INDEX 2023-24 Merged

Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering
Name of the staff: Prof. Chhaya Suratwala, Prof. Swathi kundram

Program (B.E./M.Tech./MCA): B.Tech.
SEM: SEM VI Year: 2023-24
Subject: Antennas and Microwave Engineering Subject code: BTEC13601
Sr. Title CO Date Sign
1 Introduction to Antenna Software (AN-SOF), different parameters of CO2, 02/01/2024

the Antenna Radiation and Far Field Pattern. CO3
2 A] Design a dipole antenna Using simulation software and find out CO1, 09/01/2024
the following properties CO3
1) 3D plot
2) 2D plot for varying phi and for Theta, Front to Back
Ratio, HPBW 3) Current Distribution
Length of dipole antenna is Lambda/2 , Lambda ,
3*Lambda/2, 2*Lamda Design Frequency is 300Mhz and
200Mhz + EN_ * 10Mhz
B] Construct a dipole antenna using the ACADEMIKA kit and
hardware set up. Measure and analyze the radiation pattern of the
dipole antenna in co polarized orientation. Generate a polar plot to
visualize the radiation pattern and assess the antenna's directional
characteristics.
3 A] Design 3 element and 5 element Yagi Uda antenna with CO1, 16/01/2024
dipole as feeder Using Simulation Software and Find out CO2,
following properties CO3
(a) Polar plot, Front to Back Ratio, HPBW
(b) 3D plot
(c) 2D plot for phi in all direction and Theta=90
(d) Observe current distribution
(e) Directivity
Design Frequency is 300MHz and Enroll No last digit *10 MHz
B] Design 3 element and 5 element Yagi Uda antenna with
folded dipole as feeder Using Simulation Software and Find out
following properties (a) Polar plot, Front to Back Ratio, HPBW
(b) 3D plot
(e) Directivity
4 A] Design a Circular and Square antenna for Large loop CO1, 23/01/2024
Using simulation software find out the following properties CO2,
1) 3D plot CO3
2) 2D plot for phi =0 and for Theta=0, Front to Back
Ratio , HPBW 3) Current Distribution
Design Frequency is 300MHz and Enroll No last
digit *10 MHz B] Design a Circular and Square
antenna for small loop
Using simulation software find out the following properties
1) 3D plot
Ratio , HPBW 3) Current Distribution
5 A] Construct a Planer Tx - Planer Rx antenna using the CO1, 30/01/2024

ACADEMIKA kit and hardware set up. Measure and analyze the CO2,
radiation pattern in co-polarized and cross polarized CO3
orientation. Generate a polar plot to visualize the radiation pattern
and assess the antenna's directional characteristics for planer
antenna
B] Construct a Square antenna using the ACADEMIKA kit and
hardware set up. Measure and analyze the radiation pattern in co-
polarized and cross polarized orientation.
C] Construct a Yagi Uda antenna using the ACADEMIKA kit
and hardware set up. Measure and analyze the radiation pattern for
co-polarized mode . Also find Front and back power.
Draw Observation table for all cases.
6 A] Design Broad side array using 2 antenna element by varying phase CO1, 06/02/2024
difference between two input and find out the following properties CO2,
1) 3D plot CO3
B] Design End fire array using 2 antenna element by
varying phase difference between two input and find
out the following properties 1) 3D plot
7 A] Design a Helical antenna in Normal Mode with Pitch Angle to CO1, 20/02/2024
be 13 degree and no. of turns 10 Using simulation software. Find CO2,
out the following properties: 1) 3D plot CO3
4) Directivity
Comment on the Result.
B] Design a Helical antenna in Axial Mode with Pitch Angle to be
13 degree and no. of turns 10 Using simulation software. Find out
the following properties:
1) 3D plot
4) Directivity
C] Design a
Helical antenna in conical Mode with Pitch Angle to be more than
80 degree and no. of turns 20 Using simulation software. Find out
the following properties: 1) 3D plot
4) Directivity
8 To identify and explain microwave components and its three CO3, 27/02/2024
dimensional view with brief explanation including its construction CO5
and function.
9 To analyze the Reflex Klystron mode characteristics. CO3, 27/02/2024

CO5
10 To Measure and analyze frequency in a rectangular waveguide CO3, 06/03/2024

working in TE10 mode. CO5
11 To measure and calculate the insertion loss and isolation factor of CO3, 06/03/2024
isolator. CO5
12 To measure and calculate insertion loss and isolation factor of CO2 03/04/2024
circulator. CO3
Antenna & Microwave Engineering(BTEC13601)
EXPERIMENT:01
Aim: Introduction to Antenna Software (AN-SOF), different parameters of the Antenna

Radiation and Far Field Pattern.
Software
Consider
f = 300MHz so λ = 1m
Dipole antenna
L= λ/2
PRIYANSHI PATEL (ET21BTEC049) 1

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Configure

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Workspace
Dimensions

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Source

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Where to add source
Add Impedance and resistance as a source

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Run project

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Current distribution
Radiation pattern

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2D plots

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Current plot

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Conclusion:
We have learnt how to use the AN-SOF professional software to analyze the different types of
antennas. We got the simulation understanding about current distribution in dipole antenna and far
field radiation pattern of dipole antenna. We have also plot current distribution plot using
simulation.

EXPERIMENT:02
Aim: A] Design a dipole antenna Using simulation software and find out the following properties
1) 3D plot
2) 2D plot for varying phi and for Theta, Front to Back Ratio, HPBW
3) Current Distribution
Length of dipole antenna is Lambda/2 , Lambda , 3*Lambda/2, 2*Lamda
Design Frequency is 200Mhz + EN_ * 10Mhz
 Consider frequency= 290 MHz

Calculation of λ= c/f
=3×108 /290×106
=1.03
1. At λ= 1.03
 Decide the length of antenna:
 Decide the number of segments:

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 Add source & load to the antenna:
 Design the antenna on X axes:

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 Plot current distribution on X axes:
 Generate the Far-field 3D plot on X axes:

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 Design the pattern of X axes antenna far-field polar 1 slice:

Fixed theta, theta=0

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Fixed phi, phi=0
Fixed phi, phi=90

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Theta=90=phi
 Current distribution of X axes:

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2. At λ/2 = 1.03/2
= 0.515

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Fixed phi, phi=0

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Fixed phi, phi=90

Theta=90=phi

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3. At 2λ= 2×1.03
=2.06

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Fixed phi, phi=0

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Fixed phi, phi=90

Theta=90=phi

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4. At 3λ/2 =1.545
Design the antenna on X axes:

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Fixed phi, phi=0

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Fixed phi, phi=90

Theta=90=phi

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Conclusion:
We have used the AN-SOF software to see the radiation pattern and the current distribution in
the antenna. We tested it for three lengths of the antenna as λ, 2λ, λ /2 and 3λ /2 for frequencies
300 MHz and 290 MHz

EXPERIMENT:02
Hardware performance
Aim: Construct a dipole antenna using the ACADEMIKA kit and hardware set up. Measure
and analyze the radiation pattern of the dipole antenna in co polarized orientation. Generate a
polar plot to visualize the radiation pattern and assess the antenna's directional characteristics .
Screenshot of hardware Setup:
 Observation table readings:

Angle Power(dBM)
0˚ -15.08
30˚ -16.15
60˚ -18.46
90˚ -29.20
120˚ -19.95
150˚ -20.65
180˚ -12.80
210˚ -14.45

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240˚ -18.03
270˚ -27.03
300˚ -24.41
330˚ -15.46
360˚ -15.02
 Radiation pattern chart:
Conclusion:
We have implemented hardware performance at different degrees of transmitter and receiver
of antenna at frequency 700MHz and the dipole length we took as 0.8cm at these values we
got this polar plot as a radiation patterns of the antenna.

EXPERIMENT:03
Aim: A] Design 3 element and 5 element Yagi Uda antenna with dipole as feeder
Using Simulation Software and Find out following properties
(a) Polar plot , Front to Back Ratio , HPBW
(b) 3D plot
(e) Directivity
Design Frequency is Enroll No last digit *10 MHz
B] Design 3 element and 5 element Yagi Uda antenna with folded dipole as feeder
Using Simulation Software and Find out following properties
(a) Polar plot , Front to Back Ratio , HPBW
(b) 3D plot
(e) Directivity
Design Frequency is Enroll No last digit *10 MHz
Consider frequency= 290 MHz
Calculation of λ= c/f
=3×108 /290×106
=1.03
1. 3 Element Yagi uda Dipole antenna:

 Measurements of 3 element Yagi uda Dipole Antenna:
 Reflector

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 Feeder
 Director

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 Design the antenna on axes:
 Plot current distribution:

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 Generate the Far-field 3D plot:
 Design the pattern of antenna far-field polar 1 slice at theta=90:

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2. 3 Element Folded Yagi uda Dipole antenna:
 Measurements of 3 element Folded Yagi uda Dipole Antenna:

 Reflector
 Feeder

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 Folded feeder
 Folded feeder Arc measurement

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 Director

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3. 5 Element Yagi uda Dipole antenna:
 Measurements of 5 element Yagi uda Dipole Antenna:

 Reflector
 Feeder

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 Director 1
 Director 2

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 Director 3

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4. 5 element folded Yagi uda dipole antenna
 Measurements of 5 element Folded Yagi uda Dipole Antenna:

 Reflector

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 Feeder
 Director 1
 Director 2

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 Director 3

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Conclusion:
By analyzing these properties, we can evaluate the performance of your designed 3 elements and
5 element Yagi-Uda antennas in terms of their radiation characteristics, directionality, and
efficiency.

EXPERIMENT:04
Aim: Design a Circular and

Square loop antenna Using simulation software find out the following properties
1) 3D plot
2) 2D plot for phi =0 and for Theta=0, Front to Back Ratio , HPBW
Design Frequency is 300 MHz and One's Enrollment
(For square loop, find all properties with source in center of one side of loop and with source
at below edge of one side of loop)
RING
Electrically small loop antenna:

The type of loop antenna having a length of wire or circumference of loop less
than
one-tenth of wavelength is known as a small loop antenna.
C < λ / 10
Large loop antennas

(or resonant loop antennas) have a perimeter close to one wavelength at the
operating frequency,
C=λ

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Calculations:
Small Loop
F =290 MHz
C = λ / 10 = 2πr
Radius = r = 0.01647

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 Design the pattern of antenna far-field polar 1 slice:


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Fixed phi, phi=0
Fixed phi, phi=90

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Theta=90=phi
 Current distribution:

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Calculations:
Large Loop
F = 290 MHz
C = λ = 2πr
Radius = r = 0.1640

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Fixed phi, phi=0
Fixed phi, phi=90

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Theta=90=phi

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SQUARE
Calculations:
Small loop
Centre source
C = λ / 10 = 4l
Length = l = 0.025

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 Dimensions of antenna:

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Fixed phi, phi=0
Fixed phi, phi=90

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Theta=90=phi

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Calculations:
Large Loop
Centre source
C = λ = 4l
Length = l = 0.25

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Fixed phi, phi=0
Fixed phi, phi=90

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Theta=90=phi

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Conclusion:
By analyzing these properties, you can gain insights into the performance and behavior of the
circular and square loop antennas designed using simulation software.

EXPERIMENT:05
Aim: A] Construct a Planer Tx - Planer Rx antenna using the ACADEMIKA kit and hardware
set up. Measure and analyze the radiation pattern in co-polarized and cross polarized
orientation. Generate a polar plot to visualize the radiation pattern and assess the ant enna's
directional characteristics for planer antenna
B] Construct a Square antenna using the ACADEMIKA kit and hardware set up. Measure
and analyze the radiation pattern in co-polarized and cross polarized orientation.
C] Construct a Yagi Uda antenna using the ACADEMIKA kit and hardware set up. Measure
and analyze the radiation pattern for co-polarized mode Also find Front and back power.
Draw Observation table for all cases.

Part-A
Co-Polarized Planner Antenna
Setup Photo

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Observations
Co-polarized

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Angle Power (dBm)

0 -13.53
90 -30.55
Cross-Polarized
Angle Power (dBm)

0 -34.81
90 -41.43

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Polar Plot for co-polarized

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PART: B
Square Antenna
Setup Photo
Observations
Co Polarization
Degree Power
0 -25.9224
90 -40.84
Cross Polarization
Degree Power
0 -25.5673
90 -41.4475
Cross Dipole
Degree Power
0 42.457
90 33.3646

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PART: C
Yagi Uda
Setup

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Co Polarization
Degree Power
0 -17.96
90 -25.86
Cross Polarization
Degree Power
0 -28.92
90 -31.62
Conclusion:
We have implemented antenna system for different types of antennas. We got to know
about the co polarization and cross polarization powers. In Yagi uda antenna we got co polarization
power as -17.96 at 0-degree angle and cross polarization power as -28.92 at 0-degree angle.

EXPERIMENT:06
Aim: A] Design Broad side array using 2 antenna element by varying phase difference
between two input and find out the following properties
1) 3D plot
2) 2D plot for phi =0 and for Theta=0, Front to Back Ratio, HPBW
B] Design End fire array using 2 antenna element by varying phase difference between two
input and find out the following properties
1) 3D plot
 Design Frequency is 300 MHz
λ=1
1. Broad side array using 2 antenna elements
 Diagram:

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 Design the pattern of antenna far-field polar 1 slice at phi=0

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2. End fire array using 2 antenna elements

 Diagram:

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Conclusion:
According to this practical analysis, a Broadside array produces a radiation pattern with the main
beam perpendicular to the array's axis, whereas an End fire array produces a radiation pattern
with the main beam parallel to the array's axis. Actual performance may vary depending on the
specific design parameters and implementation.

EXPERIMENT:07
Aim: A] Design a Helical antenna in Normal Mode with Pitch Angle to be 13 degree and no.
of turns 10 Using simulation software. Find out the following properties:
1) 3D plot
4) Directivity
B] Design a Helical antenna in Axial Mode with Pitch Angle to be 13 degree and no. of turns
10 Using simulation software. Find out the following properties:
1) 3D plot
4) Directivity
C] Design a Helical antenna in conical Mode with Pitch Angle to be more than 80 degree and
no. of turns 20 Using simulation software. Find out the following properties:
1) 3D plot
4) Directivity

EXPERIMENT:07
 Normal Helical antenna:
 F = 300MHz so λ = 1m, C << λ

If C = 0.1 , 2πr = 0.1, R = 0.016
If α = 13 deg, tan α = S/C, S = 0.023
 Parameters:
 Diagram:

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 Design the pattern of antenna far-field polar 1 slice at Directivity phi = 0

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 Axial Helical antenna:
 F = 300MHz so λ = 1m, C = λ
If C = 1, 2πr = 1, R = 0.16
If α = 13 deg, tan α = S/C, S = 0.23
 Parameters:

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 Diagram:

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 Design the pattern of antenna far-field polar 1 slice at phi=0, theta=90

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 Conical Helical antenna

 F = 300MHz so λ = 1m
C = 10λ, If C = 10, 2πr = 10, R = 1.6
If α = 89 deg, tan α = S/C, S = 572.8
 Parameters:
 Diagram:

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 Design the pattern of antenna far-field polar 1 slice at Directivity phi = 0:
 Design the pattern of antenna far-field polar 1 slice at Directivity phi = 0 theta=90:

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Conclusion:
 Design a helical antenna with 10 turns and a 13-degree pitch angle. Obtain 3D & 2D plots,
current distribution, directivity; summarize findings succinctly.
 Designing a Helical antenna in Axial Mode with ANSOFT Professional we have analyze
3D & 2D plots, current distribution, directivity for comprehensive insights.
 Design a Helical antenna in Conical Mode with >80° pitch, 20 turns. Analyze 3D & 2D
plots, current distribution, directivity for evaluations and insights in briefing.

EXPERIMENT:08
Aim: To study microwave components and its three dimensional view with brief
explanation including its construction and function.
APPARATUS:
Active Components:
1. Reflex Klystron.
2. Gunn Oscillator.
3. Schlocky Diode.
4. Crystal Diode.
5. Probe Detector.
Passive Components:
1. Rectangular waveguide with rectangular flange.
2. Rectangular waveguide with circular flange.
3. Matched Termination.
4. Isolator.
5. Circulator.
6. 90-degree twister.
7. E-plane bend.
8. H-plane bend.
9. E-plane Tee.
10. H-plane Tee.
11. Magic Tee.(Hybrid Tee).
12. Directional Coupler.
13. H-sectorial Horn.
14. E-sectorial Horn.
15. Pin modulator
16. Fixed Attenuator.
17. Variable Attenuator.

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18. Detector mount.

19. Direct reading frequency meter.
20. Slotted line.
THEORY:
Active Components:
1. Microwave Sources
Generally, there are two types of microwave sources available in the microwave laboratory.
They are,
i.Reflex Klystron: It is a vacuum tube, operating at X-Band.
ii.Gunn Oscillator: It uses solid state Gunn Diode, for Microwave generation, also at X-Band.
i.Reflex Klystron
The concept of microwave frequency is explained using fig1. Here the electron beam injected
from the cathode is first velocity modulated by cavity gap voltage, V0 and as a result from
bunches. All electron bunches, repelled by the repeller voltage Vr, pass through the cavity gap in
bunches, during retarding phase of alternating field and give their kinetic energy to the energy of
the field in the cavity. Oscillator output energy is then taken from the cavity.
It is a low power generator of 10 to 500 milliwatt output at a frequency range of 1 to 25 GHz,

though a particular Reflex Klystron will generate a single frequency and due to fix cavity,
change of frequency is not possible. This means different Reflex Klystrons are available at

EXPERIMENT:08
different frequencies. The efficiency of such Klystrons is very poor, i.e. only about 20-30%.
They are widely used in laboratory as microwave oscillator for experiments in microwave
measurements. Also used in microwave receiver as local oscillator in commercial and military
applications (in Doppler Radars and Missiles).
ii. Gunn Oscillator
For LC oscillator, resonance frequency is given by fc= 1/2π , i.e. as L or C changes, fr also
changes. A waveguide is also a type of a transmission line, whose equivalent circuit contains L
and C. here, the value of L and C depends upon the length of waveguide. So, as the length
changes, the resonant frequency also changes according to the above equation. Here, changing
the position of moving plunger (fig2) with the help of a micrometer changes the length of the
closed waveguide, called resonator. But no oscillator can generate frequency without an active
device, like diode or transistor. So, all LC oscillator circuits have some
Microwave Sources
There are two types of detector diodes.
i.Schottky Diode
Schottky diode is a metal semiconductor barrier diode, which is constructed on a thin silicon
(n+type) substrate by growing n-type active layer of about 2 micron thickness. A thin SiO2 layer
is grown thermally over this active layer. Metal-semiconductor junction is formed by depositing
metal over SiO2. Such diodes are not very popular.
ii. Crystal Diode
The crystal diode essentially consists of a pointed tungsten wire (~0.08 mm dia.) made in the
form of a spring that is pressed against the surface of a silicon (p-type) wafer (~1.6 mm square)
suitably doped with impurities making a rectifying contact. Crystal diode and its typical
equivalent circuit are shown here (fig 4). Due to such a construction, it is also known as point
contact diode.

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The equivalent circuit parameters are described below Rs, Ls → Series lead resistance and
inductance
Cs → Case capacitance
Rj, Cj→ Effective resistance and capacitance for the junction
Most of the detector diodes used in the microwave laboratory are diodes. For such diodes, the
forward I-V characteristics is approximately parabolic for input signal power<10W. such a
characteristic follows a
square law, I V2 as shown in fig 5. If microwave signal voltage, v=
Vcosωt is applied across the diode, the diode current is given by i= I0 (eav-1)
Where, I0 = diode reverse saturation current a = 1/nVT
n = constant = 1.1 for schottky diode, = 1.4 for crystal diode VT = thermal voltage = 26 mV at
room temperature
Using series expansion for eav, neglecting higher order terms and simplifying.
i=I0 [aVcosωt + (1+cos2ωt)] Filtering out the a.c. components by the detector circuit,
i I0
I V2
Thus, diode output current is proportional to the square of electric value, V at the location of the
diode. So, it is direct measure of microwave input power. Due to this, it is also called square law
detector. For a large power input (>10W), the V-I characteristic becomes more linear, so that
input power needs to be attenuated for operation in the square law region.

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In order to work as a detector, these diodes should be mounted across the waveguide with other
end of waveguide be shorted. (fig6). Movement of the adjustable plunger can vary the distance
between the diode and shorted end and tune the detector at the desired frequency.
These microwave detector diodes are sensitive and operate with RF signal without any dc bias.
The diode is mounted in a waveguide or a coaxial line which contains matching elements, so that
VSVR < 1.3 and the microwave power is absorbed without appreciable reflection. An RF bypass
capacitor in the output circuit is constructed so that microwave do not pass to measuring
instrument, such as VSVR meter, which is a high gain, low noise amplifier tuned to modulating
frequency of 1KHz. The output impedance of the detector circuit is designed either high (50-200
ohms) or low (2.5-10 ohms).
iii. Probe Detector

This is an arrangement as shown in Fig.6, where a probe is placed in the allotted waveguide. With
the help of mechanical arrangement, the probe is moved along the axis of the slotted waveguide
measuring the field at different distances from the load end. The current picked up by the probe

EXPERIMENT:08
then passes through a crystal diode, whose output is fed to corresponding
meter. The detector circuit is matched, using short circuit stub, as shown in Fig.9.
Fig .9
2. Modulator
In any communication system, basic reason for doing modulation is to make possible the
transmission of low frequency signals (e.g. voice signals) to long distances with the help of high
frequency signals as carrier. In other applications of microwaves, of course, same reason stands
true, e.g. Satellite Communication, Microwave Communication using LOS towers, etc. But, in the
microwave bench used in the laboratory, there is no question of long distance, as required for
modulation. The reason here is different.
The microwave detector used in microwave bench works on the principle of envelope detection.
That means, if unmodulated carrier (microwave) is applied to the detector, the detector output is
envelope of the sine wave, i.e. dc. Similarly, if we give modulated signal [microwave as carrier +
low frequency (1 kHz) modulating signal] then detector output will be its envelope, i.e. 1 kHz
signal. This 1 kHz signal will be given to VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio) Meter for
measurement of power in dB.

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Now, the argument is reversed. If the VSWR Meter is to be used, then 1 kHz must be applied to
it. This 1 kHz can only be obtained from detector, if the input to the detector is modulated wave
with 1 kHz as modulating signal.
Hence, the microwave as carrier is to be modulated with 1 kHz modulated signal. This 1 kHz
modulating signal is taken as a pulse train
(square wave) of 1 kHz frequency, because pulses contain more power as compared to simple sine
wave. One of the examples, where pulses provide high power is radar.
There are two systems of providing modulation, which can be used in Microwave Bench.
i.Giving Modulated Power Supply to The Oscillator
The dc beam voltage, V0 in case of Reflex Klystron and dc bias voltage for Gunn Oscillator,
generates microwave frequency as CW. Now, if the dc beam voltage/dc bias voltage to be given
to Reflex Klystron/Gunn Oscillator respectively is modulated by 1 kHz square wave, oscillator
output is available as modulated microwave frequency as shown in graph.
For this purpose, modulation knob on Klystron Power Supply has to be put on ‘INT’ and similar
setting must be made in Gunn Power supply.
ii. Using PIN Diode
This itself is a separate component where a PIN diode is mounted across a waveguide.
As shown in Fig.10, carrier wave (CW) is introduced by the waveguide and the modulating wave
(1 kHz square wave) is given by the BNC connector. The modulated signal is available at the end
of the waveguide
i.e. PIN modulator.

EXPERIMENT:08
iii. Concept of Antenna Transmission And Reception Used In Microwave Bench

As current flows in an antenna, it is converted into electromagnetic field and propagated into free
space.
The current at microwave frequency is generated by microwave source and flows in the probe
located in the middle of the waveguide at Dominant Mode in case of reflex Klystron. Similarly, in
case of Gunn Oscillator, current flows through the lead conductor in the waveguide and propagates
down the Microwave Bench. The propagation in the waveguide is unlike propagation in free space.
It is in zigzag fashion. The wave is reflected from top and bottom plates as it propagates down the
waveguide. Fig.11 shows the probe acting as transmitting antenna.
As the microwave propagates from the probe or lead of Gunn diode down the waveguide, it passes
through many components. At the receiving or terminating end, it ultimately passes through a
detector, which may be a crystal detector or a probe detector. In both the cases, the detector acts
as a receiving antenna. Here as soon as the electromagnetic field touches the crystal or probe
antenna, the current at microwave frequency is induced which passes through the diode detector.
This induced current is converted to dc or ac depending upon whether the signal is CW or
modulated wave, respectively.
Passive Components:
1. Waveguide: A hollow metallic tube of uniform cross section for transmitting
electromagnetic waves by successive reflections from the inner walls of the tube is called
a waveguide. It has rectangular opening at both the ends and can have rectangular or
circular flange. Because of the skin effect problem at microwave frequencies, waveguides
are always kept hollow and its inner surface is usually coated with either gold or silver to
improve the conductivity and minimize losses.

EXPERIMENT:08
2. Matched termination: All the incident waves are absorbed and ideally no power is
reflected back from the matched termination. A material known as ferrite is used at the
termination side.
3. Isolator: An isolator is a two – port device that transfers energy from input to output with
little attenuation and from output to input with very high attenuation.

EXPERIMENT:08
4. Circulators: 3 port circulator is shown in figure. Circulator is defined with ports

arranged such that energy entering a port is coupled to an adjacent port but not coupled to the
other ports. Circulator can have any number of ports.

EXPERIMENT:08
5. 900 twisters: Used to rotate the plane of polarization of a waveguide transmission line.
The 3-D diagram of the twister is shown.
Conclusion:
We studied microwave components with a focus on their three-dimensional views provides
valuable insights into their construction, function, and role in microwave systems, contributing to
the advancement of microwave technology.

EXPERIMENT:09
Aim: To study the Reflex Klystron mode characteristics.

(Take VSWR readings, oscilloscope waveforms)
Apparatus:
Klystron Power Supply, Klystron Tube with Klystron mount, Isolator, Frequency meter, Variable
attenuator, Detector mount, VSWR Meter, Oscilloscope.
Hardware Set Up photo:
Block Diagram:

EXPERIMENT:09
Theory:
The theory of Reflex Klystron mode characteristics revolves around how the device operates to
generate microwaves and the factors affecting its output based on different operational modes.
Here's a breakdown of the key concepts:
Operating Principle:
1. Electron Bunching: The reflex klystron utilizes a process called velocity modulation.
Electrons emitted from the cathode are accelerated by an anode and pass through a
resonator cavity. The voltage across the cavity grids modulates the velocities of these
electrons. Faster electrons travel through the cavity quicker, while slower ones take
longer.
2. Reflection and Bunching: A repeller electrode at the end of the tube reflects the
electrons back towards the cavity. Due to the differing velocities, electrons bunch
together as they travel back. This bunching is crucial for generating microwaves.
3. Transferring Energy: When the electron bunches pass through the resonator cavity
again, they interact with the electric field. If the bunches are aligned correctly (during the
decelerating phase of the AC cycle), they transfer energy to the cavity, reinforcing the
microwave oscillations. This positive feedback loop sustains microwave generation.
Mode Characteristics:
 Multiple Modes: Reflex klystrons can operate in various modes, each with distinct
characteristics. These modes depend on the repeller voltage and the electron bunching
pattern within the cavity.
 Power Output: The first mode typically exhibits the highest power output. As the
repeller voltage increases, the klystron can operate in higher modes, with a trade-off
between output power and tuning range.

EXPERIMENT:09
 Tuning Range: Higher repeller voltages lead to a wider tuning range for the klystron's
operating frequency. This allows for more flexibility in applications.
Additional Points:
 Reflex klystrons are known for their lower power output and efficiency compared to
other klystron types.
 Understanding these mode characteristics is essential for optimizing the performance of a
reflex klystron in specific applications.
For a deeper understanding, you can explore further resources on "reflex klystron mode
characteristics".
The Reflex Klystron is a type of vacuum tube used for generating microwave signals. It operates
on the principle of velocity modulation of an electron beam. Here's a detailed explanation of its
theory of operation:
1. Basic Components:
- Cathode: Emits electrons when heated.
- Repeller: A positively charged electrode that reflects a portion of the electron beam back
towards the cathode.
- Resonant Cavity: A hollow metallic cavity that interacts with the electron beam to generate
microwave signals.

EXPERIMENT:09
2. Operation:
- Electron Emission: The cathode emits a continuous stream of electrons when heated.
- Acceleration: The emitted electrons are accelerated towards the repeller by a high voltage
applied between the cathode and the repeller.
- Reflection: The repeller reflects a portion of the electrons back towards the cathode. This causes
the electrons to pass through the cavity multiple times, leading to velocity modulation.
3. Velocity Modulation:
- As the electrons travel from the cathode towards the repeller, they gain kinetic energy.
- When the electrons are reflected back towards the cathode, they lose kinetic energy.
- This alternate gaining and losing of kinetic energy results in velocity modulation of the electron
beam.
4. Bunching Effect:
- The electron beam, now velocity-modulated, enters the resonant cavity.
- The cavity is designed to have a resonant frequency that corresponds to the velocity-modulated
electron beam.
- The varying electric field within the cavity causes the electrons to bunch together periodically,
creating regions of high and low electron density along the beam.
5. Microwave Generation:
- The bunched electron beam passing through the cavity interacts with the cavity's electric field.
- This interaction causes the electron bunches to induce oscillations in the cavity at its resonant
frequency.
- The oscillations in the cavity result in the generation of microwave signals at the resonant
frequency of the cavity.
6. Output:
- The generated microwave signals are extracted from the cavity through an output coupling
mechanism.

EXPERIMENT:09
- These signals can be used for various applications, such as in microwave communication
systems, radar systems, and scientific research.
In summary, the Reflex Klystron operates by modulating the velocity of an electron beam and then
causing the bunched electron beam to interact with a resonant cavity to generate microwave
signals. Its operation is based on principles of electron physics and microwave engineering,
making it a key component in microwave signal generation.
In a reflex klystron, transit time and mode number are two interrelated concepts that significantly
affect the device's operation and output characteristics.
Transit Time (T):
 This refers to the time it takes for an electron to travel from the cavity gap (where it interacts
with the microwave field) to the repeller electrode and back to the cavity gap again.
 The repeller voltage plays a crucial role in determining the transit time. A higher repeller
voltage forces the electrons to travel further, leading to a longer transit time.
Mode Number (N):
 This is an integer value that represents the specific operating mode of the reflex klystron.
It defines the relationship between the transit time of the electrons and the microwave cycle
within the cavity.
 There are multiple modes (N = 1, 2, 3...), each with distinct output power and frequency
characteristics.
Relationship between Transit Time and Mode Number:
For efficient microwave generation, the electron bunches need to interact with the cavity's electric
field at the optimal point in the cycle. Here's how transit time and mode number are linked:
 Optimum Transit Time: For a specific mode (N), there's an ideal transit time (T) that
allows the electron bunches to reach the cavity gap when the electric field is decelerating
electrons. This deceleration transfers energy from the electrons to the cavity, amplifying
the microwave signal.
 Mode Numbers and Transit Time Multiples: Each mode number (N) corresponds to a
specific multiple of the microwave cycle for the optimum transit time. Here's the
relationship:
o N = 1: T = Integral multiple of the microwave cycle (electrons arrive during any
decelerating phase).

EXPERIMENT:09
o N ≠ 1 (Higher Modes): T = (N - ¾) times the microwave cycle (electrons arrive at

a specific point within the decelerating phase for better efficiency).
Impact on Operation:
 The chosen mode number determines the repeller voltage needed to achieve the
corresponding optimum transit time.
 Mode 1 (N = 1): Typically offers the highest power output but has a limited tuning range.
The electrons can arrive at the cavity during any decelerating phase for bunching to occur.
 Higher Modes (N > 1): Provide a wider tuning range but with lower power output. The
electrons need to arrive at a specific point within the decelerating phase for efficient
bunching.
By adjusting the repeller voltage and consequently the transit time, you can control the mode
number of the reflex klystron. This allows for optimization of its output characteristics – higher
power in lower modes or wider tuning range in higher modes – depending on the specific
application.
Procedure:
 Set up the components and equipments as shown in figure.

 Keep position of variable attenuator at min. attenuation position.

EXPERIMENT:09
 Set mode selector switch to FM-MOD position. FM amplitude and FM frequency knob at
mid position, keep beam voltage knob fully anticlockwise and reflector voltage knob to
fully clockwise and beam switch to ‘off ‘position.
 Switch “ON” the Klystron Power Supply and Oscilloscope.
 Switch “ON” Beam voltage switch and set beam voltage to 300V by beam voltage
control knob.
 Keep amplitude knob of FM modulator to maximum position and rotate the reflector
voltage anticlockwise to get modes on the oscilloscope. The horizontal axis represents
reflector voltage axis and vertical represents output power.
 By changing the reflector voltage and amplitude of FM modulation, any mode of
Klystron tube can be seen on Oscilloscope.
Observations:
Beam Voltage = 300 V
Rappeler Voltage (V) Power (dB)
-11 -44
-30 -43
-60 -37.5
-80 -35
-90 -21.6
-125 -18.05

EXPERIMENT:09
Conclusion:
these mode characteristics are essential for designing and optimizing Reflex Klystrons for various
applications in microwave communication, radar, and scientific research.

EXPERIMENT:09

EXPERIMENT:10
Aim: To Measure frequency in a rectangular waveguide working in TE10 mode.

Apparatus: Klystron oscillator with power supply, VSWR meter, Frequency meter, detector etc.
Block Diagram:
Theory:
In a rectangular waveguide operating in the TE10 mode, the frequency of the propagating
electromagnetic wave is determined by the physical dimensions of the waveguide and the
material it's filled with. Here's the key concept:
Cut-off Frequency and Resonance:
 A rectangular waveguide doesn't allow electromagnetic waves to propagate below a
certain minimum frequency, called the cut-off frequency (f_c).
 For the TE10 mode (where the electric field has only a y-component and no electric
field in the x and z directions), the cut-off frequency is defined by the following
equation:
o f_c = c / (2 * sqrt(a^2 + b^2))
o Where:

EXPERIMENT:10
 c: speed of light in the medium filling the waveguide (usually close to

the speed of light in free space)
 a: width of the waveguide (larger dimension)
 b: height of the waveguide (smaller dimension)
 Above the cut-off frequency, the waveguide can sustain propagating waves in the
TE10 mode. The frequency (f) of the propagating wave is related to the dimensions (a
and b) and the wavelength (λ) inside the waveguide through the following relationship:
o (f * λ) = c / sqrt(1 - (f_c / f)²)
Key Points:
 The TE10 mode has the lowest cut-off frequency among all the propagating modes in a
rectangular waveguide.
 The equation relating frequency and wavelength inside the waveguide is more complex
than the simple f = c/λ for free space due to the presence of the cut-off frequency.
 By knowing the dimensions (a and b) and the material filling the waveguide (to
determine c), you can calculate the cut-off frequency and the relationship between the
operating frequency and the wavelength inside the waveguide for the TE10 mode.
Additional Considerations:
 While the equation provides the relationship between frequency and wavelength, it
doesn't directly give you the specific operating frequency. You might need to solve the
equation numerically or graphically for a desired frequency or wavelength within the
allowed range (above the cut-off frequency).
 Higher-order TE modes (TE11, TE20, etc.) will have their own cut-off frequencies and
relationships between frequency and wavelength.

EXPERIMENT:10
Procedure:
Set the components as shown in the figure.
Keep the control knobs of VSWR Meter as below:
 Range: 40/50dB
 Input switch: low impedance
 Meter switch: normal position
 Gain (Course & fine): Mid position
Switch ‘ON’ the Gunn power supply and the VSWR Meter. Maximize the deflection with the
help of Gunn bias knob, PIN frequency knob, and the tenable prob.
Tune the frequency meter knob to get a ‘dip’ on the VSWR scale and note down the frequency
directly from frequency meter.
Move the probe along the slotted line. The deflection in VSWR meter will vary. Move the probe
to a minimum deflection position, to get accurate reading. If necessary, increase the VSWR
meter range dB switch to higher position. Note and record the probe position.
Verify the frequency obtained by frequency meter.
Observation:
Vbeam = 245 V
Vref = -230 V

EXPERIMENT:10
I = 0.22 A
VSWR = -33 dB
Fmeter = 9.68 GHz
Conclusion:
The frequency of a rectangular waveguide operating in the TE10 mode is primarily determined by
its width, with the cutoff frequency proportional to the speed of light and inversely proportional to
the waveguide width. Operating frequencies are typically slightly above the cutoff frequency for
efficient wave propagation in microwave applications.

EXPERIMENT:11
Aim: To study and measure the insertion loss and isolation factor of isolator.
Apparatus: Gunn Diode oscillator with power supply, Isolator, Circulator, VSWR meter, tunable
probe, etc.

EXPERIMENT:11
Theory:
An isolator is a passive two-port device that allows signals to pass in one direction with
minimal loss but significantly attenuates signals in the opposite direction. The insertion loss
and isolation factor are key parameters used to characterize isolators.
1. Insertion Loss (IL): The insertion loss of an isolator is the amount of signal power lost
when the signal passes through the isolator in the forward direction. It is usually expressed in
decibels (dB) and is calculated as:

EXPERIMENT:11
2. Isolation Factor (ISO): The isolation factor of an isolator is a measure of how well the
isolator isolates the input port from the output port in the reverse direction. It is also expressed
in decibels (dB) and is calculated as:
To measure the insertion loss and isolation factor of an isolator, you typically need a vector
network analyzer (VNA) or a similar instrument capable of measuring S-parameters. Here's a
general procedure:
1. Calibration: Calibrate the VNA with appropriate calibration standards to ensure accurate
measurements.
2. Setup: Connect the input port of the isolator to the VNA's output port and the output port of
the isolator to the VNA's input port.
3. Measurement: Measure the S-parameters of the isolator. The S21 parameter represents the
transmission from port 1 to port 2 (forward transmission) and can be used to calculate the
insertion loss. The S12 parameter represents the transmission from port 2 to port 1 (reverse
transmission) and can be used to calculate the isolation factor.
4. Calculation: Calculate the insertion loss and isolation factor using the S-parameters:
5. Analysis: Analyze the measured values to understand the performance of the isolator.
It's important to follow proper measurement practices and consider factors su ch as frequency,
power levels, and environmental conditions that can affect the measurements and the
performance of the isolator.

EXPERIMENT:11
Procedure:
 Without connecting the isolator or circulator, connect the detector mount directly at the
output of the variable attenuator. Connect detector mount to the VSWR meter.
 Energize the microwave source for maximum output for a particular frequency of
operation. Tune the detector mount for maximum output in the VSWR meter. Let it be
P1.
 Carefully remove the detector mount without disturbing the position of the set up. Insert
the isolator/circulator between the attenuator and the detector mount. Keep input port to
the attenuator and output port to the detector. A matched termination should be placed at
third port in case of Circulator.
 Record the reading in VSWR meter. Let it be P2. Compute insertion loss given as P1 –
P2 in dB.
 For measuring isolation, the isolator or circulator has to be connected in reverse i.e.
output port to attenuator and input port to detector with other port terminated by matched
termination (for circulator).
 Record the reading of VSWR meter after and let it be P3.
 Compute isolation as P1 – P3 in dB.
 The same experiment can be done for other ports of circulator.
Observations:
Vbeam = 245 V
Vrepller = -230 V
P1 = -33 dB
P2 = -34 dB
P3 = -53 dB
Insertion loss = -P2 + Tx power = P1 - P2 = 1dB

Isolation loss = P1 -P3 = 20dB
Conclusion:
We are measuring the insertion loss and isolation factor of isolators are fundamental practices that
contribute to the successful design and operation of RF and microwave systems.

EXPERIMENT:12
Aim: To study and measure the insertion loss and isolation factor of circulator.
Apparatus: Gunn Diode oscillator with power supply, Isolator, Circulator, VSWR meter, tunable
probe, etc.
Block Diagram:

EXPERIMENT:12
Theory:
Circulator:
Circulator is defined with ports arranged such that energy entering a port is coupled to an
adjacent port but not coupled to the other ports. Circulator can have any number of ports.
It is a multiport device such that wave incident on nth port is couple to (n+1)th Port only,i.e.,if
power is incident in port 1,port 2 is coupled but not ports 3 &
4.microwave circulators with four ports are shown in fig. A four port circulator may be
constructed from two tee or hybrid junctions and a gyrator which produces an additional
phaseshift of 180° for propogation in the direction from a to b.the electric lengths of propogation
from b to a,c to d and d to c are equal.
fig. four-port microwave circulator utilizing magic-tee

EXPERIMENT:12
Operation:
Consider a wave incident on port-1, it splits into two equal in-phase waves propagating in side
arms reach at a & c in phase thereby emerging in the ‘adder’ arm of another tee,i.e . port-2. The
incident wave in port-2 will split in two waves which arrive at b & d with 180° phase shift & as a
result, shall be added in subtractor arm of the second magic tee ,i.e. port-3 and so on.
Compact 4-port circulator:
It may be constructed using 3 dB side –hole directional couplers and two nonresidential 90°
ferrite phase shifters .the letter consists of thin ferrite rod of length l placed in a rectangular
waveguide where the magnetic field of mode is circularly polarized. A biasing magnetic
field is applied in y- direction. Since, two circular polarizations have different propagation
constraints , so a differential phase shift of between two polarizations may be
obtained if the length of the rod is chosen as
( .
A compact four port circulator is shown in fig. Two phase shifters are biased in opposite
direction. One guide is loaded with the ferrite non-reciprocal phase shifter while the other by a
reciprocal dielectric phase shifter.

EXPERIMENT:12
Fig.a compact four port circulator

Working of compact 4-port circulator:
Consider a wave incident on port-1. This wave is split into two waves by first 3-db coupler. The
upper wave undergoes a 90° phase change because of coupling character of the hole. This
wave(in upper guide) shall reach port-2 with a relative phase 180° and the wave in lower
waveguide at port-4 with a phase 90°. The second coupler again splits the waves such that
resultant waves go out of phase and hence cancel out in port-4, while they go in phase and hence
add in port-2.
The important circulator parameters are:
i.Insertion loss: It is the ratio of power detached at the output port to the power supplied by
source to the input port, measured with other ports terminated in the matched Load. It is
expressed in dB.
ii.Isolation factor: It is the ratio of power applied to the output to that measured at the input. This
ratio is expressed in dB. The isolation of a circulator is measured with the third port terminated
in a matched load.
PROCEDURE:
1. Without connecting the isolator or circulator, connect the detector mount directly at the
output of the variable attenuator. Connect detector mount to the VSWR meter.
2. Energize the microwave source for maximum output for a particular frequency of
operation. Tune the detector mount for maximum output in the VSWR meter. Let it be
P1.
3. Carefully remove the detector mount without disturbing the position of the set up. Insert
the isolator/circulator between the attenuator and the detector mount. Keep input port to
the attenuator and output port to the detector. A matched termination should be placed at
third port in case of Circulator.
4. Record the reading in VSWR meter. Let it be P2.
5. Compute insertion loss given as P1 – P2 in dB.
6. For measuring isolation, the isolator or circulator has to be connected in reverse i.e.
output port to attenuator and input port to detector with other port terminated by matched
termination (for circulator).
7. Record the reading of VSWR meter after and let it be P3.
8. Compute isolation as P1 – P3 in dB.
9. The same experiment can be done for other ports of circulator.

EXPERIMENT:12
Observations:
P1 (dB) P2(dB) P3(dB) Insertion Loss Isolation Loss
-32.73 -32.5 -40 0.77 8.27
-52 -32.73 -33.2 1.47 20.27
-35.22 -42 -32.73 3.49 10.27
Conclusion:
We studied a circulator, the forward mode of circulator, has insertion loss around 1 dB and
power value is more than last port. In reverse mode, insertion loss and power o/p is very less and
can be considered negligible.

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Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering

Name of the staff: Prof. Chhaya Suratwala, Prof. Swathi kundram

Sr. Title CO Date Sign

1 Introduction to Antenna Software (AN-SOF), different parameters of CO2, 02/01/2024

5 A] Construct a Planer Tx - Planer Rx antenna using the CO1, 30/01/2024

9 To analyze the Reflex Klystron mode characteristics. CO3, 27/02/2024

10 To Measure and analyze frequency in a rectangular waveguide CO3, 06/03/2024

Aim: Introduction to Antenna Software (AN-SOF), different parameters of the Antenna

PRIYANSHI PATEL (ET21BTEC049) 1

PRIYANSHI PATEL (ET21BTEC049) 2

PRIYANSHI PATEL (ET21BTEC049) 3

PRIYANSHI PATEL (ET21BTEC049) 4

Where to add source

Add Impedance and resistance as a source

PRIYANSHI PATEL (ET21BTEC049) 5

PRIYANSHI PATEL (ET21BTEC049) 6

PRIYANSHI PATEL (ET21BTEC049) 7

PRIYANSHI PATEL (ET21BTEC049) 8

PRIYANSHI PATEL (ET21BTEC049) 9

PRIYANSHI PATEL (ET21BTEC049) 10

 Consider frequency= 290 MHz

 Decide the number of segments:

PRIYANSHI PATEL (ET21BTEC049) 1

 Add source & load to the antenna:

 Design the antenna on X axes:

PRIYANSHI PATEL (ET21BTEC049) 2

 Plot current distribution on X axes:

 Generate the Far-field 3D plot on X axes:

PRIYANSHI PATEL (ET21BTEC049) 3

 Design the pattern of X axes antenna far-field polar 1 slice:

Fixed theta, theta=90

PRIYANSHI PATEL (ET21BTEC049) 4

Fixed phi, phi=0

Fixed phi, phi=90

PRIYANSHI PATEL (ET21BTEC049) 5

 Design the pattern of X axes antenna far-field polar 2 slice:

 Current distribution of X axes:

PRIYANSHI PATEL (ET21BTEC049) 6

 Plot current distribution on X axes:

PRIYANSHI PATEL (ET21BTEC049) 7

 Generate the Far-field 3D plot on X axes:

 Design the pattern of X axes antenna far-field polar 1 slice:

PRIYANSHI PATEL (ET21BTEC049) 8

Fixed theta, theta=90

Fixed phi, phi=0

PRIYANSHI PATEL (ET21BTEC049) 9

Fixed phi, phi=90

 Design the pattern of X axes antenna far-field polar 2 slice:

PRIYANSHI PATEL (ET21BTEC049) 10

 Current distribution of X axes:

PRIYANSHI PATEL (ET21BTEC049) 11

 Plot current distribution on X axes:

PRIYANSHI PATEL (ET21BTEC049) 12

 Generate the Far-field 3D plot on X axes:

 Design the pattern of X axes antenna far-field polar 1 slice:

PRIYANSHI PATEL (ET21BTEC049) 13

Fixed theta, theta=90

Fixed phi, phi=0

PRIYANSHI PATEL (ET21BTEC049) 14

Fixed phi, phi=90

 Design the pattern of X axes antenna far-field polar 2 slice:

PRIYANSHI PATEL (ET21BTEC049) 15

 Current distribution of X axes:

PRIYANSHI PATEL (ET21BTEC049) 16