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Aerodynamics Principles
for Air Transport Pilots
Aerodynamics Principles
for Air Transport Pilots

Rose G. Davies
First edition published 2020

by CRC Press
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and by CRC Press

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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

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Typeset in Palatino LT Std

by Deanta Global Publishing, Services, Chennai, India
Contents

Preface ......................................................................................................................xi
Acknowledgment ................................................................................................ xiii
Author .....................................................................................................................xv
Notation ............................................................................................................... xvii

1. Calculus Revision ...........................................................................................1

Differentiation ..................................................................................................1
Function analysis (derivatives) ......................................................................3
Extreme values ............................................................................................4
Derivatives of functions of multi-variables..................................................6
Partial differentiation .................................................................................6
Gradient ∇ ...............................................................................................7
Total derivative ............................................................................................9
Integration ....................................................................................................... 10
Indefnite integral...................................................................................... 11
Defnite integral......................................................................................... 12
Exercises .......................................................................................................... 13

2. Fundamental Principles of Aerodynamics (Subsonic) ......................... 15

Continuity Equation ...................................................................................... 15
Bernoulli’s Equation ...................................................................................... 17
Stagnation Pressure .................................................................................. 21
Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation .....................................................22
Venturi Tube (Flowrate Meter) ...........................................................22
Pitot Tube (Airspeed) ........................................................................... 24
Lift Produced by a Subsonic Aerofoil ............................................... 25
Ideal Gas Law ............................................................................................ 26
First Law of Thermodynamics ..................................................................... 28
Processes ......................................................................................................... 29
p-V Diagram............................................................................................... 29
Isothermal Process ....................................................................................30
Isobaric Process ......................................................................................... 31
Isochoric (Isovolumetric) Process ........................................................... 31
Adiabatic Process ...................................................................................... 33
Energy Equation.............................................................................................34
Stagnation Temperature ........................................................................... 36
Exercises .......................................................................................................... 37

v
vi Contents

3. Viscous Flow and Boundary Layer ........................................................... 39

Viscosity .......................................................................................................... 39
Effect of Pressure and Temperature on Viscosity ................................ 40
Pressure Loss ..................................................................................................42
Reynolds Number and Regimes of Viscous Flow.....................................44
Reynolds Number ..................................................................................... 45
Regimes of Viscous Flow ......................................................................... 45
Boundary Layers ............................................................................................ 47
Structure of the Boundary Layer ............................................................ 48
Viscous Flow of Boundary Layer............................................................ 50
Speed Profle within the Boundary Layer ........................................ 50
Viscous Friction (Skin Drag) ............................................................... 52
Boundary-Layer Separation over a Curved Surface (Stall) .................54
Form Drag – Separation Drag ................................................................. 57
Exercises .......................................................................................................... 60

4. Aerodynamic Forces – Subsonic Flight .................................................... 61

Geometric Features of Aerofoils .................................................................. 61
Name of Aerofoil ....................................................................................... 62
Finite/Infnite Wings ................................................................................64
Theory of Lift..................................................................................................65
Bernoulli’s Theorem.................................................................................. 66
PDE Aerodynamics System ..................................................................... 67
Circulation Theory of Lift ........................................................................ 69
Drag ................................................................................................................. 74
Induced Drag ............................................................................................. 75
Induced Drag Coeffcient ....................................................................77
Parasite Drag .............................................................................................. 79
Skin Drag ...............................................................................................80
Form Drag .............................................................................................80
Interference Drag.................................................................................. 81
Total Drag ...................................................................................................83
Features of Aerofoil on Aerodynamic Forces ............................................84
Thickness of Aerofoil................................................................................84
Aspect Ratio of Aerofoil ........................................................................... 86
Camber of Aerofoil ................................................................................... 87
Laminar Flow Aerofoil ............................................................................. 88
Features to Delay/Prevent Boundary Layer Separation...................... 88
Shape of Wing Tip ..................................................................................... 91
Washout ...................................................................................................... 92
Exercises .......................................................................................................... 92

5. Stability .......................................................................................................... 93
Revision on Moment...................................................................................... 93
Aerodynamic Forces ................................................................................. 93
Contents vii

Principles of Moment................................................................................ 93
Moment .................................................................................................. 94
Force Couple.......................................................................................... 96
Superposition of Force ......................................................................... 96
Pitch Moment and Pitch Moment Coeffcient ............................................ 97
Aerodynamic Center (AC) ....................................................................... 99
Calculation of Aerodynamic Center .................................................. 99
Longitudinal Stability ................................................................................. 103
Effects on Longitudinal Stability .......................................................... 103
Wings .................................................................................................. 104
Center of Gravity (CG) ....................................................................... 104
Tail Plane ............................................................................................. 105
Fuselage ............................................................................................... 106
Longitudinal Dihedral ...................................................................... 106
Longitudinal Stability Diagram............................................................ 107
Lateral Stability ............................................................................................ 108
Factors on Lateral Stability .................................................................... 109
Lateral Dihedral ................................................................................. 109
Shielding .............................................................................................. 110
Wing Position (Vertical)..................................................................... 111
Fin Area ............................................................................................... 111
Sweep-Back Wings ............................................................................. 112
Lateral Stability Diagram ....................................................................... 112
Directional Stability..................................................................................... 114
Factors on Directional Stability............................................................. 115
Fin ......................................................................................................... 115
Side/“Keel” Area ................................................................................ 116
Position of CG ..................................................................................... 117
Sweep-Back Wing ............................................................................... 117
Directional Stability Diagram ............................................................... 117
Lateral and Directional Stability (Dynamic) ........................................... 119
Spiral Instability ...................................................................................... 119
Dutch Roll ................................................................................................ 119
Design Requirements for Lateral and Directional Stability ............. 120
Longitudinal Dynamic Stability ................................................................ 120
Phugoid Mode ......................................................................................... 120
Short Period Mode .................................................................................. 121
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 121

6. Speed of Sound and Mach Number........................................................ 123

Speed of Sound in Air ................................................................................. 123
Mach Number .............................................................................................. 126
Mach Wave ............................................................................................... 127
Shockwaves .............................................................................................. 128
viii Contents

Special Mach Numbers .......................................................................... 129

Ranges of Flights ..................................................................................... 131
Mach Number Measurement ..................................................................... 131
Low Subsonic Flight ............................................................................... 131
High Subsonic and Low Transonic Flight ........................................... 132
Supersonic Flight..................................................................................... 133
Mach Number Applications ....................................................................... 134
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 136

7. Compressible Air Flow .............................................................................. 137

Compressible 1-D Airfow System ............................................................. 137
Continuity Equation ............................................................................... 137
Momentum (Euler) Equation................................................................. 138
Energy Equation ...................................................................................... 138
Ideal Gas Law (State Equation of Gas) ................................................. 138
Critical Point ............................................................................................ 138
Speed Coeffcient M* .............................................................................. 142
Compressible Airfow with a Variable Area of Flow Path ..................... 144
Converging-Diverging Nozzle .............................................................. 147
Shockwave .................................................................................................... 150
Formation of Shockwave ........................................................................ 150
Air Properties Before and after a Normal Shockwave ...................... 150
Shockwave in a Flow Path .......................................................................... 156
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 158

8. Aerodynamics of Transonic Aerofoils ................................................... 159

Shockwaves on Aerofoil.............................................................................. 159
Structure of Shockwave on Aerofoil .................................................... 159
Movement of Shockwave on Aerofoil .................................................. 161
Effective Critical Mach Number ........................................................... 163
Changes of CP, CL, and CD on a Transonic Aerofoil ................................ 163
Shockwave on Lift ................................................................................... 163
Shock Drag ............................................................................................... 164
Wave Drag ........................................................................................... 164
Boundary Separation Drag ............................................................... 164
Changes of CP, CL, and CD between Mcrit to Mdet ................................ 165
Shock Stall ..................................................................................................... 168
Shockwaves on Control Surfaces ............................................................... 169
Transonic Control Issues ........................................................................ 169
Longitudinal ....................................................................................... 169
Lateral .................................................................................................. 172
Directional ........................................................................................... 172
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 174
Contents ix

9. Transonic Flight and Aerofoils ................................................................ 175

Transonic Speed Limits............................................................................... 175
Coffn Corner ........................................................................................... 176
Buffet Boundary ...................................................................................... 177
Effects on Buffet Boundary ................................................................... 178
Cross-Over Altitude .................................................................................... 179
Increase Mcrit ................................................................................................. 180
Slimness.................................................................................................... 181
Flat Leading Edge ................................................................................... 182
Sweepback ................................................................................................ 182
Vortex Generators ................................................................................... 183
Transonic Aerofoils...................................................................................... 183
Low Thickness to Chord Ratio t/c ........................................................ 183
Supercritical Aerofoil.............................................................................. 185
Sweepback Wings ................................................................................... 186
Devices to Delay Shock Stall ................................................................. 189
Wing Fences ........................................................................................ 189
Vortex Generators ............................................................................... 190
Anti-Shock Body................................................................................. 190
Area Rule....................................................................................................... 190
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 191

10. Supersonic Waves ....................................................................................... 193

Two Examples of Reversible and Irreversible Adiabatic
Processes (Supersonic) ................................................................................ 193
Reversible ................................................................................................. 193
Irreversible ............................................................................................... 194
Oblique Shockwaves.................................................................................... 195
Air Properties Before and After an Oblique Shockwave .................. 196
θ−β−M Equation ...................................................................................... 200
Expansion Waves ......................................................................................... 205
Air Properties before and after Expansion Waves ............................. 206
Size of Expansion Region....................................................................... 208
The Limit of Expansion .......................................................................... 209
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 211

11. Introduction of Supersonic Flight........................................................... 213

Supersonic Flow over Aerofoil ................................................................... 213
Thin Plate ................................................................................................. 214
Pressure Coeffcient ................................................................................ 214
Double Wedge.......................................................................................... 216
Biconvex .................................................................................................... 219
Boundary Layer and Drag ..........................................................................222
x Contents

Boundary Layer in Supersonic Flow ....................................................222

Drag of Supersonic Flight ......................................................................223
Supersonic Wings and Planforms ............................................................. 224
Unswept Wings ....................................................................................... 224
Swept Wings ............................................................................................225
Delta Wings..............................................................................................225
Variable Sweep Wings ............................................................................ 226
Body Shapes of Supersonic Airplanes ................................................. 227
Kinetic Heating ............................................................................................ 228
Supersonic Control ...................................................................................... 230

Appendix I: List of Derivatives....................................................................... 231

Appendix II: θ–β–M Diagram ......................................................................... 233
Appendix III: Prandtl–Meyer Function ........................................................ 235
Appendix IV: Answers to Exercises ............................................................... 237
References ........................................................................................................... 243
Index ..................................................................................................................... 245
Preface

It is extremely important for students aspiring to be air transport pilots to

clearly understand aerodynamic principles. This is best achieved by com-
mencing with fundamental principles and progressing into the necessary
use of the theories in physics and mathematical analysis needed to acquire
the appropriate level of knowledge. This is, in particular, benefcial for ter-
tiary pilot students.
Aerodynamics has been taught to pilots in various ways, depending on the
category of the licensing examination. The aerodynamics courses offered to
Bachelor of Aviation (BAv) students in the Air Transport Pilot Program at
Massey University in New Zealand are structured such that the theory is
linked to applied aerodynamics. Such a course structure equips the students
with the ability to relate theory to practical fight and enables them to bet-
ter analyse real-life situations. These courses are not just designed for BAv
students; they can also provide professional air transport pilots with guid-
ance, based on theory, to understand abnormal issues encountered in prac-
tice. The content of this book has been developed from courses delivered at
Massey University, the scope of the book being to provide a bridge between
the academic content of classical aerodynamics and the practical phenomena
encountered during aircraft operations. The learning material in this book is
presented in three major sections, namely incompressible airfow, compress-
ible airfow, and supersonic waves. This book covers the requirements for
aerodynamics up to and beyond the level required for an Air Transport Pilot
Licence (ATPL).
Chapter 1 is revision of the calculus required for this book. Chapters 2, 3, 4,
and 5 deal with incompressible fuid dynamics, basic principles in thermo-
dynamics, and viscous fow. The aerodynamic aspects of subsonic fight,
namely lift, drag, and stall, are explained using these principles, specifcally
the relationship between angle of attack (AoA), lift coeffcient, and airspeed.
Subsequently, there is discussion on the aerodynamic functionality of fea-
tures of aerofoils and other devices on the wings, followed by the effects
of these on lift coeffcient, drag coeffcient, stall prevention, and aircraft
stability.
The aerodynamics principles for compressible airfow and their applica-
tions are introduced and discussed in Chapters 6, 7, 8, and 9. The changes
of airspeed and related air pressure, as well as the formation of shockwaves
are the main focus of this section. Applications of compressible fow aerody-
namics, its effects on mechanics of fight of high-subsonic and transonic air-
craft, transonic aerofoils and the fight control issues of transonic fights are
covered. Students are encouraged to develop methods to investigate aerody-
namic forces on any aerofoil to explain the performance of transonic aircraft,

xi
xii Preface

and, in turn, to demonstrate their understanding of problems that are unex-

pected, and complicated events that may occur during fight.
In the fnal section of this book (Chapters 10 and 11), oblique shockwave
and expansion waves in a supersonic airfow are analysed in relation to the
conditions at their formation, their characteristics, and the changes of air
property aft of the waves. The characteristics of the shockwaves and expan-
sion waves around supersonic aerofoils is analysed using the features of
these supersonic waves. The intention is to provide students with a grasp of
the aerodynamic principles of lift production, so that they can comprehend
the fundamental differences in the principles of aerodynamic forces for dif-
ferent aircraft from the low subsonic to the supersonic range.
It will be advantageous to students if they have some knowledge of funda-
mental physics and basic calculus, and preliminary fight experience before
taking the aerodynamics course based on the content of this book.
Acknowledgment

I owe a debt of gratitude to my students, who were the “guinea pigs” in my

journey to develop the concept of this book. When I produced the content
of each chapter, I tested it on them. They faithfully gave me their feedback.
I appreciate greatly their participation. I would like to express my gratitude
to my colleagues at the School of Aviation, Massey University, who have been
very supportive, creating a work environment where I could concentrate on
teaching and writing, the fight instructors, and technicians and engineers at
our hangar, who have been tirelessly answering my questions; I have learned
a great deal from them.
I thank Dr Tony Howes at the University of Queensland, Australia, who
volunteered to be my proof-reader. His rich knowledge in fuid dynam-
ics, physics, and engineering kept my thoughts on the right track. I thank
Mr Mohammad Seraj, who assisted me with creating the illustrations
required in this book. I appreciate his artistic ability and professionalism.
Lastly and importantly from the bottom of my heart, I thank Professor
Clive Davies, my husband, who was my frst reader, for his continual encour-
agement and unfailing support and love.

xiii
Author

Rose G. Davies works at the School of Aviation, Massey

University, New Zealand. She developed, and coordi-
nates the current aerodynamics courses for the BAv
degree in the Massey University Air Transport Program.
She has teaching experience in aero-science and aircraft
systems, physics and mathematics, and the foundation
courses for various degrees. She has a Bachelor’s degree
in mechanical engineering, majoring in internal com-
bustion engine design, a Master’s degree in engineer-
ing-thermophysics–combustion, and a PhD in applied
mathematics. Before starting her university teaching career, Rose had some
20 years’ research experience in mathematical modeling and fuid dynamics,
combustion, and remote sensing of engine emissions. She is a member of
ASME, AIAA, ANZIAM, and the Royal Society New Zealand, and a member
of the Editorial Board of the Journal of Aviation/Aerospace Education and
Research (JAAER).

xv
Notation

a Acceleration, speed of sound

A Area
AC Aerodynamic center
b Wing span
c Chord
CL Lift coeffcient
CD Drag coeffcient
Cp Pressure coeffcient
Cp Specifc heat while pressure is constant
CV Specifc heat while volume is constant
CP Center of pressure
D Drag
E Energy
h Height
L Lift
M Mach number; Molar mass
m Mass
p Pressure
Q Heat
R Universal gas constant
Re Reynolds number
RM Gas constant
S Area of wing
t Time
T Temperature
V Air fow speed, velocity
V Volume
W Weight; Work
x Displacement in horizontal or along stream line
y Displacement in vertical or perpendicular to the surface of aerofoil
α Angle of attack
γ Adiabatic index
δ Thickness of boundary layer; defection angle
λ Dynamic viscosity of fuid
μ Dynamic viscosity; Mach angle
ν Kinematic viscosity
ρ Density
θ Defection angle
β Shock angle
ϕ Diameter

xvii
1
Calculus Revision

Calculus is a convenient tool in aerodynamics. It aids in explaining the char-

acteristics of functions, which describe the airfow felds. It is assumed that
students have gained the skills to differentiate basic functions from previous
studies. Readers should have learnt the method to differentiate basic func-
tions – for example, polynomials, logarithmic, trigonometric, and exponen-
tial functions. This chapter concentrates on explaining some applications of
calculus, including the meanings of derivatives of a function in real life, an
analysis of the changes of a function with two or more variables, and simple
concepts of integration. This chapter will use plain language as much as pos-
sible so that readers can understand the mathematic expressions when the
concepts discussed are used in explaining aerodynamics principles.

Differentiation
In calculus, you have learnt differentiation. It is assumed that readers are
able to fnd the derivatives of a function. The following example shows how
to revise the meanings of derivatives in physics.
Assume a displacement (distance) y in m, of an object is a function of time
t in s, and the function is continuous, as shown in Figure 1.1. The function is:

y = y(t) = t 3 - 2t 2 - 2t + 1 (1.1)

where t is a variable and y is a function of t. Figure 1.1 illustrates this func-

tion, t ≥ 0.
dy
To differentiate y with respect to t produces the derivative y¢ = . The
dt
derivative y′ indicates the change rate of the original function y. The change
rate y′ of the displacement function y is the velocity (speed), v, of the object.
y′ is obtained by using (t n )¢ = nt n -1:

dy
v = y¢ = = 3t 2 - 4t - 2 (1.2)
dt
Figure 1.2 shows the velocity function v with respect to time t.

1
2 Calculus Revision

FIGURE 1.1
A displacement function y(t).

FIGURE 1.2
The derivative function y′(t) of y(t).

d2 y
We differentiate y′ to get y¢¢ = . y″ is the change of y′, i.e. the change
dt 2
of velocity of the object. The change of velocity is the acceleration, a, of the
object. The derivative of y′ can be obtained by the same process as shown in
equation (1.2):

dv d 2 y
a = y¢¢ = = = 6t - 4 (1.3)
dt dt 2

Figure 1.3 shows acceleration function a with respect to time t.

The acceleration, a, is the frst-order derivative of the velocity, v, and is the
second-order derivative of the displacement, y. The displacement y is a cubic
function (polynomial) of time t, and the velocity, v, is a quadratic function of
t, and the acceleration, a, is a linear function of t.
Aerodynamics Principles for Air Transport Pilots 3

FIGURE 1.3
The second-order derivative function y″(t) of y(t).

In summary, the derivative of a function expresses the rate of change of the

function with its variable. The change of displacement with time is velocity;
the change of mass with time is mass fowrate; and the change of a volume
with time is the volumetric fowrate.
If C is a constant with respect to a variable, for example, t, the derivative
dC
of C¢ = = 0. This means that there is no change. For example, when the
dt
acceleration of an object is 0, i.e. the derivative of its velocity is 0, it means that
the velocity is constant.

Function analysis (derivatives)

One of the applications of differentiation-calculus is to analyse a function.
According to the principle of differentiation discussed in Calculus: Early
Transcendentals (Stewart, J., Thomson Higher Education, 2009), the derivative
of a function at any point on the function is the rate of change of this function
with respect to its variable. Use the example shown earlier: when the veloc-
ity of the object is positive at t = 2 s (see Figure 1.2), the displacement of the
object is increasing, as shown in Figure 1.1. When the velocity is negative at
t = 1 s (see Figure 1.2), the displacement of the object is decreasing, as shown
in Figure 1.1. If the acceleration, i.e. the derivative of velocity, of an object
is positive, > 0, the velocity of the object is increasing; if the acceleration is
negative, < 0, i.e. decelerating, the velocity of the object will be decreasing.
In general terms: for a function of x, f(x), the derivative of the function f′(x)
is the slope of the tangent line at x. The signs of its derivative f′(x) and some
tangent lines are marked along the function f(x) in Figure 1.4.
4 Calculus Revision

FIGURE 1.4
A function with the features of its derivative.

For this function, Figure 1.4 shows that:

when x is in the region between O and A, 0 > x > 1, and the region between
C and D, x > 3, f′(x) > 0, “+”, and the function f(x) increases with x;
when x is in the region between A and C, 1 > x > 3, f′(x) < 0, “−”, and the
function f(x) decreases with x.
It can also be observed in Figure 1.4 that the derivative of the function
changes from “+” to “−”, or changes from “−” to “+” smoothly, which means
that there is a point of the derivative f′(x) = 0 between a positive derivative
region and a negative derivative region. For example, at point A, point C, the
derivative of the function is “0”, i.e. the change of the function at those points
is “0”. Therefore, those points are extrema (which can also be called stagna-
tion points). The values of the function at the extrema are extreme values.

Extreme values
It is important in actual practice to be able to identify where or when the
extreme values of a function occur, because this information might be able
to optimise the advantages, or minimise the risks, or indicate some limits.
As indicated in previously, extrema occur at the derivative of a continuous
function, “0”.
The following shows how to identify the type of extrema of f(x), a function
of x:
If f′(x) = 0, at x = xo (e.g., Point A in Figure 1.4, xo = 1.), the derivative before
this point is “−”, i.e. f′(x) < 0, and the function f (x) is decreasing; the deriva-
tive after this point is “+”, i.e. f′(x) > 0, and the function f (x) is increasing, the
value of the function at this point f(xo) is a local minimum; or if f′(x) = 0, and
f″(x) > 0, at x = xo, this f(xo) is a local minimum.
If f′(x) = 0, at x = xo (e.g., Point C in Figure 1.4, xo = 3.), and the derivative
before this point is “+”, i.e. f′(x) < 0, and the function f (x) is increasing; the
derivative after this point is “−”, i.e. f′(x) > 0, and the function f (x) is decreas-
ing, the value of the function at this point f(xo) is a local maximum; or if
f′(x) = 0, and f″(x) < 0, at x = xo, this f(xo) is a local maximum.
Aerodynamics Principles for Air Transport Pilots 5

Please note that those extreme values are called local or relative maxi-
mum/minimum because the absolute maximum/minimum values can
occur at other places. For some functions, the values of the functions can go
to infnity. For example, in Figure 1.4, the value of the function f(x) can be
greater than f(1) (Point A, the local maximum), if x ≫ 4 (after point D).

Example 1.1

y = y(t) = t 3 - t 2 - 2t + 1. Find the extreme values of the function.

SOLUTION
dy
Set v = = y¢ = 3t 2 - 2t - 2 = 0
dt
-b ± b 2 - 4ac
Use the formula to obtain quadratic roots: t = for equa-
tion: at2 + bt + c = 0: 2a

2 ± (-2)2 - 4 ´ 3 ´ (-2) 1 7 1 7
t= = ± , then t= + = 1.215, and
2´ 3 3 3 3 3
1 7
t= - = -0.55 .
3 3

TWO SOLUTIONS
When t < −0.55, for example, t = −1, y′(−1) = 3 > 0; the function is
increasing.
When t > −0.55, for example, t = 0, y′(0) = −2 < 0; the function is
decreasing.
So at t = −0.55, y is a local maximum.
Check y″ = −5.3 < 0 at t = −0.55, and it is confrmed that it is a local
maximum.
When t < 1.215, for example, t = 1, y′(1) = −1 < 0; the function is
decreasing.
When t > 1.215, for example, t = 2, y′(2) = 6 > 0; the function is
increasing.
So at t = 1.215, y is a local minimum.
Check y″ = 5.29 > 0 at t = 1.215, and it is confrmed that it is a local
minimum.

Example 1.2
Maximum area: A rectangular area created by a fence. The total length
of the fence is 100 m. One side of the rectangular is x, as shown in the
diagram below. Find the values of x and the area of the rectangular when
the area is the optimum.

x
50 – x
6 Calculus Revision

SOLUTION
The area of the rectangular is A = x(100/2 – x).
Differentiate A:
dA dA
= (50 - x) - x ; and set = 50 - 2x = 0. x = 25 (m).
dx dx
d2 A
A¢¢ = = -2 < 0,
dx 2
∴when x = 25 (m), the area of the rectangular is the relative maximum:
Amax = 25 × (50 – 25) = 625 m2.

Derivatives of functions of multi-variables

In general, the functions discussed in aerodynamics are the functions of
two or more variables. Typically, for example, velocity v of fuids is the func-
tion of location (x, y, and z) and time t: v = v(x, y, z, t). Furthermore, the vari-
able of the location of the fuid can be a function of time as well, i.e. x(t), y(t)
and z(t).
A multi-variable function can be expressed as F = f(x, y, z), for example, air
velocity, v, can vary in horizontal direction and vertical direction. We can
take the horizontal direction as x direction and the vertical one as y direc-
tion, so v = v(x, y) The air velocity may change very rapidly in vertical direc-
tion, while it remains constant in horizontal direction. This means that the
derivative of v in y direction is different from that in x direction. In general,
the changes of the function with different variables are different. It means
that differentiating a function with respect to different variables of the func-
tion results in different functions. This differentiating process is known as
partial differentiation. Partial differentiation deals with one variable at a
time to produce partial derivatives:

¶F ¶F ¶F
, , and
¶x ¶y ¶z

to describe the changes of the function in different directions if x, y, and z are

the coordinates in three directions of space.

Partial differentiation
To obtain a partial derivative is to differentiate a function with respect to a
variable, and the other variables are treated as constants.
¶f ¶f
For example, if f(x, y) = x2 + 3y, = 2x and = 3.
¶x ¶y
Aerodynamics Principles for Air Transport Pilots 7

The same principle will be applied to high-order differentiation; for the

¶2 f ¶2 f
same example as above, 2 = 2 and 2 = 0.
¶x ¶y
Cross second-order partial derivatives can also be determined:
¶2 f ¶ æ ¶f ö ¶2 f ¶ æ ¶f ö ¶2 f ¶2 f
= ç ÷ and = ç ÷ , and = always. We will use
¶x¶y ¶x è ¶y ø ¶y¶x ¶y è ¶x ø ¶x¶y ¶y¶x
¶2 f ¶2 f
the same example as before: = 0, and = 0.
¶x¶y ¶y¶x

Example 1.3

¶f ¶f ¶f ¶ 2 f ¶ 2 f ¶ 2 f ¶ 2 f ¶2 f
f (x, y, t) = 2x2y + sin(πt), fnd , , , 2, 2, 2 , , and .
¶x ¶y ¶t ¶x ¶y ¶t ¶x¶y ¶y¶x

SOLUTION
¶f ¶f ¶f
= 4xy , = 2x 2 , and = p cos(p t)
¶x ¶y ¶t
¶2 f ¶2 f ¶2 f ¶2 f ¶2 f
2
= 4y , 2 = 0, and 2 = -p 2 sin(p t); = 4x , and = 4x .
¶x ¶y ¶t ¶x¶y ¶y¶x

Gradient ∇
Gradient operator ∇ is a vector. We will recap some vector-related principles
frst. ˜ ˜ ˜
If the displacement vector (three-dimensional) of fuid is s = xi + yj + zk,
where i, j, and k are the unit vector in x, y, and z directions, respectively, then
the values of x, y, and z are the components of the displacement in these three
directions.
If x, y, and z change with time t, i.e. they are the functions of time, then the
rate of change of the displacement with time is the velocity vector, v, of the fuid:

¶x ˜ ¶y ˜ ¶z ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
v= i+ j + k = vx i + v y j + vz k (1.4)
¶t ¶t ¶t

where vx, vy, and vz are the components of the velocity, v, in x, y, and z direc-
tions, respectively.
A dot product is a special operation for two vectors. The result ˜ of˜ a dot ˜
product is not a vector but a scalar. For example, a · v, where a = ax i + ay j + az k :

¶x ¶y ¶z
a × v = ax + ay + az = ax v x + a y v y + az v z . (1.5)
¶t ¶t ¶t

Most of the properties in fuid fow felds discussed in aerodynamics are the
function of coordinates x, y, and z in space and time t. The change in any
8 Calculus Revision

direction in space of any property can be examined by its partial derivative.

The property can be, for example, temperature of fuid T, or density of fuid
ρ, or the speed in x direction, vx. The changes of the property in all directions
can be expressed together by the gradient ∇ of the property.
The gradient is a vector operator:

¶ ˜ ¶ ˜ ¶ ˜
Ñ= i+ j+ k (1.6)
¶x ¶y ¶z

For example, the gradient (change in 2-D space) of temperature T is:

¶T ˜ ¶T ˜
ÑT = i+ j. (1.7)
¶x ¶y

We can assume the temperature is the fuid temperature over a horizontal

hot plate, the x direction is in parallel with the plate, and the y direction is
perpendicular to the plate with y = 0 at the plate surface. If the temperature
¶T
on the plate is constant, = 0, and the temperature above the plate (y > 0)
¶x ¶T
is cooler than that on the plate, then < 0.
¶y
Looking at another example, airfow over an aerofoil: assume x – chord-
wise direction; y – vertical direction; and z – span-wise direction, and the
gradient of the airspeed in x direction, vx (in 3-D space), is:

¶vx ˜ ¶vx ˜ ¶vx ˜

Ñv x = i+ j+ k (1.8)
¶x ¶y ¶z
At the front part above an aerofoil, airspeed increases along its chord:
¶vx
> 0; air speed on the surface of the aerofoil is 0, and it gradually increases
¶x
¶v
to the same level as that in free stream, so x > 0 above the aerofoil; in the
¶y
span-wise direction, airspeed can decrease from wing root to wing tip:
¶vx
< 0.
¶z
The dot product of velocity v and gradient Ñ is a common appearance in
fuid-dynamic equations when the equations describe the total change of
properties of fuid with respect to time t. The result of the dot product v · Ñ is:

¶ ¶ ¶
v ×Ñ = vx + vy + vz (1.9)
¶x ¶y ¶z

¶T ¶T ¶T
For example: vx + vy + vz can be rewritten as v ×ÑT
¶x ¶y ¶z
Aerodynamics Principles for Air Transport Pilots 9

¶vx ¶v ¶v
and v ×Ñvx = vx + v y x + vz x .
¶x ¶y ¶z

Total derivative
A partial derivative can describe the changes of a multi-variable function
with respect to a specifc variable, as discussed above. However, the total
change, or complete change of the function with respect to a specifc vari-
able, can be analysed by a total/complete differentiation of the function.
This total/complete differentiation will consider the changes of the function
related to all variables, and consider all of the variables are sub-functions of
the specifc variable.
x, y and t are the variables of function f (x, y, t). To carry out the total dif-
ferentiation of this function with respect to t, we consider that x and y are
functions of t, applying the Chain Rule:

df ¶f ¶f dx ¶f dy
= + + (1.10)
dt ¶t ¶x dt ¶y dt

Using the same method, the total derivative with respect to x (treat y and t
as functions of x) is:

df ¶f dt ¶f ¶f dy
= + + , (1.11)
dx ¶t dx ¶x ¶y dx

and the total derivative with respect to y (treat x and t as functions of y) is:

df ¶f dt ¶f dx ¶f
= + + . (1.12)
dy ¶t dy ¶x dy ¶y

From equations (1.10), (1.11), and (1.12), we can obtain the total change of the
function. It can be expressed as:

¶f ¶f ¶f
df = dt + dx + dy (1.13)
¶t ¶x ¶y

For example, for the function used in Example 1.3: f (x, y, t) = 2x2y + sin(πt), the
total change of this function is:

df = p cos(p t)dt + 4xydx + 2x 2dy.

In fuid mechanics and aerodynamics, a property, for example, temperature,

or velocity/speed of fuid particles, is a function of the location of fuid par-
ticles, i.e. in x, y, and z coordinate space, and x, y, and z are functions of time t.
Therefore, the total derivative of a property f with respect to time t is:
10 Calculus Revision

df ¶f ¶f dx ¶f dy ¶f dz
= + + + (1.14)
dt ¶t ¶x dt ¶y dt ¶z dt
dx dy dz
and , , and are the change rates of displacement in x, y, and z direc-
dt dt dt
tions, i.e. the velocity components in x, y, and z directions, respectively.
Therefore, the total derivative with respect to t is:

df ¶f ¶f ¶f ¶f ¶f
= + vx + vy + vz = + v × Ñf (1.15)
dt ¶t ¶x ¶y ¶z ¶t

This means that the total change of a property is the sum of its temporal (t)
¶f ¶f ¶f ¶f
change and its spatial change, vx + vy + vz = v × Ñf .
¶t ¶x ¶y ¶z
For example, the total change rate of mass m of fuid with respect to time is:

dm ¶m ¶m ¶m ¶m
= + vx + vy + vz . (1.16)
dt ¶t ¶x ¶y ¶z

The total change rate of airspeed in the x direction, vx, is:

Dvx dvx ¶vx ¶v ¶v ¶v ¶v

= = + vx x + vy x + vz x = x + v × Ñvx . (1.17)
Dt dt ¶t ¶x ¶y ¶z ¶t

Integration
Integration is the other part of calculus. Integration is the inverse function
process of differentiation, called anti-differentiation. The symbol of integrat-
ing a function f(x) is:

ò f (x)dx,
which is also called integral.
If the derivative of F(x) is f(x), the process to obtain f(x) from F(x) or vice
versa is:

Differentiation
¾¾¾¾¾®
F( x ) ¬¾¾¾¾¾ f ( x)
Integration

There are two types of integration: indefnite integral and defnite integral.
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profitably employed, and the whole face of the country smiling with
improvement, cheerfulness and abundance.

When gentlemen have succeeded in their design of an immediate

or gradual destruction of the American System, what is their
substitute? Free trade! Free trade! The call for free trade is as
unavailing as the cry of a spoiled child, in its nurse’s arms, for the
moon, or the stars that glitter in the firmament of heaven. It never
has existed, it never will exist. Trade implies, at least two parties. To
be free, it should be fair, equal and reciprocal. But if we throw our
ports wide open to the admission of foreign productions, free of all
duty, what ports of any other foreign nation shall we find open to the
free admission of our surplus produce? We may break down all
barriers to free trade on our part, but the work will not be complete
until foreign powers shall have removed theirs. There would be
freedom on one side, and restrictions, prohibitions and exclusions on
the other. The bolts, and the bars, and the chains of all other nations
will remain undisturbed. It is, indeed, possible, that our industry and
commerce would accommodate themselves to this unequal and
unjust state of things; for, such is the flexibility of our nature, that it
bends itself to all circumstances. The wretched prisoner incarcerated
in a jail, after a long time becomes reconciled to his solitude, and
regularly notches down the passing days of his confinement.
Gentlemen deceive themselves. It is not free trade that they are
recommending to our acceptance. It is in effect, the British colonial
system that we are invited to adopt; and, if their policy prevail, it will
lead substantially to the re-colonization of these States, under the
commercial dominion of Great Britain. And whom do we find some
of the principal supporters, out of Congress, of this foreign system?
Mr. President, there are some foreigners who always remain exotics,
and never become naturalized in our country; whilst, happily, there
are many others who readily attach themselves to our principles and
our institutions. The honest, patient and industrious German readily
unites with our people, establishes himself upon some of our fat
land, fills his capacious barn, and enjoys in tranquillity, the abundant
fruits which his diligence gathers around him, always ready to fly to
the standard of his adopted country, or of its laws, when called by the
duties of patriotism. The gay, the versatile, the philosophic
Frenchman, accommodating himself cheerfully to all the vicissitudes
of life, incorporates himself without difficulty in our society. But, of
all foreigners, none amalgamate themselves so quickly with our
people as the natives of the Emerald Isle. In some of the visions
which have passed through my imagination, I have supposed that
Ireland was originally, part and parcel of this continent, and that, by
some extraordinary convulsion of nature, it was torn from America,
and drifting across the ocean, was placed in the unfortunate vicinity
of Great Britain. The same open-heartedness; the same generous
hospitality; the same careless and uncalculating indifference about
human life, characterize the inhabitants of both countries. Kentucky
has been sometimes called the Ireland of America. And I have no
doubt, that if the current of emigration were reversed, and set from
America upon the shores of Europe, instead of bearing from Europe
to America, every American emigrant to Ireland would there find, as
every Irish emigrant here finds, a hearty welcome and a happy home!
But I have said that the system nominally called “free trade,” so
earnestly and eloquently recommended to our adoption, is a mere
revival of the British colonial system, forced upon us by Great Britain
during the existence of our colonial vassalage. The whole system is
fully explained and illustrated in a work published as far back as the
year 1750, entitled “The Trade and Navigation of Great Britain
considered, by Joshua Gee,” with extracts from which I have been
furnished by the diligent researches of a friend. It will be seen from
these, that the South Carolina policy now, is identical with the long
cherished policy of Great Britain, which remains the same as it was
when the thirteen colonies were part of the British empire.
I regret, Mr. President, that one topic has, I think, unnecessarily
been introduced into this debate. I allude to the charge brought
against the manufacturing system, as favoring the growth of
aristocracy. If it were true, would gentlemen prefer supporting
foreign accumulations of wealth, by that description of industry,
rather than in their own country? But is it correct? The joint stock
companies of the north, as I understand them, are nothing more
than associations, sometimes of hundreds, by means of which the
small earnings of many are brought into a common stock, and the
associates, obtaining corporate privileges, are enabled to prosecute,
under one superintending head, their business to better advantage.
Nothing can be more essentially democratic or better devised to
counterpoise the influence of individual wealth. In Kentucky, almost
every manufactory known to me, is in the hands of enterprising and
self-made men, who have acquired whatever wealth they possess by
patient and diligent labor. Comparisons are odious, and but in
defence, would not be made by me. But is there more tendency to
aristocracy in a manufactory supporting hundreds of freemen, or in a
cotton plantation, with its not less numerous slaves, sustaining
perhaps only two white families—that of the master and the
overseer?
I pass, with pleasure, from this disagreeable topic, to two general
propositions, which cover the entire ground of debate. The first is,
that under the operation of the American System, the objects which
it protects and fosters are brought to the consumer at cheaper prices
than they commanded prior to its introduction, or, than they would
command if it did not exist. If that be true, ought not the country to
be contented and satisfied with the system, unless the second
proposition, which I mean presently also to consider, is unfounded?
And that is, that the tendency of the system is to sustain, and that it
has upheld the prices of all our agricultural and other produce,
including cotton.
And is the fact not indisputable, that all essential objects of
consumption effected by the tariff, are cheaper and better since the
act of 1824, than they were for several years prior to that law? I
appeal for its truth to common observation and to all practical men. I
appeal to the farmer of the country, whether he does not purchase on
better terms his iron, salt, brown sugar, cotton goods, and woolens,
for his laboring people? And I ask the cotton planter if he has not
been better and more cheaply supplied with his cotton bagging? In
regard to this latter article, the gentleman from South Carolina was
mistaken in supposing that I complained that, under the existing
duty the Kentucky manufacturer could not compete with the Scotch.
The Kentuckian furnishes a more substantial and a cheaper article,
and at a more uniform and regular price. But it was the frauds, the
violations of law of which I did complain; not smuggling, in the
common sense of that practice, which has something bold, daring,
and enterprising in it, but mean, barefaced cheating, by fraudulent
invoices and false denomination.
 I plant myself upon this fact, of cheapness and superiority, as upon
impregnable ground. Gentlemen may tax their ingenuity and
produce a thousand speculative solutions of the fact, but the fact
itself will remain undisturbed.
This brings me to consider what I apprehend to have been the
most efficient of all the causes in the reduction of the prices of
manufactured articles—and that is COMPETITION. By competition, the
total amount of the supply is increased, and by increase of the
supply, a competition in the sale ensues, and this enables the
consumer to buy at lower rates. Of all human powers operating on
the affairs of mankind, none is greater than that of competition. It is
action and reaction. It operates between individuals in the same
nation, and between different nations. It resembles the meeting of
the mountain torrent, grooving by its precipitous motion, its own
channel, and ocean’s tide. Unopposed, it sweeps everything before it;
but, counterpoised, the waters become calm, safe and regular. It is
like the segments of a circle or an arch; taken separately, each is
nothing; but in their combination they produce efficiency, symmetry,
and perfection. By the American System this vast power has been
excited in America, and brought into being to act in co-operation or
collision with European industry. Europe acts within itself, and with
America; and America acts within itself, and with Europe. The
consequence is, the reduction of prices in both hemispheres. Nor is it
fair to argue from the reduction of prices in Europe, to her own
presumed skill and labor, exclusively. We affect her prices, and she
affects ours. This must always be the case, at least in reference to any
articles as to which there is not a total non-intercourse; and if our
industry, by diminishing the demand for her supplies, should
produce a diminution in the price of those supplies, it would be very
unfair to ascribe that reduction to her ingenuity instead of placing it
to the credit of our own skill and excited industry.
The great law of price is determined by supply and demand.
Whatever affects either, affects the price. If the supply is increased,
the demand remaining the same, the price declines; if the demand is
increased, the supply remaining the same, the price advances; if both
supply and demand are undiminished, the price is stationary, and
the price is influenced exactly in proportion to the degree of
disturbance to the demand or supply. It is therefore a great error to
suppose that an existing or new duty necessarily becomes a
component element to its exact amount of price. If the proportion of
demand and supply are varied by the duty, either in augmenting the
supply, or diminishing the demand, or vice versa, price is affected to
the extent of that variation. But the duty never becomes an integral
part of the price, except in the instances where the demand and the
supply remain after the duty is imposed, precisely what they were
before, or the demand is increased, and the supply remains
stationary.
Competition, therefore, wherever existing, whether at home or
abroad, is the parent cause of cheapness. If a high duty excites
production at home, and the quantity of the domestic article exceeds
the amount which had been previously imported the price will fall.
This accounts for an extraordinary fact stated by a Senator from
Missouri. Three cents were laid as a duty upon a pound of lead, by
the act of 1828. The price at Galena, and the other lead mines,
afterwards fell to one and a half cents per pound. Now it is obvious
that the duty did not, in this case, enter into the price: for it was
twice the amount of the price. What produced the fall? It was
stimulated production at home, excited by the temptation of the
exclusive possession of the home market. This state of things could
not last. Men would not continue an unprofitable pursuit; some
abandoned the business, or the total quantity produced was
diminished, and living prices have been the consequence. But, break
down the domestic supply, place us again in a state of dependence on
the foreign source, and can it be doubted that we should ultimately
have to supply ourselves at dearer rates? It is not fair to credit the
foreign market with the depression of prices produced there by the
influence of our competition. Let the competition be withdrawn, and
their prices would instantly rise.
But, it is argued that if, by the skill, experience, and perfection
which we have acquired in certain branches of manufacture, they can
be made as cheap as similar articles abroad, and enter fairly into
competition with them, why not repeal the duties as to those articles?
And why should we? Assuming the truth of the supposition the
foreign article would not be introduced in the regular course of trade,
but would remain excluded by the possession of the home market,
which the domestic article had obtained. The repeal, therefore,
would have no legitimate effect. But might not the foreign article be
imported in vast quantities, to glut our markets, break down our
establishments, and ultimately to enable the foreigner to monopolize
the supply of our consumption? America is the greatest foreign
market for European manufactures. It is that to which European
attention is constantly directed. If a great house becomes bankrupt
there, its storehouses are emptied, and the goods are shipped to
America, where, in consequence of our auctions, and our custom-
house credits, the greatest facilities are afforded in the sale of them.
Combinations among manufacturers might take place, or even the
operations of foreign governments might be directed to the
destruction of our establishments. A repeal, therefore, of one
protecting duty, from some one or all of these causes, would be
followed by flooding the country with the foreign fabric, surcharging
the market, reducing the price, and a complete prostration of our
manufactories; after which the foreigner would leisurely look about
to indemnify himself in the increased prices which he would be
enabled to command by his monopoly of the supply of our
consumption. What American citizen, after the government had
displayed this vacillating policy, would be again tempted to place the
smallest confidence in the public faith, and adventure once more in
this branch of industry?
Gentlemen have allowed to the manufacturing portions of the
community no peace; they have been constantly threatened with the
overthrow of the American System. From the year 1820, if not from
1816, down to this time, they have been held in a condition of
constant alarm and insecurity. Nothing is more prejudicial to the
great interests of a nation than unsettled and varying policy.
Although every appeal to the national legislature has been responded
to in conformity with the wishes and sentiments of the great majority
of the people, measures of protection have only been carried by such
small majorities as to excite hopes on the one hand, and fears on the
other. Let the country breathe, let its vast resources be developed, let
its energies be fully put forth, let it have tranquillity, and my word for
it, the degree of perfection in the arts which it will exhibit, will be
greater than that which has been presented, astonishing as our
progress has been. Although some branches of our manufactures
might, and in foreign markets now do, fearlessly contend with
similar foreign fabrics, there are many others yet in their infancy,
struggling with the difficulties which encompass them. We should
look at the whole system, and recollect that time, when we
contemplate the great movements of a nation, is very different from
the short period which is allotted for the duration of individual life.
The honorable gentleman from South Carolina well and eloquently
said, in 1824, “No great interest of any country ever yet grew up in a
day; no new branch of industry can become firmly and profitably
established but in a long course of years; every thing, indeed, great or
good, is matured by slow degrees: that which attains a speedy
maturity is of small value, and is destined to a brief existence. It is
the order of Providence, that powers gradually developed, shall alone
attain permanency and perfection. Thus must it be with our national
institutions, and national character itself.”
I feel most sensibly, Mr. President, how much I have trespassed
upon the Senate. My apology is a deep and deliberate conviction, that
the great cause under debate involves the prosperity and the destiny
of the Union. But the best requital I can make, for the friendly
indulgence which has been extended to me by the Senate, and for
which I shall ever retain sentiments of lasting gratitude, is to proceed
with as little delay as practicable, to the conclusion of a discourse
which has not been more tedious to the Senate than exhausting to
me. I have now to consider the remaining of the two propositions
which I have already announced. That is:
Secondly. That under the operation of the American System, the
products of our agriculture command a higher price than they would
do without it, by the creation of a home market; and by the
augmentation of wealth produced by manufacturing industry, which
enlarges our powers of consumption both of domestic and foreign
articles. The importance of the home market is among the
established maxims which are universally recognized by all writers
and all men. However some may differ as to the relative advantages
of the foreign and the home market, none deny to the latter great
value and high consideration. It is nearer to us; beyond the control of
foreign legislation; and undisturbed by those vicissitudes to which all
international intercourse is more or less exposed. The most stupid
are sensible of the benefit of a residence in the vicinity of a large
manufactory, or of a market town, of a good road, or of a navigable
stream, which connects their farms with some great capital. If the
pursuits of all men were perfectly the same, although they would be
in possession of the greatest abundance of the particular produce of
their industry, they might, at the same time, be in extreme want of
other necessary articles of human subsistence. The uniformity of the
general occupation would preclude all exchanges, all commerce. It is
only in the diversity of the vocations of the members of a community
that the means can be found for those salutary exchanges which
conduce to the general prosperity. And the greater that diversity, the
more extensive and the more animating is the circle of exchange.
Even if foreign markets were freely and widely open to the reception
of our agricultural produce, from its bulky nature, and the distance
of the interior, and the dangers of the ocean, large portions of it
could never profitably reach the foreign market. But let us quit this
field of theory, clear as it is, and look at the practical operation of the
system of protection, beginning with the most valuable staple of our
agriculture.
But if all this reasoning were totally fallacious—if the price of
manufactured articles were really higher, under the American
system, than without it, I should still argue that high or low prices
were themselves relative—relative to the ability to pay them. It is in
vain to tempt, to tantalize us with the lower prices of European
fabrics than our own, if we have nothing wherewith to purchase
them. If, by the home exchanges, we can be supplied with necessary,
even if they are dearer and worse, articles of American production
than the foreign, it is better than not to be supplied at all. And how
would the large portion of our country which I have described be
supplied, but for the home exchanges? A poor people, destitute of
wealth or of exchangeable commodities, has nothing to purchase
foreign fabrics. To them they are equally beyond their reach, whether
their cost be a dollar or a guinea. It is in this view of the matter that
Great Britain, by her vast wealth—her excited and protected industry
—is enabled to bear a burden of taxation which, when compared to
that of other nations, appears enormous; but which, when her
immense riches are compared to theirs, is light and trivial. The
gentleman from South Carolina has drawn a lively and flattering
picture of our coasts, bays, rivers, and harbors; and he argues that
these proclaimed the design of Providence, that we should be a
commercial people. I agree with him. We differ only as to the means.
He would cherish the foreign, and neglect the internal trade. I would
foster both. What is navigation without ships, or ships without
cargoes? By penetrating the bosoms of our mountains, and
extracting from them their precious treasures; by cultivating the
earth, and securing a home market for its rich and abundant
products; by employing the water power with which we are blessed;
by stimulating and protecting our native industry, in all its forms; we
shall but nourish and promote the prosperity of commerce, foreign
and domestic.
I have hitherto considered the question in reference only to a state
of peace; but a season of war ought not to be entirely overlooked. We
have enjoyed near twenty years of peace; but who can tell when the
storm of war shall again break forth? Have we forgotten so soon, the
privations to which, not merely our brave soldiers and our gallant
tars were subjected, but the whole community, during the last war,
for the want of absolute necessaries? To what an enormous price
they rose! And how inadequate the supply was, at any price! The
statesman who justly elevates his views, will look behind, as well as
forward, and at the existing state of things; and he will graduate the
policy which he recommends, to all the probable exigencies which
may arise in the Republic. Taking this comprehensive range, it would
be easy to show that the higher prices of peace, if prices were higher
in peace, were more than compensated by the lower prices of war,
during which supplies of all essential articles are indispensable to its
vigorous, effectual and glorious prosecution. I conclude this part of
the argument with the hope that my humble exertions have not been
altogether unsuccessful in showing—
1. That the policy which we have been considering ought to
continue to be regarded as the genuine American System.
2. That the Free Trade System, which is proposed as its substitute,
ought really to be considered as the British Colonial System.
3. That the American System is beneficial to all parts of the Union,
and absolutely necessary to much the larger portion.
4. That the price of the great staple of cotton, and of all our chief
productions of agriculture, has been sustained and upheld, and a
decline averted by the Protective System.
5. That if the foreign demand for cotton has been at all diminished
by the operation of that system, the diminution has been more than
compensated in the additional demand created at home.
6. That the constant tendency of the system, by creating
competition among ourselves, and between American and European
industry, reciprocally acting upon each other, is to reduce prices of
manufactured objects.
7. That in point of fact, objects within the scope of the policy of
protection have greatly fallen in price.
8. That if, in a season of peace, these benefits are experienced, in a
season of war, when the foreign supply might be cut off, they would
be much more extensively felt.
9. And finally, that the substitution of the British Colonial System
for the American System, without benefiting any section of the
Union, by subjecting us to a foreign legislation, regulated by foreign
interests, would lead to the prostration of our manufactures, general
impoverishment, and ultimate ruin.
The danger to our Union does not lie on the side of persistence in
the American System, but on that of its abandonment. If, as I have
supposed and believe, the inhabitants of all north and east of James
river, and all west of the mountains, including Louisiana, are deeply
interested in the preservation of that system, would they be
reconciled to its overthrow? Can it be expected that two-thirds, if not
three-fourths, of the people of the United States, would consent to
the destruction of a policy, believed to be indispensably necessary to
their prosperity? When, too, the sacrifice is made at the instance of a
single interest, which they verily believe will not be promoted by it?
In estimating the degree of peril which may be incident to two
opposite courses of human policy, the statesman would be
shortsighted who should content himself with viewing only the evils,
real or imaginary, which belong to that course which is in practical
operation. He should lift himself up to the contemplation of those
greater and more certain dangers which might inevitably attend the
adoption of the alternative course. What would be the condition of
this Union, if Pennsylvania and New York, those mammoth members
of our confederacy, were firmly persuaded that their industry was
paralyzed, and their prosperity blighted, by the enforcement of the
British colonial system, under the delusive name of free trade? They
are now tranquil and happy, and contented, conscious of their
welfare, and feeling a salutary and rapid circulation of the products
of home manufactures and home industry throughout all their great
arteries. But let that be checked, let them feel that a foreign system is
to predominate, and the sources of their subsistence and comfort
dried up; let New England and the west, and the middle States, all
feel that they too are the victims of a mistaken policy, and let these
vast portions of our country despair of any favorable change, and
then indeed might we tremble for the continuance and safety of this
Union!
And now, sir, I would address a few words to the friends of the
American System in the Senate. The revenue must—ought to be
reduced. The country will not, after, by the payment of the public
debt, ten or twelve millions of dollars become unnecessary, bear such
an annual surplus. Its distribution would form a subject of perpetual
contention. Some of the opponents of the system understand the
stratagem by which to attack it, and are shaping their course
accordingly. It is to crush the system by the accumulation of revenue,
and by the effort to persuade the people that they are unnecessarily
taxed, while those would really tax them who would break up the
native sources of supply, and render them dependent upon the
foreign. But the revenue ought to be reduced, so as to accommodate
it to the fact of the payment of the public debt. And the alternative is
or may be, to preserve the protecting system, and repeal the duties
on the unprotected articles, or to preserve the duties on unprotected
articles, and endanger if not destroy the system. Let us then adopt
the measure before us, which will benefit all classes; the farmer, the
professional man, the merchant, the manufacturer, the mechanic;
and the cotton planter more than all. A few mouths ago there was no
diversity of opinion as to the expediency of this measure. All, then,
seemed to unite in the selection of these objects for a repeal of duties
which were not produced within the country. Such a repeal did not
touch our domestic industry, violated no principle, offended no
prejudice.
Can we not all, whatever may be our favorite theories, cordially
unite on this neutral ground? When that is occupied, let us look
beyond it, and see if anything can be done in the field of protection,
to modify, or improve it, or to satisfy those who are opposed to the
system. Our southern brethren believe that it is injurious to them,
and ask its repeal. We believe that its abandonment will be
prejudicial to them, and ruinous to every other section of the Union.
However strong their convictions may be, they are not stronger than
ours. Between the points of the preservation of the system and its
absolute repeal, there is no principle of union. If it can be shown to
operate immoderately on any quarter—if the measure of protection
to any article can be demonstrated to be undue and inordinate, it
would be the duty of Congress to interpose and apply a remedy. And
none will co-operate more heartily than I shall in the performance of
that duty. It is quite probable that beneficial modifications of the
system may be made without impairing its efficacy. But to make it
fulfill the purposes of its institution, the measure of protection ought
to be adequate. If it be not, all interests will be injuriously affected.
The manufacturer, crippled in his exertions, will produce less perfect
and dearer fabrics, and the consumer will feel the consequence. This
is the spirit, and these are the principles only, on which, it seems to
me, that a settlement of the great question can be made,
satisfactorily to all parts of our Union.
 Mr. Buchanan’s Speech on the Independent
Treasury,

January 22, 1840, which gave rise to the “ten cent” charge.
“We are also charged by the Senator from Kentucky with a desire
to reduce the wages of the poor man’s labor. We have often been
termed agrarians on our side of the House. It is something new
under the sun, to hear the Senator and his friends attribute to us a
desire to elevate the wealthy manufacturer, at the expense of the
laboring man and the mechanic. From my soul, I respect the laboring
man. Labor is the foundation of the wealth of every country; and the
free laborers of the North deserve respect, both for their probity and
their intelligence. Heaven forbid that I should do them wrong! Of all
the countries on the earth, we ought to have the most consideration
for the laboring man. From the very nature of our institutions, the
wheel of fortune is constantly revolving, and producing such
mutations in property, that the wealthy man of to-day may become
the poor laborer of to-morrow. Truly, wealth often takes to itself
wings and flies away. A large fortune rarely lasts beyond the third
generation, even if it endure so long. We must all know instances of
individuals obliged to labor for their daily bread, whose grandfathers
were men of fortune. The regular process of society would almost
seem to consist of the efforts of one class to dissipate the fortunes
which they have inherited, whilst another class, by their industry and
economy, are regularly rising to wealth. We have all, therefore, a
common interest, as it is our common duty, to protect the rights of
the laboring man: and if I believed for a moment that this bill would
prove injurious to him, it should meet my unqualified opposition.
“Although this bill will not have as great an influence as I could
desire, yet, as far as it goes, it will benefit the laboring man as much,
and probably more than any other class of society. What is it he
ought most to desire? Constant employment, regular wages, and
uniform reasonable prices for the necessaries and comforts of life
which he requires. Now, sir, what has been his condition under our
system of expansions and contractions? He has suffered more by
them than any other class of society. The rate of his wages is fixed
and known; and they are the last to rise with the increasing
expansion and the first to fall when the corresponding revulsion
occurs. He still continues to receive his dollar per day, whilst the
price of every article which he consumes is rapidly rising. He is at
length made to feel that, although he nominally earns as much, or
even more than he did formerly, yet, from the increased price of all
the necessaries of life, he cannot support his family. Hence the
strikes for higher wages, and the uneasy and excited feelings which
have at different periods, existed among the laboring classes. But the
expansion at length reaches the exploding point, and what does the
laboring man now suffer? He is for a season thrown out of
employment altogether. Our manufactures are suspended; our public
works are stopped; our private enterprises of different kinds are
abandoned; and, whilst others are able to weather the storm, he can
scarcely procure the means of bare subsistence.
“Again, sir; who, do you suppose, held the greater part of the
worthless paper of the one hundred and sixty-five broken banks to
which I have referred? Certainly it was not the keen and wary
speculator, who snuffs danger from afar. If you were to make the
search, you would find more broken bank notes in the cottages of the
laboring poor than anywhere else. And these miserable shinplasters,
where are they? After the revulsion of 1837, laborers were glad to
obtain employment on any terms; and they often received it upon the
express condition that they should accept this worthless trash in
payment. Sir, an entire suppression of all bank notes of a lower
denomination than the value of one week’s wages of the laboring
man is absolutely necessary for his protection. He ought always to
receive his wages in gold and silver. Of all men on the earth, the
laborer is most interested in having a sound and stable currency.
“All other circumstances being equal, I agree with the Senator
from Kentucky that that country is most prosperous where labor
commands the highest wages. I do not, however, mean by the terms
‘highest wages,’ the greatest nominal amount. During the
revolutionary war, one day’s work commanded a hundred dollars of
continental paper; but this would have scarcely purchased a
breakfast. The more proper expression would be, to say that that
country is most prosperous where labor commands the greatest
reward; where one day’s labor will procure not the greatest nominal
amount of a depreciated currency, but most of the necessaries and
comforts of life. If, therefore, you should, in some degree, reduce the
nominal price paid for labor, by reducing the amount of your bank
issues within reasonable and safe limits, and establishing a metallic
basis for your paper circulation, would this injure the laborer?
Certainly not; because the price of all the necessaries and comforts of
life are reduced in the same proportion, and he will be able to
purchase more of them for one dollar in a sound state of the
currency, than he could have done, in the days of extravagant
expansion, for a dollar and a quarter. So far from injuring, it will
greatly benefit the laboring man. It will insure to him constant
employment and regular prices, paid in a sound currency, which, of
all things, he ought most to desire; and it will save him from being
involved in ruin by a recurrence of those periodical expansions and
contractions of the currency, which have hitherto convulsed the
country.
“This sound state of the currency will have another most happy
effect upon the laboring man. He will receive his wages in gold and
silver; and this will induce him to lay up, for future use, such a
portion of them as he can spare, after satisfying his immediate wants.
This he will not do at present, because he knows not whether the
trash which he is now compelled to receive as money, will continue
to be of any value a week or a month hereafter. A knowledge of this
fact tends to banish economy from his dwelling, and induces him to
expend all his wages as rapidly as possible, lest they may become
worthless on his hands.
“Sir, the laboring classes understand this subject perfectly. It is the
hard-handed and firm-fisted men of the country on whom we must
rely in the day of danger, who are the most friendly to the passage of
this bill. It is they who are the most ardently in favor of infusing into
the currency of the country a very large amount of the precious
metals.”
 Lewis Cass on the Missouri Compromise.

From a speech made on the 20th of February, 1854.

Mr. President: I have not withheld the expression of my regret
elsewhere, nor shall I withhold it here, that this question of repeal of
the Missouri compromise, which opens all the disputed points
connected with the subject of Congressional action upon slavery in
the territories of the United States, has been brought before us. I do
not think the practical advantages to result from the measure will
outweigh the injury which the ill-feeling, fated to accompany the
discussion of this subject through the country, is sure to produce.
And I was confirmed in this impression from what was said by the
Senator from Tennessee, (Mr. Jones,) by the Senator from Kentucky,
(Mr. Dixon,) and from North Carolina, (Mr. Badger,) and also by the
remarks which fell from the Senator from Virginia, (Mr. Hunter,)
and in which I fully concur, that the South will never receive any
benefit from this measure, so far as respects the extension of slavery;
for, legislate as we may, no human power can establish it in the
regions defined by these bills. And such were the sentiments of two
eminent patriots, to whose exertions we are greatly indebted for the
satisfactory termination of the difficulties of 1850, and who since
passed from their labors, and, I trust, to their reward. Thus believing,
I should have been better content had the whole subject been left as
it was by the bill when first introduced by the Senator from Illinois,
without any provision regarding the Missouri compromise. I am
aware that it was reported that I intended to propose the repeal of
that measure, but it was an error. My intentions were wholly
misunderstood. I had no design whatever to take such a step, and
thus resuscitate a deed of conciliation which had done its work, and
done it well, and which was hallowed by patriotism, by success, and
by its association with great names, now transferred to history. It
belonged to a past generation; and in the midst of a political tempest
which appalled the wisest and firmest in the land, it had said to the
waves of agitation, Peace, be still, and they became still. It would
have been better, in my opinion, not to disturb its slumber, as all
useful and practical objects could have been attained without it. But
the question is here without my agency.
 Clement L. Vallandigham on Slavery.

October 29, 1855.

“Slavery, gentlemen, older in other countries also, than the records
of human society, existed in America at the date of its discovery. The
first slaves of the European, were natives of the soil: and a Puritan
governor of Massachusetts, founder of the family of Winthrop,
bequeathed his soul to God, and his Indian slaves to the lawful heirs
of his body. Negro slavery was introduced into Hispaniola in 1501:
more than a century before the colonization of America by the
English. Massachusetts, by express enactment in 1641 punishing
‘manstealing’ with death:—and it is so punished to this day under the
laws of the United States—legalized yet the enslaving of captives
taken in war, and of such ‘strangers,’ foreigners, as should be
acquired by purchase: while confederate New England, two years
later, providing for the equitable division of lands, goods and
‘persons,’ as equally a part of the ‘spoils’ of war, enacted also the first
fugitive slave law in America. White slaves—convicts and paupers
some of them; others at a later day, prisoners taken at the battles of
Dunbar and Worcester, and of Sedgemoor—were at the first,
employed in Virginia and the British West Indies. Bought in England
by English dealers, among whom was the queen of James II., with
many of his nobles and courtiers, some of them perhaps of the house
of Sutherland; they were imported and sold at auction to the highest
bidder. In 1620, a Dutch man-of-war first landed a cargo of slaves
upon the banks of James River. But the earliest slave ship belonging
to English colonists, was fitted out in 1645, by a member of the
Puritan church of Boston. Fostered still by English princes and
nobles: confirmed and cherished by British legislation and judicial
decisions, even against the wishes and in spite of the remonstrances
of the Colonies, the traffic increased; slaves multiplied, and on the
Fourth of July, 1776, every colony was now become a slave state; and
the sun went down that day upon four hundred and fifty thousand of
those who in the cant of eighty years later, are styled ‘human
chattels,’ but who were not by the act of that day emancipated.
“Eleven years afterwards, delegates assembled at Philadelphia,
from every state except Rhode Island, ignoring the question of the
sinfulness and immorality of slavery, as a subject with which they as
the representatives of separate and independent states had no
concern, founded a union and framed a constitution, which leaving
with each state the exclusive control and regulation of its own
domestic institutions, and providing for the taxation and
representation of slaves, gave no right to Congress to debate or to
legislate concerning slavery in the states or territories, except for the
interdiction of the slave trade and the extradition of fugitive slaves.
The Plan of Union proposed by Franklin in 1754, had contained no
allusion even to slavery; and the articles of Confederation of 1778,
but a simple recognition of its existence—so wholly was it regarded
then, a domestic and local concern. In 1787 every state, except
perhaps Massachusetts, tolerated slavery either absolutely or
conditionally.—But the number of slaves north of Maryland, never
great, was even yet comparatively small; not exceeding forty
thousand in a total slave population of six hundred thousand. In the
North, chief carrier of slaves to others even as late as 1807, slavery
never took firm root. Nature warred against it in that latitude;
otherwise every state in the Union would have been a slaveholding
state to this day. It was not profitable there; and it died out—
lingering indeed in New York till July, 1827. It died out: but not so
much by the manumission of slaves, as by their transportation and
sale in the South: and thus New England, sir, turned an honest
penny with her left hand, and with her right, modestly wrote herself
down in history, as both generous and just.
“In the South, gentlemen, all this was precisely reversed. The
earliest and most resolute enemies to slavery, were Southern men.
But climate had fastened the institution upon them; and they found
no way to strike it down. From the beginning indeed, the Southern
colonies especially had resisted the introduction of African slaves;
and at the very outset of the revolution, Virginia and North Carolina
interdicted the slave trade. The Continental Congress soon after, on
the sixth of April, 1776, three months earlier than the Declaration of
Independence, resolved that no more slaves ought to be imported
into the thirteen colonies. Jefferson, in his draught of the
Declaration, had denounced the King of England alike for
encouraging the slave trade, and for fomenting servile insurrection in
the provinces. Ten years later, he boldly attacked slavery in his
“Notes on Virginia;” and in the Congress of the Confederation, prior
to the adoption of the Constitution, with its solemn compacts and
compromises upon the subject of slavery, proposed to exclude it
from the territory northwest the river Ohio. Colonel Mason of
Virginia vehemently condemned it, in the convention of 1787.
Nevertheless it had already become manifest that slavery must soon
die away in the North, but in the South continue and harden into
perhaps a permanent, ineradicable system. Hostile interests and
jealousies sprang up, therefore, in bitterness even in the convention.
But the blood of the patriot brothers of Carolina and Massachusetts
smoked yet upon the battle fields of the revolution. The recollection
of their kindred language, and common dangers and sufferings,
burned still fresh in their hearts. Patriotism proved more powerful
than jealousy, and good sense stronger than fanaticism. There were
no Sewards, no Hales, no Sumners, no Greeleys, no Parkers, no
Chase, in that convention. There was a Wilson; but he rejoiced not in
the name of Henry; and he was a Scotchman. There was a clergyman
—no, not in the convention of ’87, but in the Congress of ’76; but it
was the devout, the learned, the pious, the patriotic Witherspoon; of
foreign birth also, a native of Scotland, too. The men of that day and
generation, sir, were content to leave the question of slavery just
where it belonged. It did not occur to them, that each one among
them was accountable for ‘the sin of slaveholding’ in his fellow; and
that to ease his tender conscience of the burden, all the fruits of
revolutionary privation and blood and treasure; all the recollections
of the past; all the hopes of the future: nay the Union, and with it,
domestic tranquillity and national independence, ought to be offered
up as a sacrifice. They were content to deal with political questions;
and to leave cases of conscience to the church and the schools, or to
the individual man. And accordingly to this Union and Constitution,
based upon these compromises—execrated now as ‘covenants with
death and leagues with hell’—every state acceded: and upon these
foundations, thus broad and deep, and stable, a political
superstructure has, as if by magic, arisen, which in symmetry and