" "-

( )

. -
. -

, , ,
.................................................................................................................................. 4
............................................................................ 7
.................................................................................................................................. 7
.............................................................................................................................. 8
........................................................................................................................ 10
.................................................................................................................................... 10
............................................... 14
(SI) ........................................................ 14
, , ... 18
, , - . 25
........................................................................ 30
................................................................................................................................ 34
................... 34
........................................................................................................... 35
................................................................................................... 35
.................................................................................................... 36
(w). (%) ................................................................................................ 37
............................................................................................... 38
................................................................................................................... 38
, ....................................................... 39
. ..... 42
.................................................................................................................................... 44
.......................................................................... 48
........................................................................................................ 62
............................................................................................ 62
........................................................................................................................... 65
( I ) ................................................................................. 65
(II) .................................................................................... 68
- ......................................................................................................... 68
- ................................................................................................ 70
(III) ................................................................................... 72
(IV) ............................................................................... 74
(V) .................................................................................... 77
................................................................................................................................. 80
................................................................................... 80

.................................................................................. 83
.......................................................................................... 87
........................................................................................ 87
.................................................................................................... 88
M - ................................................................................................ 97
.............................................................................................................. 100
............................................................................................................... 102
............................................................................................................. 106
........................................ 107
...................................... 107
.............................................................. 108
.............................................................. 111
..................................................................... 112

, , ,


, .
,
, .

, .
:
, ,
:

,
.
,
, ()
.
, . . .
.
(). ,

. ,
. Ca
,
- 40,08.
(
2 , 4, 5),
(H2, O2, Cl2, J2).
.
,
.

Oxygenium
Nitrogenium
Phosphorum
Sulphur
Stibium
Selenum
Stanum
Hydrogen

O
N
P
S
Sb
Se
Sn
H

.

.

()
. ,

,
(2, 66).
,
.
24 ,
:
(), ()
().
:
Mr(24)=98

24
21.008

415.99

132.06

, 22
(524, 3HCl ..).

:

,
.
HCl, H2S, CH4
,
-
.

.

. , - ,
-. 0-8.
,

. :

,
,
, Na
,
,

, b

1
2
1
1
2
24

, n
, Fe

CO3
SO4, SO3
NO2, NO3, OH
PO4

2 - 7
23
2
2
1
3

,
. :
MnO2-
( )
, .
Fe2O3-
( )
, ,
.

.

.

.

, 2 :

.
,
( 10).
As5O2.
.

.

.
,
, IUPAC ( International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry).
. ,
, ..
.

,
, .
IUPAC
.

.
, ,
(
) (
).
.
.

,
-2.
:

,
:


m

,

:

Na2O
MgO
Al2O3
CaO

N2O
NO
NO2
N2O3
N2O5

,

,

.
(I)
(II)
(II)
(III)
(III)
(VI)

Cu2O
CuO
FeO
Fe2O3
Cr2O3
CrO3

.
, -,
, -.

Cu2O
CuO
FeO
Fe2O3

. .
. ,
: , HCl, , HBr, , HF,
, HJ, , H2S ...
, . :
, HNO3, , H2SO4, H3PO4 ...
.

: , ,
.
:

, .
:

HF
HCl
HBr
HI
H2S

- -. ,
.

HNO3
HNO2
H2SO4
H2SO3
H2SeO4
H2SeO3
H3PO4
H3PO3

,
,
-, -,
-
-, -.
- HClO2
- HClO3

- HClO
- HClO4

, :
-, - -.

. :

HPO3
HPO2
HBO2
H2SiO3

H3PO4 - 2
H3PO3 - 2
H3BO3- 2
H4SiO4- 2

H2S2O7
H2S2O5
H4P2O7
H4P2O5

2H2SO4 - 2
2H2SO3 - 2
2H3PO4 - 2
2H3PO3 - 2

(
.

H2S2O3
H2S2O2
H3PO3S
H3PO2S2
H3AsS3
H3AsS4
HSCN

10

H2SO5
H2S2O8
H3PO5

(-).
.

,
:

, ,
, ,
.
(I)
(II)
(II)
(III)
(IV)
(V)
(VI)
(VII)

KOH
LiOH
Ca(OH)2
Al(OH)3
Mg(OH)2

CuOH
Cu(OH)2
Fe(OH)2
Fe(OH)3
Sn(OH)4
V(OH)5
Cr(OH)6
Mn(OH)7

CuOH
Cu(OH)2
Fe(OH)2
Fe(OH)3

,
OH- ,
. e :

-:

NaCO3
Ca(NO3)2
BaSO4

, ,
, ,
, :

Na2SO3
KNO2
NaAsO3

- -
-:

LiCl
KF
NaF
Na2S

-:

11

NaClO
KClO4
KPO3
Na4P2O7

, ,
,

, ,
:
(II)
(III)
(I)
(II)
(II)
(IV)

FeSO4
Fe2(SO4)3
CuNO3
Cu(NO3)2
MnCl2
MnCl4

, , :

12

NaH2PO4
Na2HPO4
Bi(OH)2NO3
BiOH(NO3)2

,
, H2O2 , Na2O2,
BaO2.
,
, . :

(IV)

BiOCl
VOCl2
ZrOSO4
LaOF

, :
(II)

CuSO4 * 5H2O
Na2CO3 * 10H2O
CaCl2 * 2H2O
ZrOCl2 * 8H2O

. ____
( )
:
H2O, HCl, H2SO4, CuO, Mn(OH)2, KNaSO4, Hg(OH)Cl, NH4PO3

:
MgO _________________________
Fe2O3____________________________________
HF___________________________
H2SO3________________________
HClO_________________________
HNO3____________________________________
H2S __________________________
Fe(OH)3 ______________________
KCl __________________________
Na2SO4 _________________________________
Ca(NO3)2_______________________________
LiF __________________________
FeSO4_________________________________

:
______________________
___________________________
______________________
_______________________
______________________
________________
_________________
(I) ___________________________
_______________________
___________________________
(II) __________________________
_________________________

13

14

(SI)
(SI)
.

. ,
.

. SI , ,
.

l, (L)

t

I

T

In

n

,

.

.
.
.
.

F
p
W
E,W,Q
P
Q
E
E
v, E, U
R
G
C
f, n
A
U

m
kg
s
A
K
cd
mol

N ()
Pa()
J()
J()
W()
C()
V()
V()
V()
()
S()
F()
Hz()
Bq()
Gg()

kg m/s
N/m
Nm
Nm
J/s
As
W/A
W/A
J/c
V/A
A/V
c/V
s-1
s-1
J/kg
kg/m3

SI

l,L (1L=1dm3)

m
t
p

15

t (1t=103kg)
min (1 min=60s)
bar (1 bar=105 Pa)
C (C=K, T=t+T0)

SI

10-1
10-2
10-3
10-6
10-9
10-12
10-15
10-18

d
c
m

n
p
f
a

101
102
103
106
109
1012
1015
1018

da
h
k
M
G
T
P
E

SI

NA ,L

n( B )

NA

N ( B)
NA

N ( B)
n( B )

ma, m
mf, m

mu

mu

M ( B)

SI

mol

mol

kg
kg

ma (12 C )
12
m( B)
n( B )

kg
kgmol-1

Mr

M r ( B)

m( B)
mu

m( B)
n( B )

16

Vm

M r ( B)

( B)

m( B)
mi

( B)

V ( B)
Vi

( B)

n( B )
ni

m3mol-1

( B)

m( B)
V

kgm-3

c( B)

n( B )
V

mol m-3

b( B )

n( B )
m( A)

molkg-1

10 10b = 10a+b, 103 102 = 105
10 /10b = 10a-b, 10 5/103 = 102

(10)b = 10ab, (102)3 = 106


, 100000000 = 1108; 2500000= 25105; 3450000=3,45106

17

, 0,000001 = 110-6; 0,000758 = 7,5810-4

, ,
, 5 ml = 0,005 l
1 l 1000 ml 1 ml = 0,0001 l 1 ml = 10-3 l
, 2 g = 2000 mg = 2103 mg, 5 mmol = 0,005 mol = 510-3 mol
,
:
,

kg
m3

kg/m3 kgm-3,
.

, kg/m3
1000 g/m3 mg/dm3, :
1000

kg
1000 g

3
m
m3

kg
1000 g
1000 g / 1000
g

3
3
3
3
m
m
m
m

1000

1000
:

g
g / 1000
mg
3

3
m
m / 1000
dm3

, 1000/1000=1.


:
(g)
1,235 10
7,856 10
9,250 10

(10 g)

( 10 / g)

(g)

12,35

12,35

12,35

7,856

7,856

7,856

9,250

9,250

9,250

5,300 10

5,300

5,300

18

5,300

, ,

(r)
(ma)
.
1/12
mu=1,66053110-27kg

Ar ( E )

12

ma ( E )
mu

r()=1,008 1.
(Mr)
(mf)
.
M r (F )

m f (F )
mu

M r Ar i
. ?
H2SO4
2 (), 1 () 4

19

().
,

, 24 :


, , .
:

M r ( H 2 SO4 ) 2 Ar ( H ) 1 Ar (S ) 4 Ar (O)
2, 1, 4,
.
:
r(H)=1,008

r(O)=15,99

r(S)=32,06

M r ( H 2 SO4 ) 2 1,008 1 32,06 4 15,99 98,07

:
:
, , ,
(mol) ,
, 0,012 kg
12.
n.

, ,
1 mol , 6,02210-23
.
:
M ( A) M r ( A) g mol 1

n( A)

m( A)
M ( A)

m(A) , M(A)

20

(,
, , .)
,
L NA:

NA

N ( A)
6,022 10 23 mol 1
n( A)

N(A) , n() .
. 1 Pb?

(Pb) 207,3, :
M ( Pb) Ar ( Pb) g mol 1 207,3g mol 1

n( Pb )

m( Pb )
M ( Pb )

m( Pb) n( Pb) M ( Pb) 1mol 207,3g mol 1 207,3g

207,3 , 1
mol .
. 0,1 mol KMnO4?
,
KMnO4,

M r ( KMnO4 ) 1 Ar ( K ) 1 Ar (Mn) 4 Ar (O) 1 39,10 1 54,94 4 15,99 158,034

0,1 mol KMnO4 :
m(Mn) n(Mn) M (MN ) 0,1mol 158,034 g mol 1 15,8g

.

( ).
:

n( A)

m( A)
Mr ( A)

21

:
n , mol
m g
Mr gmol-1.
. 92,32%
7,69% 78.
.
n() =m()/Mr(C) = 92,32g/14 gmol-1=7,69 mol
n() =m()/Mr()=7,69g/1,008 gmol-1=7,63 mol
.. n(): n()= 7,69 : 7,63 = 1 : 1
,

:
Mr(CH) =13 gmol-1, Mr()=78 gmol-1
Mr(): Mr(CH) = 78 : 13 = 6
CH 6
() C6H6.
.
26,7% (), 12,1% (N) 61,2% (Cl).

:
n(P) : n(N) : n(Cl) = m(P)/Mr(P) : m(N)/Mr(N) : m(Cl)/Mr(Cl)=
=26,7g/31gmo-1 : 12,1g/14gmo-1 : 61,2g /35,45gmo-1= 0,86mol:0,86mol:1,72mol
:
n(P) : n(N) : n(Cl)=1 : 1 : 2
PNCl2

22

1.
2 g
4,5 g ?
: 4
2.
12,1% , 11,4% 29,4% , 100 ?
: Na2B4O7 7H2O
3. Cu, , 250 (II)
?
: 0,4mol Cu, 0,4mol S, 3,6 molO, 4 mol H.
4. 1 0,4
. .
:
5.

. 32.
: 3

23

,
100 .
:

(E)

m( E )
m( F )

:
w
m , g.
100, w100=%

.
:
Ar(H) = 1,008 Ar(O) = 16,00 Mr(H2O) = 18,016
%= Ar(H) / Mr(H2O)100 = 2 1,008 / 18,016 100 = 11,19%
%= Ar(O) / Mr(H2O) 100 = 16,00/18,016100 = 88,81%
21,008 g = 2,016 g (
H H2O). 16,00 (
2).
:
m(2) + m()= m(2)= 2,016g + 16,00g= 18,016g
.
. (S), ()
() (H2SO4).
Ar(S) = 32,00 Ar(H) = 1,008 Ar(O) =16,00 Mr(H2SO4) = 98,00
%= Ar(S)/Mr(H2SO4) 100= 32,00 /98,00 100= 32,6%
%= 2 Ar(H)/ Mr(H2SO4) 100= 21,008 /98,00 100=2,04%
%= 4 Ar(O)/ Mr(H2SO4) 100= 416,00 /98,00 100=65.4%
100. :
32,6%+2,04%+65,4%=100%

24

:
1. :
a) HNO3 b) SO2 c) FeCl3 d)NH4Cl
2. 7,8 (66) 26,4 g 2
5,4g 2. .
: 7.68% 92,32%
3. 4,8 g Mg 8g MgO.
MgO?
: 60% Mg 40%
4. 0,5g 4g .

?
: 88,9% 11,1%
5. 1 ?
: 3,0625

25

, ,
() ,
.
.
,
.. ,
,
.. .

A+B

C+D

( ),
()
().
,
.
.
:

2 + 2 H2O

2KOH + H2

Cu + 2AgNO3

Cu(NO3)2 + 2Ag

2Ca + 2
2NaOH + H2SO4
Zn + 2HCl
FeCl3 + 3NaOH

2Ca
Na2SO4 + 2H2O
ZnCl2 + H2
Fe(OH)3 + 3NaCl

. ,
.

( ) - ,
-
. -
,

-
.
, - ,
, ,

26

.
- .
(II)
. :
Fe + CuSO4 = FeSO4 + Cu

:
Fe0 + Cu+2SO42- = Fe+2SO42- + Cu0
,
.
:
Fe 0 -2- = Fe 2+ ( -)
Cu+2 +2e- =Cu0 (Cu -)

,
, :
Fe + CuSO4 = FeSO4 + Cu
. :
KMnO4 + HI = MnI2 + I2 +KI + H2O

:
K+1Mn+7O4-2+ H+1I-1 = Mn+2I2-1 + I20 +K+1I-1 + H2O

, ( ),
( ),
:


.

. 10.
2KMnO4 + HI = 2MnI2 +5 I2 +2KI + H2O
Mn +7 + 5e- = Mn +2 2
2I -1 1 e- = 2I 0

5
10

:
2KMnO4 + 16HI = 2MnI2 +5 I2 +2KI + 8H2O

27

. : CuSO4 + KI = CuI + I2 + K2SO4

:
Cu+2SO4 + K+1I-1 = Cu+1I-1 + I20 + K2SO4
,
. :
Cu +2 + 1e- = Cu +1

2I -1 1 e- = I2 0

1
2

:
2CuSO4 + KI = 2CuI + I2 + K2SO4
:
2CuSO4 + 4KI = 2CuI + I2 + 2K2SO4
. :
Cu + HNO3 = Cu(NO3)2 + NO2 + H2O
:
Cu0 + H+1N+5O3-2 = Cu+2(NO3)2 + N+2O2-2 + H2O
, , ,
.
:
Cu 0 + 2e- = Cu +2

N +5 3 e- = N+2

2
6

, 3
Cu(NO3)2 2 NO2
Cu + HNO3 = 3Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO2 + H2O
:
3Cu + 8HNO3 = 3Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO2 + 4H2O

28

. :
HCl + KMnO4 = KCl + MnCl2 + Cl2 + H2O
:
H+1Cl-1 + K+1Mn+7O4+2 = K+1Cl-1 + Mn+2 Cl2-1 + Cl20 + H2+1O-2

Cl-1 Cl20
Mn+7 Mn+2 .
:
Mn +7 + 5e- = Mn +2 2
Cl -1 2e- = Cl 0

5
10

:
HCl + KMnO4 = KCl + 2MnCl2 + 5Cl2 + H2O
:
16HCl + 2KMnO4 = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 5Cl2 + 8H2O

. ____
( , - )
1. :
Mn : MnO, MnO2, KMnO4, Mn2O3, K2H2Mn2O7
N : NH3, NH4Cl, HNO3, NH2OH, CaCN2
P : P4O6, Na2HPO4, POCl3, P2H4, H2P2O7
C : CH4, C2H4, C2H2, CO, CO2, H2CO3

2. :

NaNO2 + KMnO4 + H2SO4 = NaNO3 + K2SO4 + MnSO4 + H2O

Sn + HNO3 = SnO2 + NO2 + H2O

CdS + HNO3 = Cd(NO3) + NO + S + H2O

FeSO4 + KMnO4 + H2SO4 = Fe2(SO4)3 + MnSO4 + K2SO4 + H2O

29

30

. (II) , Cu3(PO4)2,
12,0g (II) , CuO, , H3PO4?
3CuO + 2H3PO4 = Cu3(PO4)2 + 3H2O
CuO
Cu3(PO4)2 :
m(CuO) =12g
Mr(CuO) =79,54gmol-1
Mr(Cu3(PO4)2 ) =382,77gmol-1
m(Cu3(PO4)2) =?
n(CuO) : n(Cu3(PO4)2) = 3 : 1
m(CuO) /Mr(CuO) : m(Cu3(PO4)2)/ Mr(Cu3(PO4)2 ) = 3 : 1
12g/79,54gmol-1 : m(Cu3(PO4)2)/ 382,77gmol-1 = 3 : 1
m(Cu3(PO4)2)= 19,2g
. (I) ,
CuS2. 95,31g
24,09g ?
m(Cu)=95,31g
m(S)=24,09g
m(CuS2) =?
:
2Cu + S = Cu2S
:
n(Cu) / n(S) = 2 : 1 n(Cu) = 2n(S)
:
n(Cu)= m(Cu) / Mr(Cu)= 95,31g / 63,54 gmol-1 = 1,5 mol
n(S)= m(S) / Mr(S)= 24,09g / 32,1 gmol-1= 0,75mol
1,5: 0,75=2:1
, , CuS2
, :
m(CuS2) =m(Cu) + m(S) = 95,31g + 24,09g = 119,09g

31

. 2 H2SO4
, .
, 506
?
:
4 FeS2 + 11 2 = 2 Fe2O3 + 8 SO2
8 SO2
11 2 ,
SO2 506 2 :
11 2
506 2

8 SO2
X SO2

X = 368 SO2
. 10g
. ?
:
Mg + H2SO4 = MgSO47H2O
m(Mg) =?
m(MgSO47H2O) = 10g
Mr(MgSO47H2O) =246,3 gmol-1
Mr(Mg) = 24,3 gmol-1
: n(Mg) : n(MgSO47H2O) = 1 : 1
n(Mg) = n(MgSO47H2O)
n = m/Mr :
m(Mg) / Mr(Mg) = m(MgSO47H2O) / Mr(MgSO47H2O)
m(Mg) = m(MgSO47H2O) Mr(Mg) / Mr(MgSO47H2O)
m(Mg) = 10g 24,3 gmol-1/ 246,3 gmol-1

m(Mg) = 0,987g

32

:
1. 14,0 g AgNO3 4,83 g CaCl2.
.
AgCl.
: e CaCl2, 0,2 g , (AgCl)=11,8g
2.
(II) .
1 m3 0,0012
gcm3 23 % ?
: 1100 g Cu
3. (Pb(C2H5)4), ,

4NaPb + 4 C2H5Cl = Pb(C2H5)4 + 3Pb 4NaCl
NaPb- 1 g
?
: 2846,7 g NaPb 797,9 g C2H5Cl
4. 0,014 0,038
.
1 m3 ?
: 65 g Na23
5. 10
20 ml 38% l =1,188
g/cm3. ?
:1,75 g l , 4,4 g 2

33

. ____
1. 10g 160g
240g .
82?

2.
75% 25% ?

3. 14,0 g AgNO3 4,83 g CaCl2.

.
AgCl?

34

. ,

, .

.
: ,
,
.
, :

,
,
,
(),
,
,
.

c( A)

n( A)
V

(mol/m3, mol/dm3 mol/cm3)

1.
100g
1 dm3 ?
:
m(Na2CO3)=100g V()= 1 dm3
:
c(Na2CO3)=?

c( Na 2 CO3 )

n( Na 2 CO3 )
V

n( Na 2 CO3 )

m( Na 2 CO3 )
100 g

0,9434mol
M ( Na 2 CO3 ) 106 g mol 1

c( Na 2 CO3 )

n( Na 2 CO3 ) 0,9343mol

0,9343mol / dm 3
V
1dm 3

35

.
(kg/m3 ( g/dm3)

( A)

m( A)
V

1.
250
cm3 100 g/dm3?
:
V(r-r)= 250 cm3= 0,25 dm3
( Na2 CO3 ) 100 g / dm3
:

( Na 2 CO3 )

m( Na2CO3)=?

m( Na 2 CO3 )
V (r r )

:
m( Na2 CO3 ) ( Na2 CO3 ) V (r r )

m( Na2 CO3 ) 100 g / dm3 0,25dm3 0,25g

m( Na2CO3)=0,25g

( A)

V ( A)
V

1.
30cm3 70 cm3
?

36

:
V()= 30cm3+70cm3= 100cm3
V(etanol) = 30cm3
: =?

V (e tan ol )
V (r r )

30cm 3
0,3
100cm 3

= 0,3

( )
:

b( A)

n( A)
m( B)

[mol/kg]

1.
(Na2CO3)
c=1 mol/dm3 =1,098 g/cm3 .
: ,
1 dm3.
()
m(r-r)= (r-r)V(r-r)= 1,098g/cm3 1000 cm3 = 1098g
:
m(Na2CO3) = n(Na2CO3) Mr(Na2CO3)=1mol 106 g/mol
m(Na2CO3)= 106g

:
m(B) = 1098g-106g = 992g
:

b( A)

n( A)
1mol

1,008mol / kg
m( B) 0,992kg

37

(w). (%)

. 100
100 , (%).

( A)

m( A)
m(r r )

100 %

%
100

1.

c = 1mol/dm3, = 1,098g/cm3
:
c(r-r) = 1mol/dm3 (r-r) = 1,098g/cm3
:
(Na2CO3)=?
1 dm3
1 :
Mr(Na2CO3 )= 106g/mol
:
m(r-r)= (r-r)V(r-r)= 1,098g/cm3 1000 cm3 = 1098g

( Na 2 CO3 )

m( Na 2 CO3 )
:
m(r
r
)

106 g
( Na 2 CO3 ) 9,65% 0,0965
0,0965100
1098 g

38

( )
() .

n( A)
ni

( A) 100 %(mol)

1.
20 (NaCl) 150 m
.
:

n( NaCl )

m( NaCl )
20 g

0,342mol
M ( NaCl ) 58,5 g mol 1

n( H 2 O )

m( H 2 O)
150 g

8,333mol
M ( H 2 O) 18 g mol 1

( NaCl )

n( NaCl )
0,342mol

0,0394
n( NaCl ) n( H 2 O) o,342 8,333

, : 0,0394100=3,94%

V ( A)
Vi

( A) 100 %

1.
14 , 10
40 . .
:

(O2)

V (O2 )
14

0,219 100% 21,9%

V (O2 ) V (CO2 ) V ( N 2 ) 14 10 14

39

,


,
.


.
:
V1c1 V2 c2 (V1 V2 )c3 V3 c3
V1 1 V2 2 (V1 V2 ) 3 V3 3
m11 m22 (m1 m2 )3 m33

1 , 2
, 3 ( ).
1.
400 ml HCl c=1mol/dm3 300 ml
HCl 0,5 mol/dm3.
?
:

c3

V1c1 V2 c2 (V1 V2 )c3 V3 c3

V1c1 V2 c2 0,4dm 3 1mol / dm 3 0,3dm 3 0,5mol / dm 3

0,786mol / dm 3
3
3
V1 V2
0,4dm 0,3dm

2.
KNO3
350 KNO3 0,01 200
KNO3 0,018?
:
: m11 m22 (m1 m2 )3 m33
:

m11 m2 2 350 g 0,01 200 g 0,018

0,0129 100 1,29%

m1 m2
350 g 200 g

40

3.
54% =1,34
g/cm3 1 dm3 5 % ?
: :
m11= ( m1+ mH2O) 3
1 dm3 1000g,
m154% = ( m1+ 1000g) 5%
m1= 5000/49 = 102,04 g ( 54% HNO3)
,
:

102,4 g
3
(
54% HNO3)
76,15cm
3
1,34 g / cm

4.
300 cm3
c1=0,5 mol/dm3
c3=0,1 mol/dm3.
: : V1c1=(V1+VH2O)c3=V3c3
:
0,3 dm3 0,5 mol/dm3 = V30,1 mol/dm3 V3=1,5 dm3
:
V(H2O)= V3- V1=1,5-0,3=1,2 dm3=1200 m3

41

1. 50 ml
0,1 mol ?
:c=2 mol/dm3
2. 27%
=1,2 g/cm3?
:b(H2SO4)=3,77mol/kg
3. 10 gl2
c=0,250 mol/dm3. gl2
=1,02 g/cm3?
: V(H2O)=197 cm3, (gl2)=2,33%
4. , ml, , =1,8g/cm3
86,92% 2L
= 0,5 mol/dm3?
:V(H2SO4)=62,63ml
5. NaCl b=0,7
=1,026 g/cm3?
: c(NaCl)=0,69 mol/dm3
6. 100 60%
90% . ?
:V(H2O)=33,3ml
7. 50
12% l2 ( )?
: m (l2)=6g, m(H2O)=43g
8.
c1=1 mol/dm3 c2=0,05 mol/dm3 500 ml
c=0,25 mol/dm3?
:105 ml c1 395 ml c2
9. Ko ml =1,2 g/cm3
32,36% 10L =2g/dm3?
: V=51,5 ml
10.
10 ml 20 ml
=0,2 mol/dm3?
: =0,2 mol/dm3, =20 g/dm3

42

,
.
+- - - .
+-

:
H2O + H2O = H3O+ + OH
:
H2O = H+ + OH
:
[ H ] [OH ]
K
[ H 2 O]

[H+] ;
[OH-] ;
[H2O] ;
a.
25, 1,8 10-16 mol/dm3
,
,

.
:

[ H 2 O]
:

997 g / cm 3
55,3mol / dm 3
18 g / mol

- 1000ml (1L) 25
-

,
:
[H+][OH-] = [H2O]
[H+][OH-] = 1,8 10-16 mol/dm355,3 mol/dm3= 110-14 mol2/dm6
,
.

43

25,
, [H+]=[OH-]=10-7 mol/dm3,
:

Kw H OH 10 7 mol / dm3 10 7 mol / dm3 10 14 mol 2 / dm 6

.
.
1,0 10-7 mol/dm3 (10-6,10-5, 10-6 mol/dm3)
.
1,0 10-7 mol/dm3 ( , 10-8, 10-9, 10-10 mol/dm3) ()
.
. ,
e
, .
:

pH

log c( H )
mol / dm 3

pKw log Kw

pOH

log c(OH )
mol / dm 3

log 10 14 mol 2 / dm 6
14
mol 2 / dm 6

pKw = pH + pOH =14

pH = pOH = 7

,
, :
< 7
= 7
> 7 ()

.
. -, ,
. ,
.
-: - 7,4; - 3,5; - 6,4;
- 5 6; 7 8 ...
- ,
-
( ).

44

.
.
,
,

.


-
. 3
3Na.
:
3 + + 33Na Na+ + 3 , HCl, ,

3Na. ,
:
3- + Na+ + + + Cl- = 3 + Na+ + Cl + ,
3,
+
. ,
Na,
3:
3 + Na+ + - = 3- + Na+ + 2
+ ,
- . ,
,
, .

45

. ,
=0,1 mol/dm3 3 =0,1 mol/dm3 3Na .
.
25 =1,76 105.
Na+ ,
, :
K CH3COOH

/ H / / CH 3COO /
/ CH 3COOH /

/H /

/ CH 3COOH /
K CH3COOH
/ CH 3COO /

, 3
, +
:
/H /

/ CH 3COOH /
0,1mol / dm 3

1,76 10 5 1,76 10 5
CH3COOH

3
/ CH 3COO /
0,1mol / dm

= -log10 /+ / = -log10 1,76 10-5 = 4,75

.
HCl (HCl)= 0,1 mol/dm3 ( )?
:
HCl = H+ + Cl+

=1

c(HCl) = 0,1 mol/dm3

c(H+) = c(H+) = 1 0,1 mol/dm3 = 0,1 mol/dm3

log 10 1 mol / dm 3
pH log c( H ) pH = 1
1
mol / dm 3

46

. 1,53 10-8 g (OH- ) 1

dm3. ?
:
OH- :

m 1,53 10 8 g
n

9 10 10 mol
M
17 g / mol

c(OH )

n 9,00 10 10 mol

9,00mol / dm 3
3
V
1dm

Kw c( H ) c(OH ) 110 14 mol 2 / dm6

c( H )

Kw
1 10 14 mol 2 / dm 6

1,11 10 5 mol / dm 3

10
3
c(OH ) 9 10 mol / dm

pH log c( H )

log 10 1 mol / dm 3
5
mol / dm 3

:
1. (+) (-) =3,42.
:(+)=3,810-4 mol/dm3, (-)=2,6310-11 mol/dm3
2. NaOH =4,010-2 mol/dm3
50 cm3
H=2
?
: V=12,5 m3
3.

K + - 10 cm3 =8,0?
: 6,0210-13 (+) 6,0210-15 (-)

4. 3,010-5 g + 1 dm3 ,
?
: =4,52
5. ml 20% HCl =1,1 10L
=2 , ako e =1?
: 16,59 m3

47

. ____
1. cm3 , Na2CO3 10%
=1,10 g/cm3 500 cm3
=0,1?

2. () 36,5% HCl =1,18 g/cm3?

3. 3L 20% HCl =1,10 g/cm3

12% ?

4. 5,3. + -
?

48

. ,
.

.
, , .
,
. ,
, a a ja a
.

:
1. ;
2. ;
3.
, ,
;
4. ( )

;
5. ;
6.
;
7.
;
8.
;
9. ,
;
10.
.

. , , ,
.
,
.
.
.. ,

(techn.), (pur.) (p.a.).
(purris) (pur.spec.).
,
. ,

49

, .

,
.
a
, .
:

:
1. , .
,
.
2. ,
.
3. ,
,
.
4. ,
.
5.
.
:
6.
, ( , ,
, .)
.
7. ,


.
8. .

50

9. ,

.
10.
.
11.
, ,
.
,
.
12. (
) ,

.
13.
.
14. ,
, .

:

51

.
, , , , .
.

.
,
.
:
.
.
.
.

. ,
,
, , .
.
.
. .
( ),
.
.
.
. ,
.
, .
. ,
, .
.
.
25 ml 1000 ml.
(),
.
.
,
,
.
.
. :

52

Mohr () .
Mohr. ,
.
,
.
5, 10, 20, 25, 50 ml .

, .
1ml (0,1
ml). 1-2 ml, ,
.
.
, ,
.
, .

.
. ml
(0,1 ml).
.
.
( )
. 25
50 ml.
100 ml 0,2 ml,
10 ml ()

. ,
Mohr Schelbach. ,
Schelbach
.
,
,
.
Mohr

, () .
, ( : 2,
KMnO4) .
Schelbach ,
.
.
,
, , ,
, .
.
. ,
, 5 10ml,
. -
.

53

.
. ,
250 ml,
.
().
, (
), ,

.
.
.
, .
.
. ,
,
.
,

( ).
. ,
, ..
,
.

54

.

().
, , ,
. .
.
.
. .
, .

55

.
,
. :
.
. ,
.
. ,

.
,
.
.
, .
.
, .
. ,
( ,
, , .
. .
.
.
.
.

.

.

, .
,

. .

,
. , .

56

(, , )
(, , , )

,
.

.
: Bunsen- Teclu-
. ,

. ,
.
.

. .

. , ,
.

.
. , 2/3

.
, ,
.
.

.

. ,
20-220 .


.
.
:

;

57

;

.
;
o .
,
;
,
, ;
.

.
. K
,

.

, ,
.
.
,
,
.

1-

, ,

58

2- .

.
3- ,
.
4- ,

.
() :

,


.
,
,
.
,
.

,

.

59

,

.

.

-, .
.
,
.
, , , ,
.
, , , ,
.
.

,
. ,
, .

60

,
, Buchner- ,
.
( ), .. .

. ,
.
-, -,
-.
, .
- ,

.
. ( )
- , .
, , ,
.
,
. .
,
.
.
,
.

.
-,
.
.

61

.

.
.
.

.
,
. ,

.

,

, ,
, .

.
,
, ().
-
, .

. ,

,

.


( 150)

.

.

.
( )


.

62

.
.

.

, .

.
.
,
: , .

. : ,
, .

.
.


. :
1.
. ,
, ,
..
2. (Na2B4O710
H2O) (NaNH4PO44 H2O).
, ..
,
: ()

.

63

.

.
,
.
: ,
, ,
(Na2CO3) (K2CO3),
, .

, ,
, ..

,
,
.
,
, .

.
.
.

. ,

.
, ,
().

( ,
, )
,
,
.
(), .
, .

, HCl. : Ag+,
Hg22+ Pb+ . ,
.
HCl,
H2S HCl.
:
-:
.. .
: Hg2+,Cu2+, Cd2+
-:
. . : As 3+,
As5+,Sb3+, Sb5+, Sn2+, Sn4+.

64

HCl H2S, (NH4)2S. : Al3+, Cr3+, Fe3+, Ni2+,
Co2+, Mn2+, Zn2+

, (NH 4)2CO3
NH4Cl. : Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+

. : Mg2+, K+, Na+, NH4+.

.

I
I
Ag+, Hg22+ ,

Pb2+


II
Hg2+,Cu2+
-.
II
III
Al3+, Cr3+, Fe3+

,

-.
III
IV
Ca2+, Ba2+


V
Mg2+, K+, NH4+
-.

HCl

H2S

(NH4)2S

(NH4)2CO3

.

.
, ,
:

I
II
III

IV
V
VI

Cl-, Br- ,
CH3COOS2SO32-,
CO32-,
C2O42-.
PO43NO3SO42-

AgNO3

HNO3

BaCl2
-

HNO3
-

AgNO3 BaCl2:

65

( ), , AgNO3 (
). : Cl-, Br- -.
, ,
.

. : SO42-, CO32-,
PO43- C2O42-.

( I )
- Ag+
Ag+
.

.
AgNO3. :
(HCl) .
AgNO3 + HCl = AgCl + HNO3
:
AgCl + 2NH4OH = [Ag(NH3)2]Cl + 2H2O
, ,
,
. :
[Ag(NH3)2]Cl + 2N3 = AgCl + NH4N3
-
.
:
AgNO3 + K2Cr2O7 = Ag2Cr2O7 + 2KN3
AgNO3 + K2CrO4 = Ag2CrO4 + 2KN3

66

Pb2+
.
.
:
(II) ,
, .
Pb(NO3)2 + 2 HCl = PbCl2 + 2HNO3

. NaOH HNO3.
2Pb(NO3)2 + K2Cr2O7 + H2O = PbCrO4 + 2KN3
Pb(NO3)2 + K2CrO4 = PbCrO4 + 2KN3 + 2 HNO3
(II) .
Pb(NO3)2 + 2 KJ = PbI2 + KNO3
- Hg22+
Hg22+ Hg2+
. Hg22+
.
.

.
(I) :
(I) .
Hg2(NO3)2 + 2 HCl = Hg2Cl2 + 2HNO3

.
Hg2Cl2 + 2NH4OH = HgNH2Cl + Hg + NH4Cl + 2H2O
.

(II) , (I)
.
Hg2(NO3)2 + SnCl2 + 2HCl = Hg + SnCl4+ 2HNO3

67

. ____


.
:
HCl (2mol/dm3).

AgCl,
PbCl
Hg2Cl
2

2. .
.

PbCl2,

KJ
K2Cr2O7 .
(II)
.

a)
NH4OH
HNO3,
Ag+
,
K2Cr2O7.
-
Ag+ .

Hg2Cl2
AgCl.

NH4OH (2mol/dm3).

) A
NH4OH,
Hg22+

(II) SnCl2,
.

68

(II)
-
-Cu

: (I) (II). (I)
(II) .
(II) .
:

,
(II):
CuSO4 + H2S = CuS + H2SO4

,
.

(II)
(II) .
CuSO4 + 2NaOH = Cu(OH)2 + Na2SO4
Cu(OH)2 = CuO + H2O

(II) :
CuSO4 + 2NH4OH = Cu SO4(OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4
Cu SO4(OH)2 + 10NH4OH= 2[Cu (NH3)4](OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4 + 6H2O

(II) - (II)
(II)
CuSO4 + K4[Fe(CN)6] = Cu2[Fe(CN)6] + K2SO4

69

-Hg2+
(II) .
(II) :

, , (II)
(II) .
2HgCl2 + H2S = HgS + 2HCl

, , .
" ".

-
, .
HgCl2 + NaOH = Hg(OH)Cl + NaCl

(II) (II) (I)

HgCl2 + SnCl2 = HgCl2 + SnCl4
Hg2Cl2 + SnCl2 = Hg + SnCl4
- Bi3+

Bi3+,
.
:

,
.
.
2Bi(NO3)3 + 3H2S = Bi2S3 + HNO3
Bi2S3 + 8HNO3 = 2Bi(NO3)3 + 2NO + 3S + 4H2O

,
.
BiCl + 3NaOH = Bi(OH)3 + 3NaCl

70

-
As5+
As5+
As3+. .
.
As5+ :

, H2S, ,
(III)
AsCl3 + 3H2S = As2S3 + 3HCl

, ,
, .

.
Na3AsO3 + 3AgNO3 = Ag3AsO3 + NaNO3

.
Sn2+
Sn2+
Sn4+. .
Sn2+ :

H2S,
(II)
SnCl2 + H2S = SnS + HCl

(II) (I)
,

SnCl2 + 2HgCl2 = Hg2Cl2 + SnCl4

Hg2Cl2+ SnCl2 = 2Hg + SnCl4

71

. _____
- ()

.
:
-HCl
(2mol/dm3), H2S .
Hg2+,Cu2+, Bi3+.
NaOH (2mol/dm3). :

-
Hg2+

SnCl2.

-
Cu2+

,
(II)
NH4OH.

-
Bi3+ ,

- ()

HCL (2mol/dm3), H2S

. :

-
3+

,

,

.

-
Sn2+

(II) .
,

Sn2+ .

72

(III)

. : Al3+, Cr3+,
Fe3+
-Fe3+
Fe3+ Fe2+ . Fe2+
-
, Fe3+
koj .
(III) .
:

(III)
(III) .
H2S . (III)
(III) .
2FeCl3 + 3(NH4)2S = Fe2S3 + 6NH4Cl
Fe2S3 + 6HCl = 2FeCl3 + 3H2S
Fe2S3 + 6H2 = 2Fe(H)3 + 3H2S

(II)
,
.
4FeCl3 + 3K4[Fe(CN)6] = Fe4[Fe(CN)6] 3 + 12KCl

(III) ,
(III) .
FeCl3 + 3KSCN = Fe(SCN)3 + 3KCl
-Al3+

Al3+
.
:

, ,
, .
Al2(SO4)3 + 3(NH4)2S = Al2S3 + 3(NH4)SO4
Al2S3 + 6 H2 = Al (OH)3 + 3H2S

73

,

.
AlCl3 + 6NOH = 2Al(OH)3 + 3N2SO4

. ____


.
:
NH4O (2mol/dm3), .
:

- -
Fe3+ ,


(II)
.


Fe3+.

,



.
.

74

(IV)

. Ca2+, Sr2+ Ba2+ .
- Ca2+

Ca , .
:
2+

,
.

CaCl2 + (NH4)2CO3 = CaCO3 + 2NH4Cl

CaCl2 + 2NaOH = Ca(OH)2 + 2NaCl

,

CaCl2 + H2O4 = CaO4 + 2Cl
-
- ( ).
- Sr2+

Sr2+ , .

,

.
SrCl2 + (NH4)2CO3 = SrCO3 + 2NH4Cl
() ,
,

SrCl2 + H2O4 = SrO4 + 2Cl

75

( )
,
.
.
SrCl2 + CaO4 = SrO4 + CaCl2
-
.
- a2+

, .
. :
2+

Cl2 + (NH4)2CO3 = CO3 + 2NH4Cl
, ,
,
, .
,
,
.
.
2BaCl2 + K2Cr2O7 + H2O = 2BaCrO4 + 2KCl + 2HCl
,
.
BaCl2 + CaO4 = BaO4 + CaCl2
-
.

76

. ____
(V)

.
:

, CaO4. :

( )
- , 2+



, .


.

(
) , Sr2+

(
) - Ca2+,

.

77

(V)
.
: K+, Na+, NH4+, Mg2+, Li+.
- +

+ .

.


KCl + HCLO4 = KClO4 + HCl
-
.
, ,

,
.
ClO3 o

- Na+

.
, .
:
,
, ,
.
.
2NaCl + K2H2Sb2O7 = Na2H2Sb2O7 + 2KCl
-
.

78

- Mg2+
Mg2+
. ,
.
.
:

,
.
MgCl2 + NaOH = Mg(OH)2 + 2NH4Cl

.
MgCl2 + a(OH)2 = Mg(OH)2 + Cl
, ,
, .
.
MgCl2 + Na2HPO4 + NH4OH = MgNH4PO4 +2NaCl

79

. ____
(V)

.
:

NOH (c=2 mol/dm). :

-
,

.

.

.

.

-

.

. :

80

,
. .
Cl- . :
,

- .
, HNO3 = 2mol/dm3
NaCl + AgNO3 = AgCl + NaNO3
AgCl + 2NH4OH = [Ag(NH3)2]Cl +2H2O
[Ag(NH3)2]Cl + HNO3 = AgCl + 2NH4NO3
,
.
NaCl + Pb(CH3COO)2 = PbCl2 + 2CH3COONa
.
2NaCl + Hg(NO3)2 = Hg2Cl2 + 2NaNO3

.
.
.
:
, ,
. ,
.
KBr + AgNO3 = AgBr + KNO3
.
,
.
.
,
- .

81

KBr + Cl2 = Br2 + 2KCl

.
, . .
:
,
.
.
KJ + AgNO3 = AgJ + KNO3
.

. ,
, ,
.
2KJ + Cl2 = J2 + 2KCl
I2 + 5Cl2 + 6H2O = 2HJO3 + 10HCl

(
), -.
2KJ + 2KNO3 + 2H2SO4 = I2 + 2K2SO4 +2NO + 2H2O

. .

.
:

, .
,
.
.
2KNO3 + 4H2SO4 + 6FeSO4 3Fe2(SO4)3 + K2SO4 + 2NO + 4H2O +
+[Fe(NO)(H2O)5]SO4

82

. _____
(I)

.
:

(c=2 mol/dm). :

-
,

-
.


.

- .

.

-

,
.

,

.

83

.
, .
:

. ,
.
Na2CO3 + 2AgNO3 = Ag2CO3 + 2NaNO3
Ag2CO3 = Ag2O + CO2

,
.
.
Na2CO3 + BaCl = BaCO3 + 2NaCl

,
.
Na2CO3 + H2SO4 = Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2

,
. .
,
, ,
, .
,
, . .
:

,
.
.
2AgNO3 + Na2SO4 = Ag2SO4 + 2NaNO3

.
Na2SO4 + BaCl2 = BaSO4 + 2NaCl

, .

84

Pb(CH3COO)2 + Na2SO4 = PbSO4 + 2CH3COONa

,
.
,
. ,
. :

.
2Na2HPO4 + 3AgNO3 = Ag3PO4 + NaH2PO4 + 3NaNO3

.
.
2Na2HPO4 + BaCl2 = BaHPO4 + 2NaCl
2Na2HPO4 + BaCl2 + NH4OH = Ba3(PO4)2+ 4NaCl + 2NH4Cl + 2H2O

,
,
.
.
Na2HPO4 + MgCl2 + NH4OH = MgNH4PO4+ 2NaCl + H2O

, ,
, ,
, .

Na2HPO4 + 12(NH4)2MoO4 + 23HNO3 = (NH4)3PO4 H12MoO3 + 21NH4NO3 +

2NaNO3 + 12H2O

85

.
. ,
. :

, .
(NH4)2C2O4 + 2AgNO3 =Ag2C2O4 + 2NH4NO3
, ,
, ,
, .
BaCl2 + (NH4)2C2O4 = BaC2O4 + 2NH4Cl
,
.
(NH4)2C2O4 + CaCl2 = CaC2O4 + 2NH4Cl
,
, ( 60) 2
Mn2+.
,
.
5H2C2O4 + 2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 = K2SO4 + MnSO4 + 10CO2 + 8H2O

86

. _____
(II)

.
:

(c=2 mol/dm). :

-
,

- ,
.

.

.

a -
.

a-

.

87

.
,

.
, .
,

, ,
.

(, , )
.
:
;
;
( );
.

,
:
1. - ( );
2. -,
;
3. ,
;
4. ,
.


, .
, .
,

.

( ).

.
, .
.
. ,

.
,

88

. .

..
.
,
, .

:
++ - = 2
-

. :



(NaOH, KOH)
.

(HCl, H2SO4),
,
.
,
- .

.

NaOH HCl 0,1 mol/dm3.


.
0,1 mol/dm3 H+= 0,1 = 10-1 mol /
dm3 pH= 1
90% ,
10% .
10 .
,
.
10 , H+:
H+= 0,01 = 10-2 mol / dm3 pH= 2

89

99% 100
, ,
:
H+= 0,001 = 10-3 mol / dm3 pH= 3
99,9%
, : H+= 0,0001 = 10-4 mol / dm3 pH= 4
HCl(100%),
NaCl ,
H+ H- =7.
.
,
H-
H+ . 1%
, H- = 10-3 H+=10-11, =11. 10%
, H- = 10-2 H+=10-12 , =12.
100% NH
0,1 mol/dm3, H- = 10-1, H+=10-13, =13.

%
0
90,0
99,0
99,9
100,0
%
0,1
1,0
10,0
100,0

H+

10-1
10-2
10-3
10-4
10-7

1
2
3
4
7

10-10
10-11
10-12
10-13

10
11
12
13

1. H+ 0,1mol/dm3

.
, .. =7.
1. ( )
, ,
.

.
99,9% ,
3 , ( 1,0 4,0), 0,1% 0,1%
, 6 ( 0,4
10,0).

90

pH
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
10

10

%
1.

, 0,1 mol/dm3.
CH3COOH + NaOH = CH3COONa + H2O
,
,
CH3COONa ( ),
. , H+
.
.
, H+

.
,
, H-

. ,

9.
, =8
10,5.

91

:
NH4OH + HCl = NH4Cl + H2O
H+ ,


. ,
. ,

.
. NH4OH HCl ,
,
4,0 6,2.

92

. ____

HCl.
. mg NaOH
100 ml (100 ml ).

HCl

HCl

HCl.

0,1 mol/l HCl

HCl
Na2CO3 .
.
HCl Na2CO3 :
2 HCl + Na2CO3 = 2 NaCl + CO2 + H2O
2mol 1mol
n(HCl) : n( Na2CO3) = 2mol : 1mol = 2 :1
n(HCl) =2 n( Na2CO3)
:

c( A)

n( A)
V

n( A) c( A) V

:
c(Na2CO3) = n(Na2CO3) /V(Na2CO3) n(Na2CO3) = c(Na2CO3) V(Na2CO3)
n(HCl) = c(HCl) V(HCl)
T :
c(HCl) V(HCl) = 2 c(Na2CO3) V(Na2CO3)
c( HCl )

2c( Na 2 CO3 ) V ( Na 2 CO3 )

V ( HCl )

93

(, , ) .
,
.
20 ml Na2CO3
. 1-2 -
(-), .
HCl ..
. HCl
Na2CO3
- . ,
.
( ) 1-2 .
.

.
.
Na2CO3.
0,05 ml.
V1, V2 ,V3 , Vsr

HCl.

:
Vsr(HCl) =
V(Na2CO3)= 20 ml
c(Na2CO3)= 0,1 mol/L
c(HCl) = ?
:

c( HCl )

2c( Na 2 CO3 ) V ( Na 2 CO3 )

V ( HCl )

94

mg NaOH 100 ml

NaOH 100 ml
HCl :

NaOH + HCl = NaCl + H2O

1 mol 1 mol
n(NaOH) : n(HCl) = 1mol : 1mol = 1 : 1 = 1
n(NaOH) = n(HCl)
n(NaOH) = m(NaOH) / M(NaOH)
c(HCl) = n(HCl) / V(HCl)
n(HCl) = c(HCl) V(HCl)
m(NaOH)/ M(NaOH) = c(HCl) V(HCl)
m(NaOH) = M(NaOH) c(HCl) V(HCl)

NaOH 100 ml.

, .
HCl.
20 ml NaOH .
1-2 - (-).
. HCl
.
.
( ml) NaOH
100 ml .

NaOH 20 ml ,
100 ml 100 ml,
:
mg(NaOH) = ?
m(NaOH) = 5 M(NaOH) c(HCl) V(HCl)

m(NaOH) =________________mg

95

. _____

NaOH.
.
mg HCl 100 ml .

NaOH

NaOH
..
NaOH.

0,1 mol/l NaOH

NaOH
H 2C2O4 .
NaOH
HCl.
NaOH HCl :

NaOH + HCl = NaCl + H2O

1 mol 1 mol
n(NaOH) : n(HCl) = 1mol : 1mol = 1 : 1 = 1
n(NaOH) = n(HCl)
n(NaOH) = m(NaOH) / M(NaOH)
n(HCl) = c(HCl) V(HCl)
n(NaOH) = c(NaOH) V(NaOH)
c(NaOH)V(NaOH) = c(HCl) V(HCl)
c(NaOH) = c(HCl) V(HCl) / V(NaOH)

(
). 20 ml
HCl . 1-2
- (-). .
NaOH ..
.
. ,
0,05 ml
.
NaOH HCl 100 ml
.

96

NaOH
HCl 100 ml .

c( NaOH )

c( HCl ) V ( HCl )
V ( NaOH )

mg HCl 100 ml

HCl 100 ml HCl
NaOH. :
NaOH + HCl = NaCl + H2O
1 mol 1mol
n(NaOH) : n(HCl) = 1mol : 1mol = 1 : 1 = 1
n(NaOH) = n(HCl)
n(HCl) = m(HCl)/ M(HCl)
c(NaOH) = n(NaOH) /V(NaOH)
n(NaOH) = c(NaOH) V(NaOH)
m(HCl) M(HCl) = c(NaOH)V(NaOH)

m( HCl) c( NaOH ) V ( NaOH ) M ( HCl)

HCl 100 ml .
, .

. 20 ml .
NaOH .
. 2-3
.
.
.
mg HCl 100 ml .

HCl 20 ml
100 ml (
. 100 ml ,
5 :

m( HCl) 5 c( NaOH ) V ( NaOH ) M ( HCl)

m(HCl)=_______________

97

M -
- ,
, .

:
KMnO4
KBr O3
I2

. ____

KMnO4 .
, .
KMnO4
.

Mn7+ + 5e- = Mn2+

KMnO4

.
KMnO4 .
KMnO4 ..
.

0,1 mol/l KMnO4

, KMnO4
. KMnO4
, Na2C2O4
( ).
,
.
KMnO4 Na2C2O4 :
2KMnO4 + 5Na2C2O4 + 8H2SO4 = 2MnSO4 + 10CO2 + 5Na2SO4 + K2SO4 + 8H2O
2mol
5mol
:

98

n(KMnO4) : n(Na2C2O4) = 2mol : 5mol = 2 : 5

n(KMnO4) = c(KMnO4) V(KMnO4)
n(Na2C2O4)= c(Na2C2O4) V(Na2C2O4)
c(KMnO4) V(KMnO4) = 2/5 c(Na2C2O4) V(Na2C2O4)
c(KMnO4)= 2/5 c(Na2C2O4) V(Na2C2O4)/ V(KMnO4)

KMnO4
.
20ml Na2C2O4 .
20ml 20% H2SO4 . (70-80
.. ). ,
, KMnO4,
.
60 .
.
KMnO4

KMnO4

2 c( Na 2 C 2 O4 ) V ( Na 2 C 2 O4 )
c( KMnO4 )
5 V ( KMnO4 )

mg 2C2O4 100 ml

2C2O4 100 ml
2KMnO4 + 52C2O4 + 3H2SO4 = 2MnSO4 + 10CO2 + K2SO4 + 8H2O
2mol
5mol
n(KMnO4) : n(2C2O4) = 2mol : 5mol = 2 : 5
n(2C2O4)=5/2 n(KMnO4)
n(KMnO4) = c(KMnO4) V(KMnO4)
n(2C2O4)= m(2C2O4) /M(2C2O4)
m(2C2O4) /M(2C2O4)= 5/2 c(KMnO4) V(KMnO4)

m( H 2 C 2 O4 )

5c( KMnO4 ) V ( KMnO4 ) M ( H 2 C 2 O4 )

2

99

KMnO4 .
100 ml.
.
2C2O4, 20 ml
20 ml 20% H2SO4 . (7080 .. ).
, KMnO4.

1-2 .
.
KMnO4
:

20 ml
, 100 ml ,
100 ml . 5
100 ml .

m( H 2 C 2 O4 )

25 c( KMn O4 ) V ( KMnO4 ) M ( H 2 C 2 O4 )
2

m 2C2O4=_________________

100

, .
,
.


.
AgNO3 Hg(NO3)2
:
1. (
AgNO3)
2. (
Hg(NO3)2 .

.____

mg Cl- 100 ml Mohr

.
K2CrO4
- Ag2CrO4.
AgCl Ag2CrO4
AgNO3 Cl-
CrO42- AgCl ( ,
) Ag2CrO4.
AgCl , Ag2CrO4 ,

.
:
- AgNO3 0,1 mol/dm3
- K2CrO4, w=5%
-,, .

10 ml
2-3 K2CrO4 .
, AgNO3 ( ). ,

101

. .
AgNO3.
.

:
NaCl + AgNO3 = AgCl + NaNO3
1mol 1mol
n(NaCl) : n(AgNO3) = 1 : 1
n(NaCl) = n(AgNO3)
c(NaCl) V(NaCl) = c(AgNO3) V(AgNO3)


c( NaCl )

c( AgNO3 ) V ( AgNO3 )
V ( NaCl )

mg Cl- 100 ml
:

n( NaCl )

c( NaCl )
V ( NaCl )

n( NaCl )

m( NaCl )
M ( NaCl )

m(Cl ) c(Cl ) V (Cl ) M (Cl )

mg Cl- 100 ml .

m(Cl-)=___________

102

.
.
I, II, III.

K I e 191,1
3.
CH2COOH
N
CH2COOH
CH2COOH
II D,
291,1, 4Y, k
Y4-= (CH2N)2(CH2COO)44- (4-)
D ,
:

2
2,0-2,7
2,7-6,2
6,2-10,3
10,3

D
4Y
3Y2Y2Y3Y4-

III II, Na2H2Y2

2H2O, 372,1.
III
, .
III .
,
.
. , -
. III,

103

- III
,
.
-. + . III = - . III + .

._____
()

.
, , , , ,
.
, .
.
1 = 10 mg CaO/dm3
1 = 10 mg CaO/0,7dm3
1 = 10 mg CaO/dm3

()

Ca(HCO3)2

Mg(HCO3)2

CaCO3
MgCO3
CaCl2

MgCl2

CaSO4

MgSO4
Ca(NO3)2
Mg(NO3) 2
CaSiO3
MgSiO3

,
,
.
.
CaCO3 MgCO3 ,
, .
.

.
:

104

0-5
5-10
10-15
15-22
22-30
30

III. DTA g
:
Na2H2Y2 + Mg2+ = Na2MgY + 2H+
III

- D
2+ g2+
.
D-.

-0,01 mol/dm3 EDTA
- (16,9g NH4Cl 143 cm3 250 cm3
)
-
-,, .

10
. 25 cm3
. 2 cm3 .
2+
g2+ . D
.
.

105

x CaO(mg / dm 3 )

a c 56 1000
V

- D, cm3
- D, mol/dm3
V- , cm3
56- , g /mol
1 10 mg/dm3 ,
:

(d )

x(CaO)=______________

x
10

106

.

.
, , , , .

, .

.
. ,
, , ,
, . ,
.

,
-
. ,
,
.
:

:
-

, ,
. ,

,
.
:

e
Cl, F, J, Br
-

R-X

R-OH
R-C-H R-C-R

OO
R-C-OH

O
R-NH2
R-NO2

107

, ,

( ).
,

. ,
, .
,

() .

.
,
, , .
, .

.

,
.

108

. _______


. ,
, .
, .
.
.
.
CH3OH + HO-C CH3

CH3- O-C CH3

+ H2O

.
,
O
,
.
,
.

. .
,

.

CH3-CH2-OH + I2 +NaOH

CH3-C-H + 2NaJ + 2H2O

CH3-C-H + 3I2 + 3NaOH

CI3-C-H + 3NaI + 3H2O

CI3-C-H + NaOH

CHI3 + HCOONa

. .

.
NaOH OH,
CHI3.

109

.
, .
,
. .
, .
(III) , FeCl3 ,
.
6C6H5OH + Fe3+ = [(C6H5O)6Fe]3+ + 6H+
. ,
FeCl3 (w =1%). ,
.

. ( ),
,
.

+ 3Br

Br
+

Br
3Br

Br
2,4,6-

. ,
.
.
, .
. (1-2 ml)
2,4,6-, ,
.

,
.
, .
(), ().
Fehling- .
Fehling I Fehling II.

110

CuSO4 K, Na .
.
( II K,Na )
. ,
(I) Cu2O, .
CuSO4 + 2NaOH = Cu(OH)2 + Na2SO4

+ 2Cu(OH)2 = R-COOH + 2CuOH +H2O

2CuOH = Cu2O + H2O
. Fehling I Fehling II.
.
(). (I) Cu2O.

. Ag+
Ag.
AgNO3 + 3NH4OH = [Ag(NH3)2]OH + NH4NO3 + 2H2O

+ 2[Ag(NH3)2]OH = R-COOH + 2Ag + 4NH3 + H2O

. .
,
, HNO3, 2-3 ml
, .
, , AgNO3, 2-3
, NH4OH, -40%
.
.

111

. ____

. ,
- . ,
, ,
. :

(III) . (III)
( ) ,
.(
).

Uffelman- . 1%
(III)
. (
)

.
,
.

,
, .

. ,
,
. .
:

.
(Mn7+
Mn2+).
.
.

. .
.
.
.
:

112

.
, ( )
, .
.
,
( )
.

.
:
- ;
- ;
- ;
:
- ,
.
- ,
.

. ____


Styrax
.

KCN
2C6H5CHO ======= C6H5-CH(OH)-CO-C6H5
.

-25,00g , C6H5CHO
-2,50g KCN 25 ml
-32,50 ml C2H5OH

113

- , , , Buchner-
.

,
. 30
. , ,
,
. .
, .
.
.

Buchner-
,