GENETICS LABORATORY Physical expression of

EXERCISE 1-7 the trait or

characteristic
Exercise 1
Phenotypic Variation in Genotype
Organisms Alleles: different
Variation variations of a gene
Basic quality of living and assemble in a loci
things or gene
What proves the Alleles determine the
identity of the genotype of the
individual species species
(different from other
types of organisms) Exercise 2
Maintains the Physical Basis of Heredity
characteristics that Cell
relate it with others of The basic structural and
its own kind (same physiological unit of the body
species) of an organism
Variation can come in Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
different types of forms cells carry genetic information
1. Physiological variation in their chromosomes
a. Albinism: Inability to Cells undergo cell division:
produce melanin Chromosomes replicate and
b. Diabetes: Deficiency of produce daughter cells
insulin Cell cycle: Chromosomes
2. Morphological variation grow and reproduce
Different shapes (round or metabolic activities are
oval), texture (smooth or regular and repetitive
wrinkled), color patterns
(plain to bent lines or
mosaics), eye (red eye or
white eye)
3. Behavioral variation
Migration or nesting habits
of birds
- There is also variations
attributed to distinguish
sexuality

Phenotype
Expressed traits of the
genotype reflected on
the organism
Cell Cycle MPF
Interphase CdK and cyclins which triggers
progression throughout the cell
P53
Partakes in apopstosis
Functions to block cell cycle

Cell Division
Mitosis
- New cells are generate
- Produces Diploid organisms
(same as the parent cells)

Prophase
Chromosomes condense and
become visible
Centrioles form and move
towards opposite poles
Nuclear membrane dissolves
The cell cycle is 16 hours Mitotic spindle forms
Mitosis happens for 1 hour Spindle fibers attach to each
Interphase is a non-mitotic sister chromatid at the
portion of the cell cycle kinetochore
Gap 0 spindle fibers are
Gap 1 microtubules made up of
Synthesis tubulin
DNA replication occurs
Gap 2 Metaphase
Mitosis Centrioles have fully migrated
Chromosomes start to to opposite poles
separate Chromosomes line up at the
Cytokinesis starts to occur metaphase plate equatorial
(division of the cytoplasm) plate
- The cell cycle has 3
checkpoints for regulation Anaphase
(G1, G2 and M) Spindles attached to
- Non-dividing cells go to the kinetochores are shorten
G0 phase (pulled)
Sister chromatids are pulled
CDK apart and chromatids are at
Cylin dependent kinase the opposite poles
Major control switches of the cell
which causes the movement from Telophase
G1 to S to G2 to M Chromosomes decondense
Nuclear envelop is formed
 Cytokinesis (division of the Meiosis
cytoplasm) is completed - Formation of gametes,
Formation of 2 daughter cells generated for reproduction
- plants do not have cytokinesis (production of haploid cells)
because It has a cell wall - Chromosome number in
daughter cells is reduced to
half
Important events:
1. Crossing over between
homologous chromosomes at
prophase I
2. Independent assortment of
homologous pairs at
metaphase I

Meiosis I
Prophase I
Chromosomes condense and
become visible
Centrioles move to opposite
poles
Nuclear membrane starts to
dissolve
Formation of Tetrad (4
chromatids): Homologs pair
up and begins to dissolve
Crossing over: Homologous
chromosomes swap genetic
material

Metaphase I
Microtubules grow from the
centrioles and attach to the
centromeres
Tetrads are lined up along the
metaphase plate or the cell
equator

Anaphase I
Centromeres break and
homologous chromosomes
separate (sister chromatids
are still attached)
Cytokinesis begins
Telophase I 1. Allium Cepa
Cytokinesis is complete Chromosome number 2n: 16
producing two haploid
daughter cells 2. Whitefish Blastula
- Used to study MITOSIS
Meiosis II - Chromosomes are actively
Prophase II dividing
Centrioles form and move Chromosome number 2n: 80
towards opposite poles
Nuclear membrane dissolves 2. Grasshopper Testis
Chromosome number 2n: 24
Metaphase II Prophase I
Microtubules grow from the Leptotene
centrioles and attach to the Chromosomes are finely
centromeres beaded filaments
Sister chromatids line up Chromatin is filamentous
along the cell equator Chromosomes are uncoiled
Zygotene
Anaphase II Thicker chromosomes
Sister chromatids separate Synapsis occurs at the
Cytokinesis begins synaptonemal complex
(Division of the cytoplasm) Bouquet formation

Telophase II Pachytene
Chromosomes decondense Chromosomes shorten and
Formation of four haploid become thicker
daughter cells Complete pairing and
exchange of chromosomal
arms
Haploid condition

Diplotene
Chromosomes are partly split
Chiasma

Diakinesis
Coiling of chromosomes
Chromosomes are at its
shortes and thickets
Terminalization of one or
more chiasmata
Exercise 3 Haplodiplobiontic, diploid-haploid
Reproductive Cycles (H. d-h)
Haplobiontic diploid (H,d)

Involves two types of parents one

Involves one type of parent a stage is diploid (diploid sporophyte
diploid or 2N individual which stage), producing spores through
produces gametes through gametic meiosis. The haploid spores
meiosis germinate into a gametophyte (N)
that produces gametes through
mitosis
Haplobiontic, haploid (H,h)
Life cycle
1. Agaricuss (Mushroom)

Involves one type of parent a

haploid which produces gametes
through mitosis
 Exercise 4
2. Zea Mays (Corn) Karyotyping
Method that is used in
determining the number,
shapes, and sizes of
chromosome set of
organisms
Somatic cells undergoing
metaphase of mitosis best
exhibit chromosomes for
this purpose

Chromosomes
Compact and composed of
two identical threads
Double nature of
chromosomes extends along
its length except at the region
of the centromere which may
be at the middle, off- center,
close to one end or at the
terminal end
3. Drosophila Melanogaster
(Fruit fly) Human karyotype
Correct number of human
chromosomes: 46 (23 pairs)
White blood cells were used to
karyotype
Method used for karyotyping human
chromosomes:
1. Subject the cultured human
blood cells to a mitotic
stimulator
2. White blood cells under
mitosis and then trapped in
metaphase by colchicine
3. Cells swell and nuclear
membranes rapture and
chromosomes scatter

Y chromosome is shorter
than X chromosome
Diseases
1. Trisonomy Syndrome
2. Klinefelters Syndrome
Exercise 5 Exercise 7
Care and Culture of Drosophila Drosophila Melanogaster:
Melanogaster Polytene Chromosome

Why is a fruit fly used?

1. Short life cycle
2. Produces a fairly large
number of offspring
3. Easy to grow and maintain in
the laboratory using a variety
of simple culture media
4. Convenient to handle and
store due to small size
5. Possess only 4 pairs of
chromosomes making
analysis of crosses easy
6. Great variability of inherited
characteristics
7. Availability of literatures
Fruit fly has 8 chromosomes
(4 pairs)
Trapping
Make use of banana peels or
any dry fruit
Banana peels or any dry fruit
is used as a bait for the fruit
flies

Culturing
Mashed banana (Food
medium for the drosophila)
Propionic acid or yeast
(OPTIONAL)

Subculturing
This is done when there are
many flies in one culture
bottle
CONGESTION may be a Unregulated gene
factor which can cause the action may result
deaths of the flies unusually to unusual
gene behavior
Repeated replication
ovvurs while in
synopsis of homologue
which produces
polytene or poly-
 stranded giant
chromosomes
Polytene
chromosomes aare
viewed as enlarged
chromatin puffs which
are long looped
structures of DNA
Histochemical techniques
Use third instar larva
Acetocarmine/Acetoorcinol
- This dye is used to stain
the DNA (DNA specific
stain)