SCATTERING AND

CHEMICAL PROCESSING
PART 2
Scattered Radiation

Primary radiation
 Photons which passes
through matter without
any interaction

Scattered radiation
 Photons affected by
interaction with matter
Three major interaction mechanisms are:
• Photoelectric effect .
• Compton scattering .
• Pair production.
Photoelectric Effect
• Photon impacts on one shell electron(Ground
state)
• All Photon energy is transferred to electron.
• Photon is absorbed (stops existing).
• when the photon energy is less than 600 keV or
0.6 MeV
Compton Scattering
• From 600 keV to approximately 6 MeV Compton
scattering predominates.
Pair Production
• a high energy photon progress near to atom nucleus
• Pair production may occurs only above a threshold
energy of 1.02 MeV
• Under influence of nucleus energetic field it converts to
an electron(-1e0 )and positron+1e0 (pair)
MINIMISE THE EFFECT OF RADIATION
1. TIME
2. DISTANCE
3. SHIELDING
Distance
Inverse Square Law
Rad. Intensity is inversely proportional to square of the distance.
Half value Layer (HVL)
Tenth value Layer (TVL)
• The amount of shielding required to reduce the incident radiation
levels by 1/10 th is called Tenth value Layer (TVL)
• Backscatter Control
• A lead plate (~2 mm) will be placed behind the cassette to protect
film from Backscatter
• A lead letter B is attached to the back of the film cassette during
exposure.
Backscatter Control
 Backscatter presence is indicated by light image
of ‘B’ (not acceptable).
 A dark image of ‘B’ does not indicate
backscatter!!!

     
Radiographic Film

Radiographic film is similar to photographic…

Emulsion contains AgBr grains
 Optical Density (Film Density)
Optical density = Degree of Darkening the film

Densitometer is used to measure Optical Density.

Characteristic Curve
Characteristic curve – the relationship between optical density and
exposure.
Graininess

Fine grain film Coarse grain film

Film Speed
• The coarse grain is faster as it needs less exposure time to reach
required optical density.
• The film factor cF serves to compare film speeds
Film Fog
• Film Fog may be caused by:
• Opacity of the film base
• Incorrect storage (influence of heat, pressure, or unwanted exposure etc.
• Is reduces the contrast
• Shall be monitored (maximum acceptable for is usually 0.3D)
Film Latitude
• Ability of a radiographic technique to display a wide range of material
thickness at an acceptable film density.
• The Latitude is opposite to the Contrast
Intensifying Screens
• The following types of the screens are in use:
• Metallic foil intensifying screens.
• Fluorescent (salt) screens.
• Fluoro-metallic screens.
Metallic Foil Intensifying Screens
• Metallic screens usually contain Lead (Pb).
• Their use has the following effects:
• Exposure time is reduced (~ 2x or 3x) (therefore are called intensifying).
• Scatter influence is reduced.
• Unsharpness is reduced.
Fluorescent (Salt) Screens
• Fluorescent screens contains Calcium Tungstate (CaWO4) which is a
good scintillator.
• Their use has the following effects:
• Dramatic intensifying effect (up to 500 x)
• Significant increase of inherent unsharpness.
• Negligible filtering effect
In order to boost the filtering effect the salt screen must be combined
with metallic layer (Fluoro-metallic screens)
 Film Processing
Processing sequence
1) Development
2) Stop bath
3) Fixing
4) Washing
5) Drying
• Until film is processed, any additional exposure
must be avoided.
• Processing is carried out in the dark room
Film Processing
Developing
• Developer is alkali solution
• Standard temperature 20 °C (manual process)
• Standard processing time 5 minutes
• Ag+ + 1e- » Ag (Black metallic silver)
Film Processing
Stop bath
• Water or solution of acetic acid (~ 1:35)
• Standard temperature – same as developer
• Standard processing time – depends on agent ( 5 to
30 sec)
Film Processing
Fixing
• Fixer is an acidic solution
• Chemical- sodium thiosulphate (hypo)
• Standard temperature – same as developer
• Standard processing time 2x clearing time

• Fixer has 2 functions

• Fixing
• Hardening
 Film Processing
Fixing
• Fixing – dissolve all unexposed AgBr
grains from gelatine (will make it
transparent)
• Hardening – will harden gelatine (fix
silver in place and allow safe
handling).
• After Fixing
• Film is transparent
• Emulsion is hard, safe to be handled
• Emulsion contains thiosulphate
 Film Processing
Washing
• Water
• Standard temperature – same as developer
• Standard processing time – 10 to 30 minutes
(manual process)
• Wetting agent may be used at the end of washing
(avoid water marking)
• Washing will:
• Wash out thiosulphate from emulsion and
secure durability of radiograph
 Film Processing
Drying
• At room temperature or with hot air
• Dust free environment required
• Drying time depends on air temperature and
humidity, circulation and if wetting agent was used.