Module 4 Slides English

Early Grade Reading Capacity Development Training
Program
Educational Research Course

Quantitative Data Collection and Analysis
Date:
Presenter:
1
Module Outline
• Session 1: Overview to Quantitative Research
• Session 2: Sampling Strategies and Size
• Session 3: Measurement
• Session 4: Instrument Development
• Session 5: Instrument Administration
• Session 6: Data Preparation
• Session 7 Data Analysis
• Session 8: Interpretation and Reporting
• Session 9: Mixed Methods Research
2
Session 1: Overview to Quantitative Research
Session Outline:
• Overview to Quantitative Research
• Features of Quantitative Research
• Variables
• Quantitative Designs
• Survey Design
• Correlational Design
• Experimental Design
3
Quantitative Research
• Emphasizes quantification in the collection and analysis of data;
• Entails a deductive approach to the relationship between theory and
research or the testing of theories;
• Has incorporated the practices and norms of the natural scientific
model; and
• Embodies a view of social reality as an external, objective reality.
New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 4

Features of Quantitative Research
• Describe a research problem through trends and relationships;
• Create purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses that are
specific, narrow, measurable, and observable;
• Collect numeric data from a large number of people using instruments;
• Use probability sampling strategies that can represent the target
population;
• Analyze data for trends, group comparisons, and relationships among
variables; and
• Write the research report using standard, fixed structures and an
objective, unbiased approach;

Variable
• A variable is simply an attribute on which cases vary.

• ‘Cases’ can obviously be people, but they can also include
things such as households, cities, organizations, schools,
and nations.
• If an attribute does not vary, it is a constant, e.g. if all
participants are Afghan, nationality will be a constant, not
a variable.

Types of Variable
• The most basic distinction is between independent and dependent
variables.
• The independent variables are deemed to have a causal influence on
the dependent variables.
• The cause variable, or the force or condition that acts on something
else, is the independent variable.
• The variable that is the effect, result, or outcome of another variable is
the dependent variable.

Theories as Bridges between Independent and
Dependent Variables.

Example
Theory: If teachers use phonics-base instructional approach, students’
achievement in reading improves.
Independent Variable: Teaching Approach
Dependent Variable: Student Reading Achievement

The Concept of Research Design
• Refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different
components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby,
ensuring you will effectively address the research problem.
• Is a logical structure of the inquiry.
• Constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis
of data.
• Is different from data collection methods.
• Note that your research problem determines the type of design you
should use, not the other way around!

Quantitative Research Designs
Intervention Nonintervention
Research Research
Explaining whether an Associating or

intervention influences relating variables
an outcome for one in a predictable
Describing trends for
group as opposed to pattern for one
the population of
another group group of individuals
people
Experimental Correlational Survey

Research Research Research

Survey Research
• Is a research design in which investigators administer a survey
to a sample or to the entire population of people in order to
describe the attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of
the population.
• Survey designs are used:
• To assess trends
• To assess opinions, beliefs, and attitudes
• For follow-up analyses
• For evaluations

Sample Survey Research
• Title: Literacy Survey: Children’s early literacy practices at home and
in early years settings
• Authors: Formby (2014)
• Purpose: to examine children’s access to books and to technology,
and their early reading habits.
• Methodology:
• Why is it a survey?
• Because it measures variables like access to books and
technology.

Correlational Research
• In this research design, investigators use the correlation
statistical test to describe and measure the degree of
association (or relationship) between two or more variables or
sets of scores.
• Statistic that expresses linear relationships is the Pearson
product-moment correlation coefficient (r).
• Chi square?

Sample Correlational Research
Title: Relations Among Oral Reading Fluency, Silent Reading Fluency,
and Reading Comprehension
Authors:
Purpose: to examine the relationship between oral reading fluency, silent
reading fluency, and reading comprehension for students in primary
grades.
Methodology:
Why is it a correlational design?

Experimental Design
• In an experiment, you test an idea (or practice or procedure) to
determine whether it influences an outcome or dependent variable.
• In experiment, you assign individuals to experience it (Treatment
Group) and have some individuals experience something different
(Control Group), and then determine whether those who experienced
the idea (or practice or procedure) performed better on some outcome
than those who did not experience it.

Sample Experimental Research
Title: A randomized experiment of a mixed-methods literacy intervention
for struggling readers in grades 4–6: effects on word reading efficiency,
reading comprehension and vocabulary, and oral reading fluency
Purpose: The purpose of this study was (1) to examine the causal effects
of READ 180, a mixed-methods literacy intervention, on measures of
word reading efficiency, reading comprehension and vocabulary, and oral
reading fluency and (2) to examine whether print exposure among
children in the experimental condition explained variance in posttest
reading scores.

Session 2: Quantitative Sampling Strategies
Session Outline:
• Sampling Strategies and Sample Size
• Sampling in Research Process
• Why Sampling?
• Population and Sample
• Target Population and Sampling Frame
• Sampling Strategies
• Probability Sampling
• Non-probability Sampling
18
Population and Sample
Population: The abstract idea of a large group of many cases from which
a researcher draws a sample and to which results from a sample are
generalized.
Sample: A small set of cases a researcher selects from a large pool and
generalizes to the population.
Population
19
Why Sampling?
• It is almost impossible to study all cases related to the
phenomenon under study due to time, resource, and
accessibility limitations.
• More importantly, it is not necessary to study all cases
because we can generalize a representative sample
statistics to the population’s parameters with a high
accuracy and confidence,
20
Target Population & Sampling Frame
• Target Population
A target population is the specific collection of cases we will
study.
– Example: Early Grade Teachers in Afghanistan
• Sampling Frame
A list of cases in a population, or the best approximation of them.
– Example: Ministry of Education’s List of Early Grade Teachers
Generated by EMIS
21
Sampling Strategies
Quantitative Sampling Strategies
Probability Sampling Non probability Sampling
System
Simple Multist
atic Stratifi Convenien
Rando age Snowball Quota
Rando ed ce
m Cluster
m
22
Probability Sampling
• In probability sampling, the researcher selects individuals from the population
randomly to yield samples most likely to truly represent the entire population.
• Random: In daily life, it can mean unpredictable, unusual, unexpected, or
haphazard.
• In mathematics, random has a specific meaning: a selection process without any
pattern or that each element will have an equal probability of being selected
• Random Samples allow us to calculate statistically the relationship between the
sample and the population—that is, the size of the sampling error.
• Types of probability sampling:
• Simple Random Sampling,
• Systematic Random Sampling
• Stratified Sampling,
• Multistage Cluster Sampling
23
Simple Random Sampling
The most popular and rigorous form of
probability sampling from a population is simple
random sampling
The researcher selects participants (or units, such
as schools) for the sample so that any individual
has an equal probability of being selected from
the population.
24
Systematic Sampling
A random sampling with a shortcut selection
procedure.
We first calculate a sampling interval to create
a quasi- random selection method.
The sampling interval (i.e., 1 in k, where k is
some number) tells us how to select cases from
a sampling frame by skipping elements in the
frame before selecting one for the sample.
The first case will be selected randomly from
the first interval.
25
Example for Systematic Sampling
For instance, we want to sample 300 students from 900 using systematic
sampling, here are the steps:
Step1: Calculate the sampling interval (i) by dividing population by
sample size.
i= = = 3
Step 2: Select a random starting point from the first i number of cases.
Step 3: Select cases with an interval of i, in the case every 3th case.
26
Stratified Sampling
•Divide (stratify) the population on some
specific characteristic (e.g., gender) and
then, using simple random sampling,
sample from each subgroup (stratum) of
the population (e.g., females and males).
•Stratified Sampling is used to include
participants from specific categories that
simple random sampling would
otherwise not guarantee.
•In survey research, a proportional
stratified sampling is often used.
27
Example of Proportional Stratification Sampling
Population
(N=9,000)
Boys Girls
(N=6,000) N=3,000
6,000 divided by 9,000 .66 of population .33 of population 3,000 divided by 9,000
200 100 Total Sample Size = 300
Random sampling
28
Multistage Cluster Sampling
• Select a sample in two or more stages
when it is
• difficult to obtain a complete list of
the population, or
• there is a wide geographical
dispersion and is costly to reach
randomly selected cases.
• Select both clusters and cases within each
cluster randomly.
• Select as many clusters as feasible.
• Use constant number of cases from each
selected cluster.
29
Multistage Cluster Sampling Example
• The research wants to select 300 at-risk early grade students from the
whole country population, using multi-stage cluster sampling.
• Step 1: Identify appropriate clusters, e.g. Districts.
• Step 2: Select a number of districts randomly (the larger, the better)
(e.g. 50 out of 400 districts)
• Step 3: Divide the sample size by the number of cluster (300/50=6)
• Step 4: Select 6 at risk students from each cluster randomly using a
complete list of at-risk students in the district.
30
Non-Probability Sampling
• Selects individuals who are available, convenient, and represent some
characteristic under study.
• Non-probability is only used when probability sampling is not
possible.
• Non-probability sampling includes:
• Convenience Sampling
• Snowball Sampling
• Quota Sampling
31
Convenience Sampling
• Selects participants because they are
willing and available to be studied.
• Convenience sampling can seriously
misrepresent features in the entire
population.
32
Convenience Sampling Example
• A researcher conducting a study involving Uzbeki native-speaker
students finds that a large percentage of students in one school are
Uzbeki speakers.
• The researcher decides to study this group at this one school because
they are available and she has the permission of the principal and can
gain consent from the Uzbeki students to participate in the study.
• This is a convenience sample because the participants are convenient
to the researcher and are available for the study.
33
Snowball Sampling
• An alternative to convenience
sampling is snowball sampling.
• The researcher asks participants to
identify others to become members of
the sample
• Has the advantage of recruiting large
numbers of participants for the study.
• May not be representative of the
population you seek to study.
34
Snowball Sampling Example
A research wants to survey Pashai households in Kabul to study how
language affects parental involvement, and you already know one
household. You identify your further participants through the
household(s) already surveyed.
35
Quota Sampling
• A nonrandom sample in which the researcher first identifies general
categories into which cases or people will be placed and then selects
cases to reach a predetermined number in each category.
• The cases within each category are selected based on convenience
sampling.
36
Sample Size Determination
• Sample size is determined based on accepted sampling error and
confidence level.
• A general rule of thumb is to select as large a sample as possible.

Sampling Error
• Is the difference between the sample estimate and the true population
parameter.
• The larger the sample, the less the potential sampling error.
• 5% sampling error is usually accepted.
38
Sampling Error Example
• Assume we know that the average score for reading test for
all students in a district is 75.
• If we select a sample of 350 students and get a score of 80,
the next time we might obtain a score of 72, and the next
time a 76, because our sample will change from one school
to another.
• This means that our average score is five points, three
points, and one point, respectively, away from the “true”
population average.
39
Confidence Interval and Confidence Level
• A range of values, usually a little higher and lower than a specific
value found in a sample, within which a researcher has a specified and
high degree of confidence that the population parameter lies.
• We use a range because the statistics of random processes are based on
probability. They do not let us predict an exact point. They allow us
to say with a high level of confidence (e.g., 95 percent) that the true
population parameter lies within a certain range (i.e., the confidence
interval).
• Confidence level of 95% is usually accepted in social research.
40
Confidence Interval Formula
Standard
deviation
mean
Freedo
Number of
m
samples
degree
41
Sampling Distribution
• If we collected sample after sample of scores and plotted them on a

graph, they would look like a bell-shaped curve as shown.
• This is called a normal distribution or normal probability curve.
Mean= mode= median
42
How to Find a Confidence Interval for the Mean in
Excel: Steps
Step 1: Type your data into a single column in Excel. For this example,
type the data into cells A1:A31.
Step 2: Click the “Data” tab, then click “Data Analysis,” then click
“Descriptive Statistics” and “OK.” If you don’t see Data Analysis, the
Excel data analysis toolpack.
43
Excel: Steps (Cont.)
Step 3: Enter your input range into the Input Range box. For this
example, your input range is “A1:A31”.
Step 4: Type an output range into the Output Range box. This is where
you want your answer to appear. For example, type “B1.”
44
Step 5: Click the “Summary Statistics” check box and then place your
chosen confidence level into the ‘Confidence Level for Mean’ check box.
For this example, type “95”.
45
Step 6: Click “OK.” Microsoft Excel will return the confidence interval
for the mean and the margin of error for your data. For this sample, the
mean (Xbar) is 149.742 and the margin of error is 66.9367. So the mean
has a lower limit of 149.742-66.936 and an upper limit of
149.742+66.936.
46
How does increasing the sample size affect the
confidence interval?
Sample size 9, standard deviation 36.
 Confidence interval is 66 to 113
Sample size 900, standard deviation 36.
 Confidence interval is 87.765 to 92.352.
Sample size 9, standard deviation 3.6.
 Confidence interval is 89.215 to 90.784
47
Sample Size
• When selecting participants for a study, it is important to determine the
size of the sample you will need.
• It depends on population characteristics, the type of data analysis to
be employed, and the degree of confidence in sample accuracy
needed for research purposes.
• As a rough estimate, an educational researcher needs
– Approximately 15 participants in each group in an experiment
– Approximately 30 participants for a correlational study that relates
variables
– Approximately 350 individuals for a survey study, but this size
will vary depending on several factors
48
Sample Size
• This table determines the sample

size based on population size,
optimal confidence level, and
acceptable sampling error.
49
List of Random Numbers
There are two main ways to obtain a list of random numbers:
1. The “old-fashioned” way is to use a random-number table.
• The numbers are generated by a pure random process so that any

number has an equal probability of appearing in any position.
2. Today most people use computer programs to produce lists of
random numbers. Such programs are readily available and often
free. [https://www.randomizer.org]
50
Session 3: Measurement
Session Outline:
• Measurement
• Operationalization and Conceptualization
• From Concepts to Variables
• Level of Measurement
• Nominal
• Ordinal
• Interval
• Ratio

Measurement
• In quantitative studies, measurement is a distinct step in the research

process that occurs prior to data collection.
• Measurement means that the researcher records information from
individuals in one of two ways:
1. Asking them to answer questions on a questionnaire (e.g., a student
completes questions on a survey asking about self-esteem)
2. Observing an individual and recording scores on a log or checklist
(e.g., a researcher watches a student playing basketball and records
scores on dribbling techniques) Creswell
Why Measurement?
• Measurement allows us to delineate fine differences between people in
terms of the characteristic in question.
• Measurement gives us a consistent device or yardstick for making
such distinctions.
• Measurement provides the basis for more precise estimates of the
degree of relationship between concepts (for example, through
correlation analysis).
Measurement Example
Operationalization: From Concepts to Indicators
• Conceptualization: The process of developing clear, rigorous,
systematic conceptual definitions for abstract ideas/concepts
• Conceptual Definition: A careful, systematic definition of a
construct that is explicitly written down.
• Operationalization: The process of moving from a construct’s
conceptual definition to specific activities or measures that allow a
researcher to observe it empirically.
• Operational Definition: A variable in terms of the specific actions to
measure or indicate it in the empirical world.
Conceptualization and Operationalization
Concepts
• Concepts are the building blocks of theory and represent the points
around which social research is conducted.
• Concepts are categories for the organization of ideas and observations.
• Examples of concepts are: “self-efficacy”, “job satisfaction”, …
Indicators and Measures
• An indicator, then, is something that is devised or already exists and
that is employed as though it were a measure of a concept.
• First, there is a distinction between an indicator and a measure. The
latter can be taken to refer to things that can be relatively
unambiguously counted, such as personal income, household income,
age, number of children, or number of years spent at school.
Measures, in other words, are quantities.
• If we are interested in some of the causes of variation in personal
income, the latter can be quantified in a reasonably direct way.
• We use indicators to tap concepts that are less directly quantifiable.
Process of Operationalization
• One elaboration of the general approach to measurement is to consider
the possibility that the concept in which you are interested comprises
different dimensions.
• The idea behind this approach is that, when the researcher is seeking
to develop a measure of a concept, the different aspects or components
of that concept should be considered.
• This specification of the dimensions of a concept would be undertaken
with reference to theory and research associated with that concept.
Examples of Concepts and Variables
EGRA Example
Data Types in Quantitative Research

Deciding How to Categorize a Variable

Levels of measurement
• Nominal-Level Measurement: The lowest, least precise level of
measurement for which there is a difference in type only among the
categories of a variable.
• Ordinal-Level Measurement: Identifies a difference among
categories of a variable and allows the categories to be rank ordered as
well.
• Interval-Level Measurement: Identifies differences among variable
attributes, ranks categories, and measures distance between categories
but has no true zero.
• Ratio-Level Measurement: The highest, most precise level of
measurement; variable attributes can be rank ordered, the distance
between them precisely measured, and there is an absolute zero.
Nominal Measure
Ordinal Measure
65
Interval Scale Measure
66
Ratio Scale Measure
67
Session 4: Instrument Development
Session Outline:
• Instrument
• Standardized vs. Researchers’ Instruments
• Criteria for Choosing a Good Standardized Instrument
• Steps in Instrument Construction Process
• Questionnaire Design
• Validity and Reliability
• Types of Validity
• Types of Reliability
• Relationship between Validity and Reliability

The Concept of Instruments
• An instrument is a tool for measuring, observing, or documenting
quantitative data.
• An instrument such as a questionnaire is typically used to obtain
factual information, support observations, or assess attitudes and
opinions.
• The instrument may be a test, questionnaire, tally sheet, log,
observational checklist, inventory.
Standardized vs. Researchers Instruments
Standardized instruments:
• Modifying an instrument means locating an existing instrument,
obtaining permission to change it, and making changes in it to fit your
requirements.
Researcher instruments:
– Develop your own instrument but it is more difficult to develop an
instrument than to locate one and modify it for use in a study
– Developing an instrument consists of several steps, such as:
• Identifying the purpose of the instrument,
• Reviewing the literature,
• Writing the questions, and
• Testing the questions with individuals similar to those you plan to study.
Criteria for Choosing a Good Standardized
Instrument
• Have authors developed the instrument recently, and can you obtain
the most recent version?
• Is the instrument widely cited by other authors?
• Are reviews available for the instrument?
• Is there information about the reliability and validity of scores from
past uses of the instrument?
• Does the procedure for recording data fit the research
questions/hypotheses in your study?
• Does the instrument contain accepted scales of measurement?
Example of Standardized
• Early Grade Reading Assessment
• Early Grade Mathematics Assessment
• Program for International Student Assessment
Steps in Developing or Constructing an Instrument
Steps in Instrument Construction Process
Question Development and Questionnaire Design
Process
Questionnaires
• Focus on closed ended questions
• Administered in a standard way
• Best used when:
– There is a large sample
– You want fairly straightforward information
– You want standardized data from identical questions
– You are more interested in what occurs rather than why or how
Limitations of Questionnaires
• Can be superficial - difficult to capture the richness of meaning
• Cannot deal with context - information is collected in isolation of
environment
• Information is not causal - cannot attribute cause-effect relationships
• Information is self-report - which does not necessarily reflect actual
behavior
Measurement in Questionnaires:
• Performance measures to assess an individual’s ability to perform on
an achievement test, intelligence test, aptitude test, interest inventory, or
personality assessment inventory.
• Attitudinal measures when they measure feelings toward educational
topics (e.g., assessing positive or negative attitudes toward giving students a
choice of school to attend)
• Behavioral observations are made by selecting an instrument (or using a
behavioral protocol) on which to record a behavior, observing individuals
for that behavior, and checking points on a scale that reflect the behavior
(behavioral checklists).
• Factual information or personal documents consist of numeric,
individual data available in public records. Examples of these types of data
include grade reports, school attendance records, student demographic data,
and census information.
Types of Questions: Close-Ended
• Designed to obtain predetermined responses
• (Yes/No; True/False; strongly agree, strongly disagree, etc..)
• Easy to count and analyses
• Easy to interpret
• May not have catered for all possible answers
• Questions may not be relevant or important
Types of Questions: Likert Scale
• Likert scale A scale often used in survey research in which people
express attitudes or other responses in terms of ordinal-level categories
(e.g., agree, disagree) that are ranked along a continuum.
Likert Examples
Four “Dos” of Question Wording
• Question evaluation is scrutinizing the wording of a question to ensure
that question bias is minimized and that the question is worded so that
respondents understand it and can respond to it with relative ease.
• The question should be focused on a single issue or topic.

• The question should be brief.
• The question should be grammatically simple.
• The question should be crystal clear.
Four “Dont’s” of Question Wording
Do not “lead” the respondent to a particular answer
– A leading question gives a strong cue or expectation as what answer to
provide.
Do not use “loaded” wording or phrasing
– A loaded question has buried in its wording elements a sneaky
presupposition, or it might make reference to universal beliefs or rules of
behavior.
Do not use a “double-barreled” question
– A double-barreled question is really two different questions posed in one
question.
Do not use words that overstate the case
– An overstated question places undue emphasis on some aspect of the topic.
Examples of Dos and Don’ts for Question Wording
Logical Sequence of Survey Questions
Validity and Reliability of Instruments
• Validity
• Validity concerns the degree to which a question measures what
it was intended to measure (and not something else).
• Reliability:
• Means that scores from an instrument are stable and consistent.
• Scores should be nearly the same when researchers administer
the instrument multiple times at different times.
• Also, scores need to be consistent. When an individual answers
certain questions one way, the individual should consistently
answer closely related questions in the same way.
Types of Validity
1. Face Validity:
• An indicator “makes sense”
as a measure of a construct in
the judgment of others,
especially in the scientific
community.
2. Content Validity:
• Requires that a measure
represent all aspects of
the conceptual definition
of a construct.
Types of Validity
• Criterion Validity:
• Uses some standard or criterion to
indicate a construct accurately.
• The validity of an indicator is verified by
comparing it with another measure of the
same construct in which a researcher has
confidence.
• Construct Validity:
• Is for measures with multiple indicators.
• Addresses this question: If the measure is
valid, do the various indicators operate in
a consistent manner?
• Requires a definition with clearly
specified conceptual boundaries.

Types of Reliability
Reliability and Validity Relationship

Session 5: Instrument Administration
Session Outline:
• Administering the Data Collection
1. Standardization
2. Ethical Issues

Administrating the Data Collection
• Differs based on the data and the instruments or documents used.
• Two standard aspects across all forms of data:
1. The use of standard procedures
2. Ethical practices

1. Standardization
• When procedures vary (are not standardized), bias is introduced into the
study and the data for individuals may not be comparable for analysis.
• Uniform written procedures help keep on track.
• Need to apply the same procedures to each individual.
• Survey Interview: Need to provide interviewers with consistent
procedures and train them with demonstration and trail interview
and critique of trial.
• Observation: A similar training must occur before data
collection.
• Public document collection: establishing database of categories
of information helps organize information and data of several
sources in one file.

2. Ethical Issues
• Data collection should be ethical; should respect individuals and sites
• Obtain permission
• Protect the anonymity of individuals
• Respect the wishes of individuals who choose not to participate in
the study.
• In terms of the research site, recognize that all researchers disrupt
the site they are studying, however minimally it might be.
» Example: Observing in a classroom, for example, may disturb learning by
distracting teachers and students, especially when you observe them closely
and write down observations about their behavior on checklists.
» By obtaining permissions and clearly communicating the purpose of the study
before you collect data, you can lessen the reservations some individuals may
have about your presence in their educational setting.

Session 6: Data Preparation
Session Outline:
 Coding Data
 Entering Data
 Cleaning Data

Preparing Data for Analysis
Assign numeric score (or value) to

each response category for each Enter the data from your
question on the instruments used instruments or checklists into the
to collect data. computer program.

Preparing Data for Analysis: Coding
Coding
– Systematically reorganizing raw data into a format that is easy to analyze
using statistics software on computers.
Coding procedure
– A set of rules stating certain numbers to be assigned to variable attributes
(e.g. males =1; females=2; (Likert scale) strongly agree=4 ; agree=3;etc.)
Codebook
– A document describing the coding procedure and the computer file
location of data for variables in a specific format.
• Precoding involves placing the code categories (e.g. 1 for male, 2 for
female) on questionnaire and building the features of a codebook
into it.

Sample Codebook.

Preparing Data for Analysis: Entering
1. Code sheet
– Gather the information, then transfer it from the original source
onto a grid format (code sheet). Next, enter what is on the code
sheet into a computer line by line.
2. Direct-entry method (including CATI)
– Process of entering data directly into a computer by typing them
without bar codes or optical scan sheets.
3. Optical scan
4. Bar code

Preparing Data for Analysis: Cleaning
• To check accuracy of coding
• 10-15% of data entered
1. Possible code clearing
– Clarifying data using a computer by searching for responses or
answer categories that cannot have cases
2. Contingency cleaning
– Flushing data using a computer in which the researcher reviews the
combination of categories for two variables for logically
impossible cases.
Session 8: Data Analysis
Session Outline:
 Descriptive Data Analysis
 Frequency
 Measure of Central Tendency
 One Variable
 Two Variables (Bivariate)
 More than Two Variables
 Correlation
 Inferential Data Analysis
Descriptive Data Analysis
• A general type of simple statistics used by researchers to describe
basic patterns in data.
• Helps summarize the overall trends or tendencies in data, provide an
understanding of how varied the scores might be, and provide insight
into where one score stands in comparison with others.
Major Types of Descriptive Statistics
Frequency Distribution (Definition)
• A table that shows the dispersion of cases into the categories of one variable,
that is, the number of percent of cases in each category.
• Used with nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio level data.
– Normal Distribution
• A bell-shaped frequency polygon for a dispersion of cases with a peak
in the center and identical curving slops on either side of the center;
distribution of many naturally occurring phenomena and a basis of
much statistical theory.
• The three measures of central tendency equal each other.
– Skewed Distribution
• A dispersion of cases among the categories of a variable that is not
normal, that is, not a bell shape; instead of an equal number of cases on
both ends; more are at one of the extremes.
Frequency Distribution (Graphs)
Measures of Central Tendency
• Summarizes information about one variable into a single number value
or score that represents the entire distribution
• Mean: indicates the arithmetic average, the sum of all scores divided
by the total number of them.
• Median: The value or score that divides the top half of a distribution
from the bottom half
• Mode: The most frequent or common score or value
Measures of Central Tendency
Measures of Variation
• Describes the “spread” of the scores
• Range: The difference between the highest and lowest scores
• Percentile: A measure of dispersion for a one variable that indicates
the percentage of cases at or below a score or point.
• Standard Deviation: The standard distance the scores are away from
the mean
• Z-score: A standardized location of a score in a distribution of scores
based on the number of standard deviations it is above or below the
mean.
Standard Deviation
Bivariate
• Statistical measures that involve two variables only and shows a statistical
relationship or the association between variables.
• Statistical Relationship
Expression of whether two or more variables affect one another based on
the used of elementary applied mathematics, that is, whether there is an
association between them or independence.
• Covariation
– The concept that two variables vary together, such that knowing the values
on one variable provides information about values found on another.
• Statistical Independence
– The absence of a statistical relationship between two variables, that is,
when knowing the values on one variable provides no information about
the values found on another variable; no association between the variable.
Statistical Relationship
Several techniques are used to decide whether a relationship exists
between two variables:
1. Scattergram /graph/plot of the relationship
2. A percentaged table
3. Measures of association
1. Scattergram
A diagram to display the statistical relationship between two variables
based on plotting each case’s values for both of the variables.
1. Independence: random scatter with no pattern; no relationship.
2. Linear: positive or negative across levels of variables; forms a
straight line, without a curve.
3. Curvilinear: as the values of one variable increase, the values of the
second show a changing pattern; not a linear relationship.
1. Scattergram (Example)
2. Tables
• Presents the same information as a Scattergram in a more condensed
form.
• Data can be measures at any level of measurement.
Contingency Table
A summary format of the cross-tabulation of two or more variables
showing bivariate quantitative data for variables in the form of
percentages across rows or down columns for the categories of one
variable.
Cross-Tabulation
The process of placing data for two variables in a contingency table to
show the percentage or number of cases at the intersection of variable
categories.
2. Tables (Example)
3. Measures of Association
• A single number that expresses the strength, and often the direction, of a
relationship.
• Equals zero if the variables are independent.
• Lambda, Gamma, Tau, Rho, Chi-Square
• Gamma: at ordinal level; measures strength of an association
• Correlation coefficient: at the ratio-level; show how much two
variables “go together” or covary.
• Most measures follow Proportionate Reduction in Error.
• A logic in many statistics that measures the strength of association
between two variables. A strong association reduces most errors in
predicting the dependent variable using information from the
independent variable.
Measure of Association: Correlation
• A statistical technique used to measure and describe the relationship
between two variables.
• A numerical value to describe and measure three characteristics of the
relationship between X and Y:
1. The direction of the relationship: sign of correlation
• Positive correlation: two variables tend to change in the same
direction.
• Negative correlation: two variables tend to go in opposite directions.
2. The form of the relationship
• Measures straight-line relationships
3. The strength and consistency of the relationship
• How perfectly do the data points fit on the straight line.
Measure of Association: Correlation (Cont.)
• Correlation = 1.00: each change in X is accompanied by a perfectly
predictable change in Y, in the same direction.
• Correlation = -1.00: each change in X is accompanied by a perfectly
predictable change in Y, in the opposite direction.
• Correlation=0: Indicates the data points are scattered randomly with no
clear trend; indicates no consistency at all.
Inferential Statistics
• A branch of applied mathematics based on random sampling that
allows researchers to make precise statements about the level of
confidence they can have that measures in a sample are the same as a
population parameter.
– Purpose
• Build on probability theory to test hypotheses formally
• Permit inferences from a sample to a population
• Test whether descriptive results are likely to be due to random
factors or to a real relationship.
Inferential Statistics: Statistical Significance
– Statistical Significance
• The likelihood that a finding or statistical relationship in a
sample’s results is due to random factors rather than to the
existence of an actual relationship in the entire population.
– Level of Statistical Significance

• A set of numbers that researchers use as a simple way to measure
the degree to which a statistical relationship results from random
factors rather than the existence of a true relationship among
variables.
Inferential Statistics
Session 8: Reporting and Interpretation
Session Outline:
• Results Reporting
• Univariate Graphic Representation
• Results Interpretation
Results Reporting
Tables summarize statistical information
• Title each table
• Present one table for each statistical test
• Organize data into rows and columns with simple and clear headings
Figures (charts, pictures, drawings) portray variables and their
relationships
• Labeled with a clear title that includes the number of the figure
• Augment rather than duplicate the text
• Convey only essential facts
• Omit visually distracting detail
• Easy to read and understand
Univariate Graphic Representation: Histogram
Histogram
• A graphic display of univariate frequencies or percentages, usually
with vertical lines indicating the amount or proportion.
Univariate Graphic Representation: Frequency
Polygon
• Interval- or ratio-level data
• A graph of connected points showing how many cases fall into each
category of a variable.
Results Interpretation
• Summarize major results in response to research questions
• Discuss whether the hypothesis was confirmed or rejected
• Explain the implications of the results for the audiences
• Discuss limitations
• Suggest future research
Session 9: Mixed Method Research
Session Outline:
• Definition and Features
• When Is It Used?
• Types of Mixed Methods Research
• Approach and Sequence in Mixed Methods Research
• Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Research
• Advantage and Disadvantages of Mixed Methods
Features
• Research that combines alternative approaches within a single research
project.
– Main Features
1. Uses both qualitative and quantitative methods within a single
research project.
2. Explicit focus on the link between approaches (triangulation).
3. Emphasis on practical approaches to research problems
(pragmatist).
When Is It Appropriate to Use a Mixed Methods
Approach?
Used for the following purposes:
• Improved accuracy
• The validation of findings in terms of their accuracy;
• Checking for bias in research methods;
• The development of research instruments.
• A more complete picture
• Compensating strengths and weaknesses
• Developing the analysis
Types of Mixed Methods Design
Approach Sequence in Mixed Methods Design
Key Issues in the Mixed Methods Approach
• Order: in what order do the methods get used?
• Timing: at what points are methods changed or combined?
• Proportion and priority: which methods are seen as dominant?
• Comparison and contrast: linked with triangulation are the methods
similar or markedly different?
• Use and benefit: for what purposes are the alternative approaches
combined?
Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Research
1. Triangulation 9. Sampling
2. Offset 10. Credibility
3. Completeness 11. Context
4. Process 12. Illustration
5. Different Research 13. Utility or Improving the
Questions Usefulness of Findings
6. Explanation 14. Confirm and Discover
7. Unexpected Results 15. Diversity of Views
8. Instrument Development 16. Enhancement
Advantages of the Mixed Methods Approach
• A more comprehensive account of the thing being researched.
• Clearer links between different methods and the different kinds of
data.
• Good use of triangulation.
• A practical, problem-driven approach to research.
Disadvantages of the Mixed Methods Approach
• The time and costs of the research project can increase.
• The researcher needs to develop skills with more than one method.
• The QUAL/QUAN distinction tends to oversimplify matters.
• The mixed methods designs that are generally recommended do not
allow for emergent research designs.
• The underlying philosophy of the Mixed Methods approach –
pragmatism – is open to misinterpretation.
• Findings from different methods might not corroborate one another.
References
• Bryman, Alan. (2012). Social Research Methods. 4 th ed. NY: Oxford
University Press.
• Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational Research: Planning, Conducting and
Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research. 4 th ed. USA: Pearson
Education.
• Denscombe, Martyn. (2007). The Good Research Guide for Small-Scale
Social Research Projects. 3rd ed. New York, NY: Open University Press.
• Gravetter, F. J. and Walnau, L. B. (2013). Statistics for Behavioral Sciences.
9th ed. USA: Cengage Learning.
• Neuman, W. Lawrence. (2007). Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and
Quantitative Approaches. 2nd ed. USA: Pearson Education, Inc.
• Neuman, W. Lawrence. (2014). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and
Quantitative Approaches. USA: Pearson Education.

Module 4 Slides English

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module 4 Slides English

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Early Grade Reading Capacity Development Training

Educational Research Course

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 4

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 5

• A variable is simply an attribute on which cases vary.

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 6

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 7

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 8

Independent Variable: Teaching Approach

Dependent Variable: Student Reading Achievement

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 9

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 10

Explaining whether an Associating or

Experimental Correlational Survey

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 11

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 12

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 13

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 14

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 15

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 16

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 17

Probability Sampling Non probability Sampling

200 100 Total Sample Size = 300

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 37

• If we collected sample after sample of scores and plotted them on a

Mean= mode= median

• This table determines the sample

There are two main ways to obtain a list of random numbers:

1. The “old-fashioned” way is to use a random-number table.

• The numbers are generated by a pure random process so that any

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 51

• In quantitative studies, measurement is a distinct step in the research

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 61

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 62

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 68

• The question should be focused on a single issue or topic.

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 88

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 90

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 91

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 92

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 93

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 94

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 95

Assign numeric score (or value) to

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 96

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 97

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 98

New Approach to Early Grade Reading in Dari and Pashto, Afghanistan 99

 Inferential Data Analysis

– Level of Statistical Significance

You might also like