and Mass-Flow rate calculation:

1. How much water is flowing inside a 100mm pipe when the average velocity is 2.5m/s. Express the
answer in liters/s. Answer = 20

2. If the water that exits a pipe fills a pool that is 1.83 meters deep, 30 meters long, and 5 meters wide in 2
days, what is the flow rate? Answer = 0.0016m3/s

3. Gasoline flows in a pipeline 8inches in diameter at a speed of 2.8miles/hr. How many gallons are
delivered in one hour? Answer = 38601.21

4. Calculate the diameter of a pipe in mm that would carry 2.125m3/s of liquid at an average velocity of
3.05m/s. Answer = 942

5. Air at 1bar and 27oC supplied through a 100cm by 150cm rectangular duct at a velocity of 15.2m/s.
Calculate the mass flow rate of air supplied to this duct. Answer = 0.265m3/s

6. There are 252,000m3/hr. of exhaust gas (MW = 30) from the steam generator flowing through a
chimney with a velocity of 12m/s. The pressure and temperature of the gas are 1atmosphere and 200oC.
Calculate the appropriate diameter of the chimney to handle these gases. Answer = 2.725m

▪ Continuity Equation:

1. Water flows in a tapered pipe with an inlet internal diameter of 2in. at a velocity of 75fps. What will
the velocity be at the outlet if the internal pipe diameter converges to 1in? Answer: 300fps

2. Water travels through a hose at 0.8 meters per second. A nozzle is mounted at the end of this hose. If
the cross-sectional area of this exit nozzle is one-fifth that of the hose, at what speed does water exit the
nozzle? Answer = 4m/s

3. A city requires a flow of 25mega gallons per day for its water supply. Calculate the required pipe
diameter in inches if the water velocity is limited to 2fps. Answer = 60

4. The volume flow rate through pipe 1 is four-times that of pipe 2. If the cross-sectional area of pipe 1 is
two-third that of pipe 2, what is the ratio of the fluid velocity in pipe 1 to that in pipe 2? Answer = 6

5. Air with a density of 0.075lbm/ft3 flows through a device in a steady flow manner. It enters a 12in.
diameter section at 10fps and leaves with a density of 0.20lbm/ft3 though a 4in. diameter exit section.
Calculate the outlet velocity and the mass flow rate. Answer: 33.75fps, 0.589lb/s.
 Lesson II: Head

A. Head is the height at which a fluid machinery (such as pump) can raise a fluid (such as water) up.

Figure: Courtesy of www.pump fundamentals

FYI about Head:

1. The heads that a moving fluid normally contains are the following:

1.1. Elevation Head: This is the head possessed by a fluid because of its height above some reference
level. It is also known as potential head. Let 𝑯𝒁 = symbol for elevation head.

𝑯𝒁 = 𝒁 where: Z = elevation → ft m

1.2. Velocity Head: This is the pressure which is needed to increase the speed at which a liquid flow.
Let 𝑯𝑽 = symbol for elevation head

𝒗𝟐
𝑯𝑽 = 𝟐𝒈 where: v = velocity → ft/s m/s
𝒐

1.3. Static Head: This is used to denote the static pressure in a pipe, channel, or duct flow. It is
sometimes referred to as the pressure head. Let 𝑯𝑷 = symbol for pressure head.

𝑷
𝑯𝑷 = Ɣ where: P = pressure and Ɣ = specific weight of fluid

N.B: When solving problems about HEAD calculation, always assign a reference point along the
stream (flow of fluid).

B. Total Head: This is the summation of the all the head content of moving fluid. Let 𝑯𝑻 = symbol for
total head. To calculate this quantity, use the formula:

𝒗𝟐 𝑷
𝑯𝑻 = ƩH = 𝑯𝒁 + 𝑯𝑽 + 𝑯𝑷 = 𝒁+ 𝟐𝒈𝒐
+ Ɣ

N.B: Unless otherwise specified, a moving fluid is always assumed to contains an elevation head,
velocity head and pressure head.
FYI: Guidelines in determining the head content of moving fluid:

1. For Elevation Head, remember the following:

1.1. The value of elevation head is POSITIVE when the reference point is ABOVE the chosen datum
line.
1.2. The value of elevation head is NEGATIVE when the reference point is BELOW the chosen datum
line.
1.3. The value of elevation head is ZERO when the reference point is ALONG the chosen datum line.

Where: Datum Line is a line which serves as a reference or base for the measurement of other
quantities.

2. For Velocity Head, remember the following:

2.1. The value of velocity head is NOT ZERO when the reference point is place inside a pressure
conduit.
2.2. The value of velocity head is ZERO when the reference point is place at the surface of liquid (such
as water) located in large and open reservoir.

3. For Pressure Head, remember the following:

3.1. The value of pressure head is NOT ZERO when the reference point is place inside a pressure
conduit.
3.2. The value of pressure head is ZERO when the reference point is place at the surface of liquid (such
as water) located in large and open reservoir.
3.3. The value of pressure head is ZERO when the fluid is springing free to the atmosphere.

C. Power Absorb or Power Extracted: Let 𝑾̇ = symbol

C.1. The power absorb by the stream is provided by pumps for liquids and blowers, compressors, or
fans for gases.

C. 2. The power extraction from the stream is done by turbines and fluid motors.

C.3. To determine the power absorbed by or power extracted from the stream, use the formula:

𝒇𝒕−𝒍𝒃𝒇
𝑾̇ = 𝑽̇Ɣ (𝑯𝑻 ) → 𝒌𝑾
𝒎𝒊𝒏

Sample Problems:

1. A fluid is flowing in a pipe 8in. in diameter with a mean velocity of 10fps. The pressure at the center of
the pipe is 5psi and the pipe is 15ft above an assumed datum. Calculate the total head if:
a. The fluid is water. → 28.1ft
b. The fluid is oil whose relative density is 0.8. → 31ft
c. The fluid is molasses whose specific gravity is 1.5. → 24.245ft

2. A 1m, inside diameter pipe is used to supply water taken from Taal Lake to the summit of Tagaytay
Highland. The water pressure at the summit is 54kPa and the water is supplied at the rate of 3.05m3/s. If
the summit is 1524.4m high, calculate the total head of water there. Answer = 1534m
3. Water flows in a ¾ inch pipe. Two points in the pipe are at a pressure difference of 14.5psi. If 65cfm of
water pass between the two points, how much horsepower is needed in forcing the water? Answer =
4.1

4. How much power is exerted by a 5cm diameter jet of water exiting a nozzle at a velocity of 12m/s if
the nozzle is 2.5m above the ground? Answer = 2.32kW

List of References

1. Yunus A. Cengel and John M. Cimbala: FLUID MECHANICS: FUNDAMENTALS AND

APPLICATIONS, THIRD EDITION, Published by McGraw-Hill, New York, NY 10020.
Copyright © 2014 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
2. Michael L. Boles and Yunus A. Cengel: THERMODYNAMICS: AN ENGINEERING
APPROACH, EIGHTH EDITION, Published by McGraw-Hill Education, New York, NY 10121.
Copyright © 2015 by McGraw-Hill Education.
3. Munson, Bruce R., Young, Donald F., Okiishi, Theodore H., Huebsch, Wade W. Fundamentals of
Fluid Mechanics, Sixth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Copyright © 2009 by John Wiley &
Sons.
4. Virgil Moring Faires, Clifford M. Simmang, Alexander Brewer: Problems on Thermodynamics,
6th ed., McMillan Publishing Company, Inc., Copyright © 2009 by
5. Committee on Physics, composed of professors from MIT, NU, UST, TIP, FU, UP, chaired by
Pof. Magtira, Dr. del Rosario, Dr. Zara: College Physics, Part 1, Quezon City, c1962.