School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

(SMME)

Internal Combustion Engines

Course Code ME-448

INTRO to ICE
Lec 2

Engr Mohammad Ikhlaq Khattak

ikhlaq@smme.nust.edu.pk1
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Introduction:
– History of ICEs
– Cycles
– Engine classification
– Fundamentals of ICEs
– Slider-crank mechanism
– Torque, power,
performance
– Efficiency
– Exhaust products

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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Engine:
Device to convert fuel energy to mechanical energy
Fuel energy to thermal energy by combustion
Thermal energy to mechanical energy by expansion
• Internal combustion: combustion takes place in working
fluid
• External combustion: combustion occurs externally;
energy coupled to working fluid by heat transfer device
• Open cycle: working fluid discharged to atmosphere; e.g.
all ICE
• Close cycle: working fluid recycled through engine; e.g.
steam engine with condenser Page 4
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• ICE
Size: displacement volume 1cc to 1m3 per cylinder; it is difficult to build engine outside this range.
Power: 10 W to 108 W per cylinder
Applications: Automotive, marine, power generation, mechanical devices
Classification:

• by application: Car, Truck, Marine, Rail, Stationary generation,

• by basic engine design: reciprocating, rotary, in-line block, V-block, radial, oppose piston,
pre-/open chamber

• by working cycle: 2-stroke, 4-stroke, naturally aspirated , turbo-charged, super-charged, turbo-

compound

• by fuel: gasoline, diesel, alcohol, natural gas, …

• by mixture preparation: carbureted, fuel injection

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https://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use
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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

Gas exchange process of 4- and 2-stroke engines

2-stroke engine theoretically has twice the power
density of 4-stroke engine; in practice, the ratio is about
1:4 (value larger for low speed turbo-charger engines)
because of incompleteness of scavenging.
For effective scavenging of the 2-stroke, there will
be excess air in the exhaust, and the 3-way catalyst would
not work. Therefore 2-stroke SI engine would not be able
to meet the stringent emission regulations

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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

Engine pressure traces

Pressure measurement is an important diagnostic
because it is directly related to the mechanical energy
output of the engine (Torque = P dV/dƟ, where Ɵ is the
crank angle); furthermore, interpretation of pressure is
unambiguous since it is uniform in the cylinder (except in
knocking), whereas temperature is not.
Empirically for most efficient operation, peak
pressure for SI engine is at 14-17o CA-ATC; for diesel is at
7-10o CA-ATC.
The very rapid pressure rise in the beginning of
diesel combustion is the cause of the diesel noise. Page 9
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• What is a motor / engine?

• What are its different kinds?

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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• What is a motor / engine?

We wish to produce mechanical work. This necessitates
the conversion of energy initially in another form to
mechanical power

• Historically
Animal, water Wheel and Wind Mills,: all using natural ,
re newable, and Soler energy sources

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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Combustion machines
Use chemical energy stored in fuel which may come
from fossil (oil, gas, coal etc.) or biological (vegetable or
animal) sources

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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Electric machines
Use electrical energy, which has to be produced generally via
the conversion of mechanical energy. This mechanical energy
itself may come from a renewable or non-renewable energy
source (hydraulic, heat engine, nuclear reactor, wind…)

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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Combustion engines
– A fluid is made to follow a certain cycle of operations
under the influence of thermodynamic principles. The
cycle thus obtained is known as a thermodynamic
heat engine cycle
– If the combustion takes place in the working fluid that
is undergoing the thermodynamic cycle, the engine is
known as an Internal Combustion Engine
(reciprocating engines, gas turbines, rotary engines
etc.)

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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Combustion engines
– If the combustion takes place outside of the working
fluid of the thermodynamic engine cycle, the engine is
known as an External Combustion Engine. A few
examples are engines running on the Stirling, Ericsson,
Rankine and Hirn cycles.

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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Combustion engines
– This BE ME-439 course deals with Internal
Combustion Engines of the Reciprocating Piston type.
Turbines and rocket engines are excluded from this
course. Wankel rotary engines will be discussed later
on, owing their similarity to the reciprocating engines
in terms of the thermodynamic cycle that are
employed (NSU, Citroën, Norton, Mercedes, Mazda)

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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Idealised cycles
– Otto cycle
– Diesel cycle
– Dual combustion cycle

Page 17
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Otto cycle
Otto cycle, also known as the Beau de Rochas (France).
Alphonse Eugène Beau de Rochas was awarded the
patent for a practical four stroke cycle sixteen years
before Nikolaus Otto made a practical working engine
based on this cycle.

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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Diesel cycle
The Diesel cycle (named
after Dr. Rudolf Diesel) –
similar to Beau de Rochas
– except that the
combustion is at constant
pressure

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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Dual combustion /mixed cycle:

Based on the Beau de Rochas cycle with a limited
combustion pressure. The heat addition happens at
constant volume and then at constant pressure

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 Thermodynamic Cycles for CI engines
• In early CI engines the fuel was injected when the piston reached
TC and thus combustion lasted well into the expansion stroke.

• In modern engines the fuel is injected before TC (about 20 o)

Fuel injection starts

Fuel injection starts

Early CI engine Modern CI engine

• The combustion process in the early CI engines is best approximated

by a constant pressure heat addition process  Diesel Cycle

• The combustion process in the modern CI engines is best approximated

by a combination of constant volume & constant pressure  Dual Cycle
 Modern CI Engine Cycle vs Dual Cycle
Fuel injected
A at 20o bTC
I
R

Air Combustion
Products
Actual
Cycle

Intake Compression Power Exhaust

Stroke Stroke Stroke Stroke

Qin Qin Qout

Air
Dual TC
Cycle
BC

Compression Const volume Const pressure Expansion Const volume

Process heat addition heat addition Process heat rejection
Process Process Process
 Dual Cycle
Process 1  2 Isentropic compression
Process 2  X Constant volume heat addition
Process X  3 Constant pressure heat addition
Process 3  4 Isentropic expansion
Process 4  1 Constant volume heat rejection

X 3 Qin
3

2 Qin
X

4
4 2

1
1 Qout
 Thermal Efficiency
Qout m u4  u1
 Dual  1   1
cycle Qin m (u X  u2 )  (h3  hX )

For cold air-standard the above reduces to:

1  rck  1 
 Diesel  1  k 1  
const c V
r  (  1)  k rc  1

where rc= v3/vX and a = P3/P2

Note, the Otto cycle (rc =1) and the Diesel cycle (a=1)
are special cases:
1 
1  1 rck  1 
 Diesel  1  k 1  

Otto  1  k 1
r const c r V  k rc  1
 
The use of the Dual cycle requires information about either the fractions
of constant volume and constant pressure heat addition (common
assumption is to equally split the heat addition), or the maximum
pressure P3.

Transformation of rc and a into more natural variables yields

k  1  Qin  1   1 1 P3
rc  1     
k  P1V1  r k 1 k  1  r k P1

For the same inlet conditions P1, V1 and the same compression ratio:
Otto   Dual   Diesel

For the same inlet conditions P1, V1 and the same peak pressure
(actual design limitation in engines):
 Diesel   Dual  otto
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Engine classification
– Spark ignition
• Combustion initiated via a spark. Generally run on light
easily vaporizing fuels (petrol, alcohols, gas)
• Air / Fuel mixture may be made outside (Carburetor,
TBI or MPFI) or inside (GDI, FSI, IDE)
– Compression ignition
• Combustion initiated by compression of air charge.
Generally run on heavier grades of oils
• Air / Fuel mixture is made inside the cylinder.

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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Fundamentals of ICEs
– Principal moving parts of an ICE
– Functioning of these parts
– Different technological solutions

Page 27
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Principal moving parts of an ICE

• The variation in volume for the
working fluid is brought about by the
reciprocating action of the piston
inside the cylinder
• The crank transforms this alternating
movement into a rotational movement
• The intake and exhaust events take
place via the intake and exhaust valves.
These valves are opened / closed at
the right moment by the camshaft(s).

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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Pistons, rings and connecting rods (conrods)

• Pistons are generally made of aluminium. They may be

forged or cast. They may also have special coatings for
heat protection (head) and reduction in friction (skirt)
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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Pistons, rings and connecting rods (conrods)

• Cast pistons – lower cost, tighter tolerances, low

start-up noise, low oil consumption
• Forged pistons – higher cost, greater strength,
greater resistance to knock Page 30
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Pistons, rings and connecting rods (conrods)

• A gas-tight seal between the piston and the cylinder is

assured by piston rings. These are almost exclusively made of
steel. They may be chrome plated for high wear-resistance.
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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Pistons, rings and connecting rods (conrods)

• The connecting rods are in most engines made of steel. They

can be cast or forged. In some production engines, they may be
of titanium. Aluminium is also used in case of high-power, short
duration applications – drag racing, tractor pulling etc.
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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Crankshaft

• Presently, crankshafts are made of nodular cast iron.

Forged steel is used in case of some diesel engines and
mostly for high performance applications. They are
usually in one piece. Page 33
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Crankshaft journals

• Crankshafts are supported in the engine block on journal

bearings which are split in two shells. These bearing
shells are made of steel with various metals plated in
layers. They support both radial and axial loads (clutch).
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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Rotating assembly

• Pistons, connecting rods and crankshaft constitute a

rotating assembly. It may or may not be internally
balanced. Page 35
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Cylinder head

• The cylinder head, situated on top of the engine block, serves as one
half of the combustion chamber. It incorporates the ignition / fuel
source and valvetrain in all modern four stroke engines.
• The intake and exhaust headers are also bolted to the head.
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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Head gasket

• The headgasket serves to seal the cylinder against the cylinder head
to produce a combustion chamber. They incorporate holes for the
cylinder, coolant, oil, valevtrain passages and location dowels.
• Most OEM gaskets are steel and fibrous material, high performance
ones are full metal and may incorporate lock rings to seal the
cylinder against the head.
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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Engine block and cylinders

• The engine block is usually made of aluminium or cast iron.

• The cylinders may be directly bored into the cylinder block,
or may be pressed-in in the form of liners

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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Engine block and cylinders

• The liners may be of the dry or wet type

• The block is the main structural part of the engine. It
maintains the parallelism of the crankshaft, balance shafts,
camshafts and pistons
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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Cylinder / piston arrangement

• Most of the engines in vehicles have multiple cylinders, the cycles of which are all distributed.
This is to produce work in a smooth and continuous manner
• The arrangement varies according to certain constraints of which space is a major factor.
• The arrangement of the pistons and the firing order of the engine have a very big influence on
the balance and smoothness of the engine.
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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Engine balance

• Crank with counterweights

(may be internally balanced)
• Crank with split crankpins
(VR6)

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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Engine balance

• Balance shafts

Page 42
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Engine balance

• W8 engine (VAG)
• Crank with split crankpins and two balance shafts

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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Two- or Four-stroke operation

• For a traditional reciprocating four stroke engine, the engine
operating cycle may be divided into four separate events (4 strokes,
2 revolutions):
• Intake (downstroke)
• Compression (upstroke)
• Combustion / power (downstroke)
• Exhaust (upstroke)

• We can perform the above processes in one revolution or 2 strokes

via a two-stroke engine cycle:
• Compression (mid- to end of upstroke)
• Combustion / power (start of downstroke)
• Exhaust and intake (end of downstroke and start of upstroke)Page 44
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Two-stroke operation

• 2 stroke engines can be simple or complex

• In most small 2 stroke engines, the first part of compression happens under the piston in
the crankcase. The charge is then transferred to the combustion chamber via ports in the
sleeve
• Intake may also be done via a blower / compressor outside the engine block. No passage of
charge via the crankcase
• Scavenging is a very delicate operation Page 45
• Exhaust may take place via one of the ports or via exhaust valves in the head

Two-Stroke SI Engine Cycle
Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Combustion :With the piston at TDC combustion occurs very

quickly, raising the temperature and pressure to peak values,
almost at constant volume.
• First Stroke: Expansion Stroke or Power Stroke :Very high pressure
created by the combustion process forces the piston down in the
power stroke. The expanding volume of the combustion chamber
causes pressure and temperature to decrease as the piston travels
towards BDC.
• Exhaust :Blowdown At about 75° bBDC, the exhaust valve opens
and blowdown occurs. The exhaust valve may be a poppet valve in
the cylinder head, or it may be a slot in the side of the cylinder
which is uncovered as the piston approaches BDC. After blowdown
the cylinder remains filled with exhaust gas at lower pressure.
Page 46
Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Intake and Scavenging: When blowdown is nearly complete, at about

50° bBDC, the intake slot on the side of the cylinder is uncovered and
intake air-fuel enters under pressure.

– Fuel is added to the air with either a carburetor or fuel injection.This

incoming mixture pushes much of the remaining exhaust gases out the open
exhaust valve and fills the cylinder with a combustible air-fuel mixture, a
process called scavenging. The piston passes BDC and very quickly covers
the intake port and then the exhaust port (or the exhaust valve closes). The
higher pressure at which the air enters the cylinder is established in one of
two ways.

• Second Stroke: Compression Stroke: With all valves (or ports) closed,
the piston travels towards TDC and compresses the air-fuel mixture to
a higher pressure and temperature. Near the end of the compression
stroke, the spark plug is fired; by the time the piston gets to IDC, Page 48
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Two-stroke operation
• Advantages
• High specific power output
(per mass and volume)
• Simplicity

• Disadvantages
• Poor scavenging and
cylinder filling
• Poor emissions controls
• Lubricating oil consumption

• Disadvantages can be addressed,

but at the cost of simplicity
Page 49
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

2-Stroke Engine has the following Mechanism:

A mixture of Air, Fuel and lubricating Oil is present in
the Engine Block (indicated by light blue.
When the piston is at the bottom position, that fresh
mixture moves in and helps extract all the burnt fuel
out.

As the Piston starts moving upwards, first the inlet

port, and then the exhaust port get sealed, and after it
reaches the top position, Ignition occurs (due to spark
or compression)

The piston moves downward due to the force exerted

by the burnt fuel-air mixture, and the exhaust port
gets open first letting the burnt fuel out, and then inlet
port opens to supply the piston with new charge and
push the burnt fuel out. Page 50
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Two-Stroke CI Engine Cycle Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• The two-stroke cycle for a CI engine is similar to

that of the SI engine, except for two changes. No
fuel is added to the incoming air, so that
compression is done on air only.
• Instead of a spark plug, a fuel injector is located in
the cylinder. Near the end of the compression
stroke, fuel is injected into the hot compressed air
and combustion is initiated by self-ignition.

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Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• 4-Stroke Engine has the following

Steps:

• Inlet Valve Open, Fresh Air+Fuel is

Drawn in, Piston Goes Down

• Valves Close, Compression of the

mixture, Piston Goes Up

• Ignition (Either spark or

Compression), Piston in Top position

• Power Stroke, Valves closed,

Piston Goes Down

• Burnt Fuel Exhaust, Exhaust Valve

Page 53
opens, Piston Goes Up
Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jdW1t8r8qYc
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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

Four-Stroke CI Engine Cycle

• First Stroke: Intake Stroke :The same as the intake stroke in an SI engine with
one major difference: no fuel is added to the incoming air.
• Second Stroke: Compression Stroke :The same as in an SI engine except that
only air is compressed and compression is to higher pressures and
temperature. Late in the compression stroke fuel is injected directly into the
combustion chamber, where it mixes with the very hot air. This causes the fuel
to evaporate and self-ignite, causing combustion to start.
• Combustion: Combustion is fully developed by TDC and continues at
about constant pressure until fuel injection is complete and the piston has
started towards BDC.
• Third Stroke: Power Stroke :The power stroke continues as combustion
ends and the piston travels towards BDC.
• Exhaust: Blowdown Same as with an SI engine.

• Fourth Stroke: Exhaust Stroke Same as with an SI engine.

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Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Top Center (TC or TDC)

• When piston is at highest position inside cylinder, its position is
called Top center, The Volume between the top of the piston,
and the cylinder at that position is called
• Bottom Center (BC or BDC)
• When piston is at lowest position inside cylinder, its position is
called Bottom center, The Volume between the top of the
piston, and the cylinder at that position is called
• Displacement Volume ()
• The difference between and depicts the actual volume
difference between top center and bottom center, This Volume
is generally represented as Cubic centimeter (cc) or Liters ()
• Compression Ratio (rc)
• The ratio of is called compression ratio, and its one of the
primary factors for efficiency measurement
• Air Fuel Ratio (AFR)
• Ratio of supplied mass of air, to supplied mass of fuel, for every
instance of power cycle
Page 58
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Geometrical data
• The piston oscillates between the top dead center
(TDC) and bottom dead center (BDC)
• The swept volume is the volume between TDC and
BDC
• Vs=π*B2*S/4 where:
• Vs is the swept volume
• B is the bore diameter
• S is the stroke
• The clearance volume Vc is the volume left in the
cylinder at TDC
• The ratio of (Vs+Vc)/Vc is the static compression ratio
• If B/S = 1, the engine is square, B/S>1; oversquare,
B/S<1; undersquare
• Amongst many factors, the geometry of the engine
plays an important role in the thermodynamics, Page 59
combustion, performance and size of the engine.
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Geometrical data
• Per cylinder displacement
• 23 cc – model aircraft, ¼ scale
vehicles
• 125 cc – garden implements,
motorcycles
• Upto 800 cc – passenger cars,
motorcycles
• 2,000 cc – trucks
• >1,000,000 cc – ships
• Compression ratio
• 8.5 to 14.5 in SI
• ~16 to 23 in CI
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 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

Thank you

Page 61