JSS MAHAVIDYAPEETHA

JSS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

SRI JAYACHAMARAJENDRA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
• Constituent College of JSS Science and Technology University
• Approved by A.I.C.T.E.
• Governed by the Grant-in-Aid Rules of Government of Karnataka
• Identified as lead institution for World Bank Assistance under TEQIP Scheme

Heat and Mass Transfer

20ME620
SYLLABUS

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The Need for a Review of Fluid Mechanics

• Convection is 'heat transfer in the presence of fluid flow

• Fluid flow affects heat transfer

• We need to determine pressure-drop or drag force in a situation of

convective heat transfer

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Review of Fluid Mechanics

We are expected to be familiar with

• Governing equations of fluid flow

• Determination of pressure drop when a fluid flows in a duct
(internal flow)
• Determination of drag force when a fluid flows around a body
immersed in it (external flow)
• Laminar and turbulent flows

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Governing Equations of Fluid Flow

These equations represent

• Conservation of mass

• Conservation of momentum (Newton's second law of motion)

We also use
• Stokes relations between stress and rate of strain

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Governing Equations of Fluid Flow (Contd)

The resulting equations are known as the Navier-Stokes equations.

These consist of

• An equation for conservation of mass, called the continuity equation

• Equations for conservation of each component of momentum

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The Navier-Stokes Equations

We will look at situations which are steady-state, constant property,

incompressible, laminar, and two-dimensional.

In a Cartesian coordinate system, we have a continuity equation

𝛛𝑽𝒙 𝛛𝑽𝒚
+ =𝟎
𝛛𝒙 𝛛𝒚

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The Navier-Stokes Equations (Contd)
And two momentum equations:
In the-direction:
𝛛𝒑 𝛛𝟐 𝑽𝒛 𝛛𝟐 𝑽𝒛 𝛛𝑽𝒙 𝛛𝑽𝒛
− +𝝁 𝟐
+ 𝟐
= 𝝆 𝑽𝒛 + 𝑽𝒗
𝛛𝒙 𝛛𝒙 𝛛𝒚 𝛛𝒙 𝛛𝒚
and in the y-direction:

𝛛𝒚 𝛛𝟐 𝑽𝒚 𝛛𝟐 𝑽𝒚 𝛛𝑽𝒚 𝛛𝑽𝒚
− +𝝁 𝟐
+ 𝟐
= 𝝆 𝑽𝒙 + 𝑽𝒚
𝛛𝒚 𝛛𝒙 𝛛𝒚 𝛛𝒙 𝛛𝒚

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The Navier-Stokes Equations (Contd)

• These equations are not easy to solve.

• Solutions can be obtained only for some simple situations.

• In a large number of situations, we generally depend on correlations

based on experimental data.

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PHYSICAL MECHANISM OF CONVECTION
Conduction and convection both require the presence
of a material medium but convection requires fluid
motion.
Convection involves fluid motion as well as heat
conduction.
Heat transfer through a solid is always by conduction.
Heat transfer through a fluid is by convection in the
presence of bulk fluid motion and by conduction in the
absence of it
The rate of heat transfer through a fluid is much higher
by convection than it is by conduction.
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Convection heat transfer strongly depends on the fluid properties
dynamic viscosity, thermal conductivity, density, and specific heat,
as well as the fluid velocity. It also depends on the geometry and
the roughness of the solid surface, in addition to the type of fluid
flow (such as being streamlined or turbulent).

h = convection heat transfer coefficient, W/m² °C

AS =heat transfer surface area, m²
TS =Temperature of the surface, °C
T∞ = Temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface, °C
Convection heat transfer coefficient, h: The rate of heat transfer between a
solid surface and a fluid per unit surface area per unit temperature
difference. 15
 CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
Viscous and Inviscid Flow
Internal and External Flow
Compressible and Incompressible Flow
Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Natural (or Unforced) and Forced Flow
Steady and Unsteady (Transient) Flow
One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows

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• Viscous and inviscid flow:
➢Flow in which frictional effects are significant called viscous effect (near B.L) and where
viscous effects are negligible are called inviscid flow( far from B.L).
• Internal and external flow:
➢The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such as a plate, wire or pipe is external and
flow in confined channel such as in a pipe or duct is called internal flow.
• Compressible an incompressible flow
➢If the density of fluid remains constant throughout , it is incompressible flow (no relation of
P and ρ) otherwise compressible.
• Steady and unsteady flow
➢No change at a point with time called steady otherwise unsteady.
➢Transient flow term is used for developing flows.
• Uniform and non-uniform flow
➢No change with location is uniform flow otherwise non-uniform flow.
• One, two & three dimensional flow
➢Cartesian coordinates V(x,y,z)
➢Cylindrical coordinates V(r,θ,z)
 Laminar and Turbulent Flows
• Laminar flow ─ the flow is characterized by
smooth streamlines and highly-ordered
motion.

• Turbulent flow ─ the flow is

characterized by velocity
fluctuations and
highly-disordered motion.

• The transition from laminar

to turbulent flow does not
occur suddenly.
• The velocity profile in turbulent flow is much fuller than that in laminar flow, with
a sharp drop near the surface.
• The turbulent boundary layer can be considered to consist of four regions:
• Viscous sublayer
• Buffer layer
• Overlap layer
• Turbulent layer
• The intense mixing in turbulent flow enhances heat and momentum transfer,
which increases the friction force on the surface and the convection heat transfer
rate.
• Fluid in motion comes to a complete stop at the
surface and assumes a zero velocity relative to the
surface (no-slip).

• The no-slip condition is responsible for the

development of the velocity profile.

• The flow region adjacent to the wall in which the

viscous effects (and thus the velocity gradients) are
significant is called the boundary layer.

• An implication of the no-slip condition is that heat

transfer from the solid surface to the fluid layer
adjacent to the surface is by pure conduction
 Velocity Boundary Layer
• Consider the parallel flow of a fluid over a flat plate.
• x-coordinate: along the plate surface
• y-coordinate: from the surface in the normal direction.
• The fluid approaches the plate in the x-direction with a uniform velocity V.
• Because of the no-slip condition V(y=0)=0.
• The presence of the plate is felt up to d.
• Beyond d the free-stream velocity remains essentially unchanged.
• The fluid velocity, u, varies from 0 at y=0 to nearly V at y= d.
 Velocity Boundary Layer
• The region of the flow above the plate bounded by d
is called the velocity boundary layer.
• d is typically defined as
the distance y from the
surface at which
u=0.99V.
• The hypothetical line of
u=0.99V divides the flow over a plate into two
regions:
• the boundary layer region, and
• the irrotational flow region.(inviscid region)
 Surface Shear Stress
• Consider the flow of a fluid over the surface of a plate.
• The fluid layer in contact with the surface tries to drag the plate along via
friction, exerting a friction force on it.
• Friction force per unit area is called shear stress, and is denoted by t.
• Experimental studies indicate that the shear stress for most fluids is
proportional to the velocity gradient.
• The shear stress at the wall surface for these fluids is expressed as
u
s =  (N/m 2 )
y y =0
• The fluids that that obey the linear relationship above are called
Newtonian fluids.
• The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to deformation.
 Thermal Boundary Layer
• Like the velocity a thermal boundary layer
develops when a fluid at a specified temperature
flows over a surface that is at a different
temperature.
• Consider the flow of a fluid at a uniform
temperature of T∞ over an isothermal flat plate
at temperature Ts.
• The fluid particles in the layer adjacent assume
the surface temperature Ts.
• A temperature profile develops that ranges from
Ts at the surface to T∞ sufficiently far from the
surface.
• The thermal boundary layer ─ the flow region
over the surface in which the temperature
variation in the direction normal to the surface is
significant.
• The thickness of the thermal boundary layer dt at any location
along the surface is defined as the distance from the surface at
which the temperature difference T(y=dt)-Ts= 0.99(T∞-Ts).

• The thickness of the thermal boundary layer increases in the

flow direction.

• The convection heat transfer rate anywhere along the surface is

directly related to the temperature gradient at that location.
 The Nusselt Number
• It is common practice to nondimensionalize the governing equations into dimension
less number to reduce total variables.
hLc
Nu =
k
• Heat flux through the fluid layer by convection and by conduction can be expressed as,
respectively:

qconv = hT T
qcond =k
L
• Taking their ratio gives
qconv hT hL
= = = Nu
qcond k T / L k

• The Nusselt number represents the enhancement of heat transfer through a fluid layer
as a result of convection relative to conduction across the same fluid layer.
• Nu=1 →pure conduction.
 Prandtl Number
• The relative thickness of the velocity and the thermal
boundary layers is best described by the
dimensionless parameter Prandtl number, defined
as
Molecular diffusivity of momentum   c p
Pr = = =
Molecular diffusivity of heat  k
• Heat diffuses very quickly in liquid metals (Pr«1) and
very slowly in oils (Pr»1).
• Consequently the thermal boundary layer is much
thicker for liquid metals and much thinner for oils
relative to the velocity boundary layer.
 Reynolds Number
• The transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the
surface geometry, surface roughness, flow velocity, surface
temperature, and type of fluid.
• The flow regime depends mainly on the ratio of the inertia forces
to viscous forces in the fluid.
• This ratio is called the Reynolds number, which is expressed for
external flow as
Inertia forces VLc VLc
Re = = =
Viscous forces  
• At large Reynolds numbers (turbulent flow) the inertia forces are
large relative to the viscous forces.
• At small or moderate Reynolds numbers (laminar flow), the
viscous forces are large enough to suppress these fluctuations
and to keep the fluid “inline.”
• Critical Reynolds number ─ the Reynolds number at which the
flow becomes turbulent.
Air at 20°C and at a pressure of 1 bar is flowing over a flat plate at a
velocity of 3 m/s. If the plate is 280 mm wide and at 56°C, calculate the
following quantities at x = 280 mm,
(i) Boundary layer thickness,
(ii) Local friction coefficient,
(iii) Average friction coefficient,
(iv) Shearing stress due to friction,
(v) Thickness of the boundary layer,
(vi) Local convective heat transfer coefficient,
(vii) Average convective heat transfer coefficient,
(viii) Rate of heat transfer by convection,
(ix) Total drag force on the plate, and
(x) Total mass flow rate through the boundary.
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 𝟐𝟎 + 𝟓𝟔
𝑭𝒊𝒍𝒎 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑻𝒇 = = 𝟑𝟖∘ 𝐂
𝟐

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Dry air at atmospheric pressure and 20°C is flowing with a velocity
of 3 m/s along the length of a long, flat plate, 0.3 m wide,
maintained at 100°C.
(a) Calculate the following quantities at x = 0.3 m:
(i) boundary layer thickness (ii) local friction coefficient (iii) average
friction coefficient (iv) local shear stress due to friction (v) thickness
of thermal boundary layer (vi) local convection heat transfer
coefficient (vii) average heat transfer coefficient (viii) rate of heat
transfer from the plate and (ix) total drag force on the plate

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A submarine can be assumed to have cylindrical shape with
rounded nose. Assuming its length to be 50 m and diameter
5.0 m, determine the total power required to overcome
boundary friction if it cruises at 8 m/s velocity in sea water at
20°C (p = 1030 kg/m³), v = 1 x 10-6 m²/s.

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Solution.
Length of submarine, L = 50 m
Diameter of submarine, D = 50 m
Velocity of submarine, U = 8 m/s
Density of sea water, p = 1030 kg/m³
Kinematic viscosity of sea water, v = 1 x 10-6 m²/s
Total power required to overcome boundary friction, P:

The length over which boundary layer will be laminar is given by

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This being very small contribution to total drag from laminar boundary layer
is negligible; hence Cf is given by

Hence total power required to overcome boundary friction,

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Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional analysis considers the various quantities that contribute to
the phenomenon and reduces these variables into dimensionless groups.

Dimensional analysis alone is not of much use, and this method must
always be supplemented by experimental data since to determine the
coefficients in the functional relationships between the dimensionless
groups we need actual, practical data.

First list the pertinent variables that influence the phenomenon. Once this
is done, mathematics involved is minimum, and the method can be applied
routinely to most of the problems.

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Primary dimensions and dimensional formulas.
Fundamental axiom of dimensional analysis is that equations describing a physical
phenomenon must be dimensionally homogeneous and units therein must be consistent.
'Dimension' is a qualitative expression whereas unit is quantitative.
In S.I. system, there are four 'primary dimensions' viz. Length (L), Mass (M), Time (t) and
Temperature (T). Other derived quantities can be expressed in terms of these primary
dimensions. Dimensional formula for a physical quantity is obtained from its definition or
from physical laws involved. For example,
Dimension of length of a bar: [L]
Dimension of velocity: Distance/time: [L/t] = L.t-1
Dimension of Force: Mass x acceleration = [M.L/t²] = [M. L. t-²]
Dimension of Work: Force x distance: [M. L. t-²].L = [M. L². t-2]
Dimension of Power: Work/time:= [M. L2.t³], ..., etc.
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Table shows a few physical quantities, their symbols, units and dimensional formulas.

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Dimensional analysis for forced convection.

The application of Buckingham's theorem to the case of convection heat

transfer for a fluid flowing across a heated tube; same approach is
applicable for heat transfer for a fluid flowing inside a tube or flowing over
a plate.

First, it is necessary to list the pertinent parameters influencing the physical

phenomenon. From the description of the problem, it appears reasonable
to assume that the physical quantities listed below (along with their
dimensional formulas) are relevant to this problem:

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 SL
QUANTITY SYMBOL UNITS DIMENSIONS
NO.
1 Tube diameter D m L
2 Fluid density p Kg/m3 ML-3
3 Fluid velocity V m/s Lt¯¹
4 Fluid viscosity u Kg/m.s ML-¹t-1
5 Specific heat Cp J/kgK L2t-2T-1
6 Thermal conductivity k W/mK MLt-3T-1
7 Heat transfer coefficient h W/m2K Mt-3T-1

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Thus, we see that there are 7 pertinent variables affecting the physical
phenomenon and they contain 4 fundamental dimensions L, M, t and T.
Then, from Buckingham's theorem, we deduce that (7-4) = 3 independent
dimensionless groups would be formed to correlate experimental data.
Now, let us form the 'core group' of 4 variables, keeping in mind the
principles enumerated above.
Let us choose d, V, p, and h for the core group. They contain among
themselves all the primary dimensions; they do not form dimensionless
groups among themselves; no two variables have same dimensions; and,
one variable (D) is a geometric property, one variable (V) is a flow property,
and p is a fluid property. Then, the different π terms are obtained by
combining the core group with each one of the remaining (7-4) properties:

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Exponents of terms in π -terms are chosen so as to make the π terms dimensionless. So,
we start with π1 and write the dimensional formulas of each quantity and apply the
requirement of dimensional homogeneity:
For π₁

Equating the exponents of M, L, t and T on either side, for dimensional homogeneity:

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Dividing this by another dimensionless number, i.e. Reynolds number gives again another dimensionless number; so, we get:

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Eq. is the desired relation among the various physical quantities affecting forced
convection across a tube, expressed in terms of dimensionless numbers Nu, Re and Pr.
Note:

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Air at atmospheric pressure and 40° C flows with a velocity of
5 m/s over a 2 m long flat plate whose surface is kept at a
uniform temperature of 120°C. Determine the average heat
transfer coefficient over the 2 m length of the plate. Also find
out the rate of heat transfer between the plate and the air per
1 m width of the plate.

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Air at 20°C is flowing over a flat plate which is 200 mm wide and
500 mm long. The plate is maintained at 100°C. Find the heat loss
per hour from the plate if the air is flowing parallel to 500 mm
side with 2m/s velocity. What will be the effect on heat transfer if
the flow is parallel to 200 mm side.

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Tf =

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In a certain glass making process, a square plate of glass 1 m²
area and 3 mm thick heated uniformly to 90° C is cooled by air
at 20°C flowing over both sides parallel to the plate at 2 m/s.
Calculate the initial rate of cooling the plate.
Neglect temperature gradient in the glass plate and consider
only forced connection.
Take for glass: ρ = 2500 kg/m³ and CP = 0.67 kJ/kg K p
Take the following properties of air :
ρ = 1.076 kg/m3; CP = 1008 J/kg K, k = 0.0286 W/m° C and
μ = 19.8 × 10-6 N-s/m².

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0.698

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A flat plate, 1 m wide and 1.5 m long is maintained at 90°C in air with free
stream temperature of 10°C, flowing along 1.5 m side of the plate.
Determine the velocity of air required to have a rate of energy dissipation
as 3.75 kW. Use correlations:

NuL = 0.664 Re0.5 Pr 1/3 for Laminar flow, and

NuL = [0.036 Re0.8 - 836].Pr1/3 for turbulent flow.

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