Available online at www.ijrp.

org

International Journal of Research Publications

Volume-7, Issue-1,June 2018

Accepted and Published Manuscript

ASSESSING CRITICAL ISSUES OF READING FLUENCY FOR ESL STUDENTS AMONG

ADULT LEARNERS

Abdulmalik Usman, Dahiru Musa Abdullahi

PII : Abdulmalik Usman.1007162018244

DOI: 1007162018244
Web: http://ijrp.org/paper_detail/245

To appear in: International Journal of Research Publication (IJRP.ORG)

Received date: 24 Jun 2018

Accepted date: 03 Jul 2018
Published date: 06 Jul 2018
Please cite this article as: Abdulmalik Usman, Dahiru Musa Abdullahi , ASSESSING CRITICAL ISSUES
OF READING FLUENCY FOR ESL STUDENTS AMONG ADULT LEARNERS , International Journal
of Research Publication (Volume: 7, Issue: 1), http://ijrp.org/paper_detail/245

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2018 Published by IJRP.ORG. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of International Journal of
Research Publications (IJRP.ORG)
 Abdulmalik Usman / International Journal of Research Publications (IJRP.ORG)

ASSESSI
NGCRITI
CALISSUESOFREADI
NGFLUENCY
FORESLSTUDENTSAMONGADULTLEARNERS

Abdul
malikUsman
Depart
mentofEnglish,
BauchiSt
ateUniver
sit
y,Gadau,Ni
ger
ia
ausmanb09@gmai
l
.com

&

Dahir
uMusaAbdul lahi
Engli
shProgramme
School
ofGeneralStudies
AbubakarTat
ari
Ali
Polytechni
c,
BauchiSt
ateNigeria
dahi
ru.
m.a.
bauchi
@gmai
l
.com

www.ijrp.org

1
 Abdulmalik Usman / International Journal of Research Publications (IJRP.ORG)

Abst
ract
Readi
ngf
luencyi
sacr
it
icalcomponenti
nEngl
i
shl
anguagel
ear
ning.I
tishowev
er
negl
ect
edi
nrecenty
ear
sinv
iew oft
hedear
thofr
ecentl
i
ter
atur
eonr
eadi
ng.The
pr
esentst
udyseekst
oinv
est
igat
ecr
it
icali
ssuesofr
eadi
ngf
luencyamongESLadul
t
l
ear
ner
sinNi
ger
ia.50r
espondent
swer
esel
ect
edoutof110ESLl
ear
ner
sfr
om
Gener
alSt
udi
esPr
ogr
ammeofAbubakarTat
ariAl
iPol
ytechni
cBauchi
.Dat
awer
e
col
l
ect
ed t
hrough quest
ionnai
re and Read Al
oud Test
.Thef
indi
ngsr
evealt
hat
maj
ori
tyoft
her
espondent
sar
enotexposedt
oEngl
i
shphonemer
ecogni
ti
ont
hat
woul
dgui
det
hem t
opr
onouncewor
dsappr
opr
iat
ely
andf
urt
herr
eadf
luent
ly.They
ar
eal
soscar
edofpoorj
udgmentf
rom col
l
eagues,poorf
oundat
ionandnegat
ive
per
cept
iont
owar
dsr
eadi
ng.Thest
udysuggestf
orexposur
ether
apyt
oamel
i
orat
e
t
hesi
tuat
ion.

I
ntr
oduct
ion

Fl
uentr
eader
scanr
eadt
extwi
thspeed,accur
acy
,andpr
operexpr
essi
on.Fl
uency
depends upon wel
l
-dev
eloped wor
drecogni
ti
on ski
l
ls,butsuch ski
l
ls do not
i
nev
itabl
yleadt
ofl
uency
.Iti
sgener
all
yacknowl
edgedt
hatf
luencyi
sacr
it
ical
componentofski
l
led r
eadi
ng.Nev
ert
hel
ess,i
tisof
ten negl
ect
ed i
n cl
assr
oom
i
nst
ruct
ion.Thatnegl
ecthasst
art
edt
ogi
vewayasr
esear
chandt
heor
yhav
ere-
concept
ual
i
zedt
hisaspectofr
eadi
ng,andempi
ri
calst
udi
eshav
eexami
nedt
he
ef
fi
cacyofspeci
fi
cappr
oachest
oteachi
ngf
luency
.

Ther
eiscommonagr
eementt
hatf
luencydev
elopsf
rom r
eadi
ngpr
act
ice.What
r
esear
cher
shav
enoty
etagr
eeduponi
swhatf
orm suchpr
act
iceshoul
dtaket
obe
mostef
fect
ive.Forexampl
e,oneappr
oachi
stohav
est
udent
sreadpassagesor
all
y
wi
thgui
danceadf
eedback.Pr
ogr
amsi
nthi
scat
egor
yincl
uder
epeat
edr
eadi
ng,
neur
ologi
cali
mpr
ess,pai
redr
eadi
ng,st
aredr
eadi
ng,andassi
stedr
eadi
ng,t
onot
e
t
hemostpopul
arpr
ocedur
es.

Anot
her
,lessexpl
i
cit
,butwi
del
yusedappr
oach,i
stoencour
agest
udent
stor
ead
ext
ensi
vel
yont
hei
rownorwi
thmi
nimalgui
danceandf
eedback.Pr
ogr
amsi
nthi
s
cat
egor
yincl
udeal
lef
for
tst
oincr
easet
heamount
sofi
ndependentorr
ecreat ional
www.ijrp.org

2
 Abdulmalik Usman / International Journal of Research Publications (IJRP.ORG)

r
eadi
ng i
ncl
udi
ng sust
ained si
l
entr
eadi
ng (
SSR)
,Dr
op Ev
ery
thi
ng and Read,
Accel
erat
edReader(
AR)
,andv
ari
ousi
ncent
ivepr
ogr
ams.Of
tent
heseappr
oaches
hav
enof
ormalname,butt
aket
hef
orm ofr
equi
rement
sthatst
udent
sengagei
n
unsuper
visedi
ndependentr
eadi
ngatschoolorhome.Thi
sexami
nedt
heev
idence
concer
ning t
he ef
fect
iveness of bot
h gui
ded or
alr
eadi
ng pr
ocedur
es and
appr
oachest
hatencour
agest
udent
stor
eadmor
e.

Col
l
egei
nst
ruct
ors,ev
ent
hosewhot
eachdev
elopment
alr
eadi
ngcour
ses,of
ten
assumet
hatt
hei
rst
udent
shav
eal
readymast
eredbasi
creadi
ngski
l
lssuchas
phoni
cs,wor
drecogni
ti
on,andf
luency(
Diet
ri
ch,1994)
.Howev
er,manyoft
hese
st
udent
sexhi
biti
nsuf
fi
cientwor
drecogni
ti
on,l
i
mit
edphoni
csski
l
ls,andl
abor
ious
r
eadi
ngr
ateswhet
herornott
heyhav
ereadi
ngdi
sabi
l
iti
es(
Bel
l&Per
fet
ti
,1994;
Mar
ti
no&Hof
fman,2002;Sabat
ini
,1997)
.Compar
edt
ogoodcol
l
eger
eader
s,t
hese
st
udent
sreadmor
esl
owl
y,decodel
essaccur
atel
y,andmakemor
eor
alr
eadi
ng
er
ror
sthataf
fectmor
esl
owl
y,decodel
essaccur
atel
y,andmakemor
eor
alr
eadi
ng
er
ror
sthataf
fectt
extmeani
ng(
Bel
l&Per
fet
ti
,1994;
Sabat
ini
,2002;
Vukov
ic,
Wil
son,
&Nash,
2004;
War
de,
2005)
.

Whi
l
edev
elopment
alr
eadi
ngcour
sest
ypi
cal
l
yteachcompr
ehensi
onst
rat
egi
esand
v
ocabul
ary
,manyst
udent
sst
il
lneedexpl
i
citi
nst
ruct
ionandpr
act
icei
ndev
elopi
ng
ski
l
lsi
n phoni
cs,wor
drecogni
ti
on,and f
luency(
Diet
ri
ch,1994)
.Howev
er,such
i
nst
ruct
ioni
srar
elyi
ncor
por
atedi
ntot
hecol
l
egecl
assr
oom (
Diet
ri
ch,1994)
.Thi
s
br
iefpr
ovi
desanov
erv
iew ofr
esear
chst
udi
esdescr
ibi
ngt
hedi
ff
icul
ti
esf
acedby
manyst
ruggl
i
ng col
l
eger
eader
s,aswel
lasst
udi
est
hati
dent
if
yst
rat
egi
esf
or
i
mpr
ovi
ngpoorr
eader
s’decodi
ngandf
luency
.

“
Readi
ngt
eacher
swhowor
kwi
thst
udent
satanyagel
evelshoul
dnotassumet
hat
t
hei
rst
udent
s hav
e an adequat
e knowl
edge of phonol
ogi
calst
ruct
ures and
or
thogr
aphi
c pat
ter
ns ort
hatt
heyhav
e out
grown t
hei
rneed f
ort
hist
ype of
i
nst
ruct
ion”–Ki
tz&Tar
ver(
1989,
p.204)

Li
ter
atur
eRev
iew
Compar
edt
oski
l
ledr
eader
s,poorcol
l
eger
eader
smakemor
eor
alr
eadi
nger ror
www.ijrp.org s

3
 Abdulmalik Usman / International Journal of Research Publications (IJRP.ORG)

t
hataf
fectt
hemeani
ngoft
het
ext(
Bel
l&Per
fet
ti
,1994)
;Di
etr
ich,1994)
;Mar
ti
no&
Hof
fman,2002;Mi
nus,1992;Sabat
ii
,2002;Vukov
ic,Wi
l
son,&Nash,2004;War
de,
2005)
.The r
elat
ionshi
p bet
ween wor
d-l
evelski
l
ls and compr
ehensi
ons cl
ear
;
st
udent
swho ei
thermi
sread orski
p unf
ami
l
iarwor
dsar
eatr
iskoff
ail
i
ng t
o
accur
atel
ycompr
ehendat
ext
.Anal
yzi
ngt
heor
alr
eadi
ngmi
scuesof40uni
ver
sit
y
st
udent
swhohadf
ail
edamandat
oryst
ater
eadi
ngt
est
,War
de(
2005)f
oundt
hat
st
udent
swhohadl
ear
ningdi
sabi
l
iti
es(
LD)mademanymor
ereadi
nger
ror
sthan
st
udent
swi
thoutLD(
27er
ror
sper00-
700wor
dsf
orLDst
udent
scompar
edt
o3
er
ror
sfornon-
LD st
udent
s).Mor
eimpor
tant
ly,t
heer
ror
sthatLD st
udent
smade
wer
emor
eli
kel
ytochanget
heent
ir
emeani
ngoft
het
ext
.Suchwor
d-l
evelt
roubl
es
ar
eatt
hecent
erofmanydev
elopment
alcol
l
egest
udent
s’r
eadi
ngpr
obl
ems.I
na
st
udyof30communi
tycol
l
egest
udent
senr
oll
edi
ndev
elopment
alr
eadi
ngcl
asses,
mostofwhom wer
enat
iveEngl
i
shspeaker
s,Di
etr
ich(
1994)f
oundt
hatt
hest
udent
s’
av
eragewor
d-anal
ysi
sski
l
l(i
.e.t
heabi
l
ityt
o decodeunf
ami
l
iarwor
ds)wasat
appr
oxi
mat
elya5th-
gradeequi
val
ent
,whi
l
ethei
rav
eragesi
ght
-wor
drecogni
ti
on(
i.
e.
r
ecol
l
ect
ionofwor
ldsorwor
dpar
tsf
rom memor
y)wasatan8th-
gradel
evel
.In
addi
ti
on,90%oft
hest
udent
sint
hissampl
eexhi
bit
edmoder
atet
osev
erepr
obl
ems
wi
thphoni
csski
l
ls.

Si
mil
arl
y,i
nast
udyof81st
udent
sincommuni
tycol
l
egedev
elopment
alr
eadi
ng
cl
assesanduni
ver
sit
ies,Mi
nus(
1992)f
oundt
hatdev
elopment
alr
eadi
ngst
udent
s
possessed si
gni
fi
cant
lyl
owerwor
d-r
ecogni
ti
onand decodi
ng abi
l
iti
est
hant
hei
r
uni
ver
sit
ypeer
s.Whi
l
eal
lbutoneoft
heuni
ver
sit
yst
udent
sscor he12th-
edaboutt
gr
adel
evelonawor
drecogni
ti
ont
est
,thescor
esofcommuni
tycol
l
egest
udent
s
r
angedf
rom 5th – gr
adet e– 12th – gr
oabov adel
evel
s.Whenpr
esent
edwi
th
nonsensewor
ds–at
echni
quedesi
gnedt
orev
ealani
ndi
vi
dual
’
sabi
l
ityt
odecode
unf
ami
l
iarwor
ds–t
hecommuni
tycol
l
egest
udent
swer
eabl
etor
eadone-
syl
l
abl
e
nonsensewor
dsnear
lyaswel
last
hei
rhi
gher
-achi
evi
nguni
ver
sit
ycount
erpar
ts.But
t
hei
rabi
l
ityt
oread pol
ysy
ll
abi
c nonsense wor
ds (
such as uncabeness and
sanwi
zabl
e)wassi
gni
fi
cant
lyl
ower(
Chal
l& Cur
ti
s,1990)
.Ther
esear
chcl
ear
ly
suggest
sthatphoni
csandwor
ddecodi
ngpr
obl
emsposesi
gni
fi
cantchal
l
engesf
or
manyst
ruggl
i
ngcol
l
eger
eader
sandt
hatt
hesepr
obl
emsaf
fectt
hei
rcompr
ehensi
on
ski
l
ls.
www.ijrp.org

4
 Abdulmalik Usman / International Journal of Research Publications (IJRP.ORG)

Theabi
l
ityt
osi
mpl
ydecodeandr
ecogni
zewor
dsi
snotenough.Reader
smustal
so
beabl
etoexecut
ethesepr
ocessesr
api
dlyi
nor
dert
odev
otesuf
fi
cientment
al
ener
gyt
othet
askofcompr
ehensi
on(
Sabat
ini
,1997)
.Af
terr
epeat
edexposur
eand
wi
thappr
opr
iat
edecodi
ngski
l
ls,wor
dsandwor
dpar
tsar
est
oredi
nar
eader
’s
memor
yasv
isualor
thogr
aphi
cimages.Thi
sal
l
owsr
eader
stoby
passt
hedecodi
ng
st
aget
oqui
ckl
yret
ri
evewor
dsf
rom memor
y.Forski
l
ledr
eader
s,t
hispr
ocesst
akes
pl
acewi
thi
n20mi
l
isecondsofencount
eri
ngmostwor
ds(
Ashby
,2006,asci
tedi
n
St
rucker
,2008)
.Thi
saut
omat
ici
tyal
l
owsr
eader
stoconcent
rat
eoncompr
ehensi
on
(
Per
fet
ti
,1985;St
anov
ich,1986)
.Incont
rast
,sl
ow andl
abor
iousr
eader
sfacet
wo
maj
orobst
acl
est
ocompr
ehensi
on.Fi
rst
,theymustdedi
cat
emor
ement
alef
for
t
t
owar
ddecodi
ng,l
eav
ingl
i
mit
edcogni
ti
ver
esour
cesf
ormeani
ng-
maki
ng(
Apel&
Swank,1999;Adams,1994;Per
fet
ti
,1985)
.Second,sl
ow r
eadi
ngt
axesshor
t-
ter
m
memor
y,maki
ngi
tismor
edi
ff
icul
ttor
etai
nthel
ongandcompl
i
cat
edsent
ences
of
tenf
oundi
ncol
l
eget
ext
s(St
rucker
,2008)
.

I
nli
ghtoft
het
ypi
calcol
l
egest
udent
’swor
kload,t
hischoppyandhesi
tantst
yleof
r
eadi
ngposesapr
act
icalchal
l
engef
ort
hepoorr
eader
.A par
t-
ti
mest
udentcan
expect80pagesofr
eadi
ngperweekf
oronecour
se(
War
dem 2005)
,whi
l
eful
l
-ti
me
st
udent
sar
eassi
gnedanav
erageof20pagesoft
ext
bookandout
sider
eadi
ngper
week(
Nist&Di
ehl
,1994)
.Thi
swor
kloadi
ssubst
ant
ialev
enf
ort
heav
eragecol
l
ege
f
reshmenr
eadi
ng263wor
dspermi
nut
e(Car
ver
,1990)
,butmaypr
oveov
erwhel
ming
f
orst
udent
swi
thpar
ti
cul
arl
ysl
owr
eadi
ngr
ates.Somer
esear
chi
ndi
cat
est
hatpoor
r
eader
sar
eabl
etot
ackl
eonl
y133t
o156wor
dspermi
nut
e,l
aggi
ngt
heav
erage
col
l
egef
reshman’
srat
eby100wor
dspermi
nut
e(El
ki
nd,Bl
ack&Mur
ray
,1996;
Sabat
ini
,2002)
.

Thel
i
ter
atur
eregar
dingdecodi
ngandf
luencyst
rat
egi
esf
orcol
l
egest
udent
sis
l
i
mit
ed, t
hough some r
esear
cher
s hav
e not
ed some pot
ent
ial
l
y benef
ici
al
pedagogi
calpr
act
ices.Thest
rat
egi
est
hatf
oll
owhav
eal
lbeenf
iel
d-t
est
edi
ncol
l
ege
cl
asses. I
n addi
ti
on t
oident
if
ying pot
ent
ialst
rat
egi
es f
orsuppor
ti
ng col
l
ege
st
udent
s’decodi
ng and f
luency dev
elopment
,resear
cher
s hav
e al
so not
ed
appr
oachest
hatappeart
obel
esssuccessf
ul.

www.ijrp.org
I
ndependentWor
k:I
n a st
udyof18 communi
tycol
l
egest
udent
senr
oll
ed i
na
5
 Abdulmalik Usman / International Journal of Research Publications (IJRP.ORG)

dev
elopment
alr
eadi
ngcour
se,Kuehner(
1999)f
oundt
hatst
udent
swhocompl
eted
18hour
sofi
ndependentst
udyi
nar
eadi
ngl
abdi
dnotshow gai
nsi
nreadi
ng
compr
ehensi
onorr
eadi
ngr
ate.Par
ti
cipant
sint
hisst
udyr
eadi
ndependent
lyf
rom
t
ext
s,answer
ed a ser
ies ofcompr
ehensi
on quest
ions,and r
ecor
ded t
hei
rown
r
eadi
ngr
ates.Theyal
sousedUl
ti
mat
eReader
,asof
twar
epr
ogr
am f
ori
ncr
easi
ng
r
eadi
ngr
ates.Ther
esul
tsoft
hisst
udywer
erepl
i
cat
edbyf
indi
ngsoft
heNat
ional
Readi
ngPanel(
2000)
,whi
chf
oundt
hatsel
f-
sust
ainedsi
l
entr
eadi
ngdi
dnotseem t
o
i
mpactst
udent
s’r
eadi
ngr
ates.Kuehner(
1999)concl
udedt
hatar
eadi
ngpr
ogr
am,
whet
hert
ext
-orcomput
er-
based,t
hatr
equi
res st
udent
stor
ead passages and
answerquest
ions i
ndependent
ly does notbenef
itst
udent
s,as measur
ed by
st
andar
dizedt
est
s.Thesef
indi
ngssuppor
tthear
gumentt
hati
nst
ruct
ionmat
ter
s.

Text
s wi
th Cue Boundar
ies:
-Resear
ch suggest
sthat st
udent
s wi
thf
luency
chal
l
enges hav
e di
ff
icul
ti
es i
dent
if
ying meani
ngf
ul“
chunks”oft
ext
s,such a
di
sti
ngui
shi
ngdependentphr
asesf
rom i
ndependentcl
auses,andt
hatt
heyst
ruggl
e
wi
thi
dent
if
yingappr
opr
iat
epausepoi
ntsi
nasent
ences(
Chal
l
,1983)
.Inanat
tempt
t
oaddr
esst
hesechal
l
enges,42dev
elopment
alr
eadi
ngst
udent
sinonest
udywer
e
assi
gnedt
oreadei
therunmar
kedt
ext
sort
ext
sinwhi
chsl
ashmar
kswer
eusedt
o
i
ndi
cat
e“cueboundar
ies”demar
cat
ingappr
opr
iat
epausepoi
nts(
Rasi
nski
,1984)
.
Resul
tsshowednodi
ff
erencesbet
weent
het
wogr
oupsoncompr
ehensi
onpost
-
t
est
s,butsi
gni
fi
cant
lysl
owerr
eadi
ngr
atesf
ort
hegr
oupt
hatr
ecei
vedt
ext
swi
th
expl
i
cit
lycued phr
ase boundar
ies (
Rasi
nski
,1984)
.Rasi
nksipr
oposed t
hatt
he
obt
rusi
venessoft
heseboundar
iesmayhav
eint
erf
eredwi
thcompr
ehensi
on.I
nlat
er
wor
kwi
thadol
escentr
eader
s,Rasi
nskiandcol
l
eagues(
2005)f
oundt
hatr
epeat
ed
r
eadi
ngandchor
alr
eadi
ngar
etwost
rat
egi
est
hatbet
terhel
ptodev
elopf
luency
.

SpeedReadi
ngI
nst
ruct
ionandSof
twar
e:-Whi
l
est
udent
smaybet
rai
nedt
oread
r
api
dlybyl
i
mit
ingt
heamountoft
imet
heyf
ixat
eoni
ndi
vi
dualwor
ds,r
esear
ch
suggest
sthatt
her
eisat
rade-
off
.Incr
easedr
eadi
ngr
atesof
tencomeatt
heexpense
ofdecr
easesi
naccur
acyandcompr
ehensi
on(
Just&Car
pent
er,
1984)
.Twost
udi
es
on t
he use of speed-
readi
ng sof
twar
e wi
th communi
ty col
l
ege st
udent
sin
dev
elopment
alr
eadi
ng cl
asses showed no si
gni
fi
cantdi
ff
erences i
n post
-t
est
r
eadi
ngr
atesbet
weenst
udent
swhor
eadonpaperandt
hosewhousedspeed
www.ijrp.org
r
eadi
ngpackages(
Kuehner
,1999;Wepner
,Feel
ey,&Wi
l
de,1989)
.Ey
emov
ement
6
 Abdulmalik Usman / International Journal of Research Publications (IJRP.ORG)

r
esear
chmayhel
pexpl
aint
hesef
indi
ngs.Whi
l
eitwasoncecommonl
yaccept
edt
hat
sl
owey
emov
ement
scausedr
eadi
ngdi
ff
icul
ti
es,
resear
cher
snowknowt
hati
tist
he
di
ff
icul
tyofat
extt
hatdet
ermi
nesar
eader
’sey
emov
ementpat
ter
ns(
Stanov
ich,
1986)
.Whi
l
ereadi
ngsof
twar
epr
ogr
amshav
ecl
ear
lyi
nvol
vedov
ert
hepastdecade,
i
nst
ruct
orsi
nter
est
edi
nusi
ngsucht
echnol
ogyshoul
dcar
eful
l
yresear
chpr
oduct
s
and moni
torst
udentpr
ogr
ess t
o ensur
ethatsof
twar
e pr
ogr
ams ar
e hel
ping
st
udent
sachi
evet
hei
rreadi
nggoal
s.

Recentr
esear
ch,howev
er,hassuggest
edt
hatt
hei
ssueofr
eadi
ngf
luencygoes
bey
ond t
he pr
imar
ygr
ades.Ourown wor
k among st
ruggl
i
ng el
ement
ary
-gr
ade
st
udent
s(gr
ades1-
5)r
efer
eedf
orTi
tl
eIsuppl
ement
aryr
eadi
ngi
nst
ruct
ion(
Tit
leIi
s
aU.
S.f
eder
all
yfundedpr
ogr
am f
oratr
iskst
udent
s)byt
hei
rregul
arcl
assr
oom
t
eacherf
oundt
hatt
hel
ackofr
eadi
ngf
luencyappear
edt
obet
hear
eaofgr
eat
est
i
mpai
rmenti
nreadi
ng(
Rasi
nski&Padak,1998)
.Pi
nnel
letal
.(1995)st
udyoft
he
r
elat
ionshi
p bet
ween or
alr
eadi
ng f
luency and f
our
th gr
ader
s’si
l
entr
eadi
ng
compr
ehensi
onf
oundt
hatnear
lyhal
foft
he1,
000+sampl
eoff
our
th-
gradest
udent
s
hadnoty
etachi
evedami
nimal
lev
elofr
eadi
ngf
luency
.

One hy
pot
hesi
zed expl
anat
ion f
or t
he connect
ion bet
ween f
luency and
compr
ehensi
oncomesf
rom LBer
geandSamauel
’
s(1974)t
heor
yofaut
omat
ici
tyi
n
r
eadi
ng.Accor
dingt
othi
stheor
y,r
eader
swhohav
enoty
etachi
evedaut
omat
ici
tyi
n
wor
drecogni
ti
on(
fl
uency
)mustappl
yasi
gni
fi
cantamountoft
hei
rfi
nit
ecogni
ti
ve
ener
giest
oconsci
ousl
ydecodet
hewor
dst
heyencount
erwhi
l
ereadi
ng.Cogni
ti
ve
at
tent
ionorener
gyt
hatmustbeappl
i
edt
othel
ow-
lev
eldecodi
ngt
askofr
eadi
ngi
s
cogni
ti
veener
gyt
hati
stakenawayf
rom t
hemor
eimpor
tantt
askofcompr
ehendi
ng
t
het
ext
.Hence,
compr
ehensi
oni
snegat
ivel
yaf
fect
edbyar
eader
’sl
ackoff
luency
.

Ourwor
kinauni
ver
sit
yreadi
ngcl
i
nici
ndi
cat
est
hatdi
ff
icul
ti
esi
nreadi
ngf
luencyar
e
mani
fest
edi
nthemaj
ori
tyofst
udent
singr
ades2t
hrough8whoar
eref
err
edf
or
r
eadi
ng di
ff
icul
ti
es.Al
though t
hepr
imar
yreason f
orr
efer
ralmayost
ensi
blybe
di
ff
icul
ti
esi
nreadi
ngcompr
ehensi
on(
especi
all
yamongi
nter
medi
ateandmi
ddl
e-
gr
adest
udent
s),weal
sof
indt
hatal
ackoff
luencyaccompani
est
hedi
ff
icul
ti
esi
n
compr
ehensi
on.Ourcl
i
nicali
nter
vent
ion pr
ogr
am pr
ovi
deswor
kinf
luencyand
www.ijrp.org
compr
ehensi
on,
andf
ort
hemostpar
t,st
udent
smakesi
gni
fi
cantgai
nsi
nbot
har
ea.
7
 Abdulmalik Usman / International Journal of Research Publications (IJRP.ORG)

Fl
uencybey
ondt
heEl
ement
aryGr
ades
Al
thoughf
luencyi
sgener
all
ythoughtofasanel
ement
arygr
adei
ssue,
wewonder
ed
i
ffl
uencycoul
dbest
il
lbeani
ssuei
nther
eadi
ngdi
ff
icul
ti
esexper
iencedbyl
arge
number
sofst
udent
sbey
ondt
heel
ement
arygr
ades.I
npar
ti
cul
ar,mi
ddl
eandhi
gh
schoolst
udent
sfr
om ur
banar
easappeart
oexper
iencemor
edi
ff
icul
tyi
nreadi
ng
t
hanst
udent
sfr
om nonur
banar
eas(
e.g.
,Nat
ionalCent
erf
orEducat
ionalSt
ati
sti
cs,
n.
d.)
.Coul
donesour
ceoft
hei
rdi
ff
icul
ti
esi
nreadi
ngst
em f
rom al
ackofr
eadi
ng
f
luency
?

Toanswert
hisquest
ion,weassessedt
hedecodi
ngaccur
acyadf
luencyl
evel
sofa
l
argegr
oupofni
nth-
gradest
udent
satt
heendoft
heschooly
ear
.Int
hisst
udy
,
f
luencywasdef
ined asst
udent
s’r
eadi
ng r
ate.Al
though r
eadi
ng r
atedoesnot
capt
uret
hef
ullmeani
ngoff
luency
,iti
sconsi
der
edausef
ulandv
ali
dmeasur
eof
f
luency(
Rasi
nsk,
2004)
.Theni
nthgr
ader
sint
hisschool
,whi
chi
spar
tofamoder
ate
-
siz
edur
bandi
str
icti
ntheU.
S.Mi
dwest
,hav
egener
all
yper
for
medpoor
lyont
he
st
atehi
ghschoolgr
aduat
iont
est
s-aser
iesoft
est
sacr
ossi
mpor
tantcont
entar
eas
i
nwhi
chst
udent
sreadadr
espondt
otextpassagest
hatr
efl
ectt
hev
ari
ouscont
ent
domai
ns.Ononedaydur
ingt
hel
astweekoft
heschooly
ear(
June,
2003)wev
isi
ted
t
hehi
ghschoolatwhi
chhal
fot
heschooldi
str
ict
’sf
reshmenwer
eenr
oll
ed.We
sel
ect
edt
hel
astweekoft
heschooly
eart
oensur
ethatt
her
eadi
ngsampl
eswe
obt
ainedr
efl
ect
edt
hemostadv
ancedl
evel
sofr
eadi
ngexhi
bit
edbyst
udent
sdur
ing
t
hey
ear
.Dur
ingt
heday
,wet
est
ed303st
udent
susi
ngaone-mi
nut
ereadi
ngpr
obe,
al
soknownasCur
ri
cul
um-
BasedMeasur
ement(
CBM)i
nreadi
ngorOr
alReadi
ng
Fl
uency(
ORF)Assessment(
Deno,
1985;
Deno,
Mir
kin,
&Chi
ang,
1982;
Mast
on,
1989;
Rasi
nski
,2004)
.Wor
kingi
ndi
vi
dual
l
ywi
thoneofus,
student
sreadani
nth-
gradel
evel
passage,
takenf
rom t
heSecondar
yandCol
l
egeReadi
ngI
nvent
ory(
Johns,
1990)
,for
onemi
nut
e.Al
thoughwer
ecogni
zedt
hatt
hepassagemayhav
ebeenataf
rust
rat
ion
l
evelf
orsomest
udent
s,usi
nggr
ade-
lev
elmat
eri
alsi
stheconv
ent
ionf
orCBM/
ORF
assessment
s(Rasi
nski
).St
udent
swer
easkedt
oreador
all
yint
hei
rnor
malv
oices
andwer
etol
dthatt
heywoul
dbeaskedt
oret
ellwhatt
heyhadr
eadatt
heendoft
he
r
eadi
ng.Dur
ingt
her
eadi
ngwemar
kedanyuncor
rect
eder
ror
sst
udent
smadedur
ing
t
heone-
minut
eper
iod.Weal
soaskedt
hem t
odoaqui
ckr
etel
lofwhatt
heyhadr
ead.
www.ijrp.org
Thepr
imar
ypur
posef
ort
her
etel
l
ingwast
oensur
ethatst
udent
sreadi
nanor
mal
8
 Abdulmalik Usman / International Journal of Research Publications (IJRP.ORG)

manner
-tor
eadf
orunder
standi
ngr
athert
hanspeed.

Thehi
ghschoolatwhi
chwewor
kedwasdi
vi
dedi
ntoi
ndi
vi
dual“
houses”i
nor
dert
o
pr
ovi
dest
udent
swi
thasmal
l
er,mor
eint
imat
elear
ningenv
ironment
.St
udent
swer
e
r
andoml
yassi
gnedatt
hebegi
nni
ngoft
heschooly
eart
ooneoft
hehouses.We
posi
ti
onedour
sel
vesateachhouset
othatr
eadi
ngsampl
esofst
udent
sfr
om al
l
segment
soft
heschoolcoul
dbet
aken.Teacher
swhower
ewi
l
li
ngt
oal
l
ow t
hei
r
st
udent
stol
eav
ecl
assf
orper
iodsofl
esst
hanf
ivemi
nut
espr
ovi
deduswi
th
st
udent
stoassess.Wewer
eassur
edbyt
het
eacher
sandadmi
nist
rat
orsi
nthe
schoolt
hatt
hest
udent
swet
est
edwer
ear
epr
esent
ati
vesampl
eofal
loft
he
st
udent
sint
heschool
.

Fr
om t
heone-
minut
ereadi
ng wewer
eabl
eto det
ermi
neeach st
udent
’swor
d-
r
ecogni
ti
onl
evel
,asmeasur
edbyper
cent
ageofwor
dsr
eadcor
rect
ly,
andr
eadi
ng
f
luency
,asdet
ermi
nedbynumberofwar
dsandcor
rect
lyi
nthet
imeper
iod.Wewer
e
al
so abl
eto obt
ain st
udent
s’per
for
mance scor
es on t
he st
ate hi
gh school
gr
aduat
iont
est
-asi
l
entr
eadi
ngcompr
ehensi
ont
estacr
ossal
lmaj
orsubj
ectar
eas
t
hatt
heyhadt
akenear
li
er.Thehi
ghschoolgr
aduat
iont
estconsi
stsofaser
iesof
passagesr
eadsi
l
ent
ly,andeachpassagei
sfol
l
owedbyasetofcompr
ehensi
on
quest
ions.Thet
esti
sgi
veni
ntheni
nthgr
ade,
andst
udent
sar
erequi
redt
opassi
tin
or
dert
oqual
i
fyf
orahi
ghschooldi
ploma.Basedonourr
eadi
ngassessment
,we
f
oundt
hatt
heend-
of-
they
earni
nthgr
ader
sint
hisur
banschoolr
eadwi
than
av
eragewor
d-r
ecogni
ti
onaccur
acyr
ateof97.
4%(
Standar
ddev
iat
ion=2.
8%)cor
rect
andar
eadi
ngf
luencyr
ateof136.
4(st
andar
ddev
iat
ion=33.
2)wor
dscor
rectper
mi
nut
e,nowj
ustwhatdot
hesescor
esmean?Forwor
drecogni
ti
on,i
tappear
sthat
t
hest
udent
swer
eabl
etodecodewor
dsqui
teaccur
atel
y.

Nor
mal
l
y,a95%wor
d-r
ecogni
ti
onaccur
acyl
eveli
sconsi
der
edt
obeani
nst
ruct
ional
l
evel
.Thus,t
hest
udent
sinoursampl
edi
spl
ayed,onav
erage,st
rongpr
ofi
ciencyi
n
wor
drecogni
ti
on.

Pur
poseoft
heAssessment
Thepur
poseoft
hisassessmenti
stor
evi
ew met
hodst
hatpr
oducepr
oduct
ive
www.ijrp.org
r
esul
tsf
orESLr
eader
s.Thesepr
act
icalst
rat
egi
eshav
epr
ovent
ohav
eposi
ti
ve
9
 Abdulmalik Usman / International Journal of Research Publications (IJRP.ORG)

r
esul
tsi
ncl
assr
oom set
ti
ngs.

Asecondgr
adeESLr
eadi
ngcl
asswasi
nsmal
lgr
oupsoff
ivet
osi
xchi
l
dren.One
gr
oupwaswi
tht
het
eacher
,thenextgr
oupwaswor
kingonaski
l
lfort
hedayatt
hei
r
seat
sandt
het
hir
dgr
oupwasi
nsmal
l
ergr
oupsoft
wosi
ncent
ersf
ocusi
ngy
eton
anot
herr
eadi
ng ski
l
ls.Theyt
ookappr
oxi
mat
ely40 mi
nut
esi
neachgr
oup.t
he
gr
oupswer
efl
exi
blygr
ouped.Eachgr
ouphadanamet
hatr
elat
edt
oast
oryel
ement
–onecal
l
ed,‘
Mai
nIdea’
,anot
hercal
l
ed,Char
act
er’
,andt
het
hir
dcal
l
ed,‘
Set
ti
ng’
.
Si
ncet
hechi
l
drenheart
het
ermsal
lyearl
ong,t
henl
ateri
nthey
earwhent
heyar
e
doi
ngapl
ay,orwhenwr
it
ingbegi
ns,t
hest
udent
shav
eal
readyest
abl
i
shedt
hata
st
oryi
scomposedusi
ngal
loft
heseel
ement
s.

Successf
ulSt
rat
egi
esandWay
stoConnectwi
thSt
udent
s
St
rat
egi
esl
ear
nedf
rom 21y
ear
soft
eachi
ngandpr
act
ici
ng,exper
iment
ing,bei
ng
consi
stent
,anddi
scov
eri
ngway
stoconnectt
othest
udent
’sev
ery
dayappl
i
cat
ion
hav
epr
ovent
obesuccessf
ul.Goal
sforeachst
udent
sbyt
heendoft
hey
earar
efor
hi
m/hernotonl
ytocompr
ehendwhatt
heyr
eadbutt
oreadf
luent
lyov
er(
60+)wor
ds
ami
nut
efast
ert
hanwhenhe/
shef
ir
stwal
kedi
ntot
her
oom.

Thegoali
sforst
udent
stounder
standt
hev
ocabul
aryf
rom t
hef
ir
stdayofr
eadi
ng
eachnew st
ory
,notonl
ythecor
rectpr
onunci
ati
onbutal
sot
het
ruemeani
ngofi
t.
Twopar
tsoft
hewor
dsar
epr
int
edonasent
encest
ri
p.Thef
ir
stpar
tist
hewor
dto
ber
ecogni
zed.Thesecondpar
tist
hemeani
ng.Af
termuchdi
scussi
onoft
hewor
d
andt
hesy
ll
abl
es,shor
t,l
ongv
owel
,bl
ends,usi
ngi
tinasent
ence,et
c.t
hent
he
st
udent
sar
easked,“
whi
chmeani
ngdoy
out
hinkt
hewor
dis?t
his,accor
dingt
othe
r
esear
ch,ar
ethear
easoft
her
eadi
ngpr
ocesswher
elear
ner
s’f
luencyi
sdi
agnosed
“
(l
ett
er,sy
ll
abl
e,wor
d,phr
ase,sent
ence,and/
orpar
agr
aph r
eadi
ng)l
eads t
o
i
ncr
easesi
nreadi
ngachi
evementf
orbegi
nni
ngr
eader
s”(
p4)i
n“Resear
ch-
Based
Pr
inci
ples f
or Adul
t Basi
c Educat
ion Readi
ng I
nst
ruct
ion”
,Nat
ionalFl
uency
Gov
ernmentPar
tner
shi
pforReadi
ngf
rom 2007.Af
tert
hispr
ocess,t
hest
orybegi
ns
wi
theachchi
l
dtaki
ngat
urnr
eadi
ngt
hepassageonepageatat
ime.Thet
eacher
asksr
elev
ant
,compr
ehensi
vequest
ionsaseachpagei
sread.

www.ijrp.org
Theseconddayt
hest
udent
smayt
aket
urnsandaskeachot
hercompr
ehensi
on
10
 Abdulmalik Usman / International Journal of Research Publications (IJRP.ORG)

quest
ions,dependi
ngont
hepassagel
engt
h.Al
ongwi
tht
his,t
hest
udent
smaybe
askedquest
ionsusi
ngagr
aphi
cor
gani
zert
oconv
eyt
hepl
ot,char
act
eranal
ysi
s,
st
oryel
ement
s,et
c.t
oenabl
ethem t
ocompr
ehendt
hest
ory
.

Thet
hir
ddayt
hest
oryi
sreadagai
n,t
hist
imei
npai
redr
eadi
ngusi
ngst
and-
upf
older
di
vi
der
ssoasnott
omakei
tacompet
it
ionf
oreachpai
r.Dur
ingt
her
eadi
ng,t
he
par
tnermayhel
ptheonewhoi
sreadi
ng,
andt
het
eacherl
i
stenst
odi
ff
erentgr
oups.
Af
tert
heyf
ini
shr
eadi
ng,t
hest
udent
shav
esmal
lhand-
hel
dcar
dst
oaskeachot
her
manyquest
ions.Theycomef
rom t
heReadi
ngAcademyf
orsecondgr
ade.Theyar
e
quest
ionssuchas:Whatdi
dyoul
i
kemostaboutt
hest
ory
?Whatnewwor
dsdi
dyou
l
ear
n?Whatwast
hemai
nideaoft
hest
ory
?,et
c.Af
tert
aki
ngupt
hedi
vi
der
sand
smal
lcar
dst
her
eshoul
dbemuchdi
scussi
onont
hesummar
yoft
hest
ory
.Theyar
e
asked,“
Ify
ourmom asksy
ou,‘
whatdi
dyour
eadt
odayi
ncl
ass?
’shewoul
dgeta
v
erygoodi
deaoft
hechar
act
ers,set
ti
ng,pl
ot,
’al
i
ttl
edet
ail
,andmai
nideaoft
he
st
oryy
ouj
ustr
ead.Whent
hey“
tal
k”i
tout
,thet
eacherwr
it
esi
tonasmal
lwhi
te
boar
d,ast
heyt
ell
herwhatt
ookpl
ace.

Thet
eachergi
veseachchi
l
dasmal
lhand-
hel
dcar
dfort
hem t
osee,
asi
tisst
rat
egy
f
ort
ell
i
ngt
hesummar
y.I
treads(
ont
hecar
d):
someone…want
ed….
.so….
.but
….t
hen….
.
t
hisgi
vesaskel
etont
othet
hingsneededt
oconnectt
hei
mpor
tanthappeni
ngst
o
t
hest
ory
.Byt
hemi
ddl
eoft
heschooly
ear
,theyar
ewr
it
ingf
ullsent
encesoft
he
summar
yont
hei
rown.

Thef
our
thday
,thest
udent
sreadt
hest
oryandl
i
stent
oanaccompany
ingt
ape.They
l
i
stent
othet
apet
hef
ir
stt
imear
oundi
nthei
rsmal
lgr
oup,
andt
hesecondt
imet
hey
r
eadone-
on-
onewi
tht
het
aper
eader
.Ift
heybegi
ntobebehi
ndt
hepaceoft
he
per
sonr
eadi
ng,t
het
apemaybest
oppedandt
heyar
etodoi
tov
eragai
naswel
las
f
oll
owal
ongwi
tht
hei
rfi
ngert
ogett
hei
rey
esmov
ingf
ast
eral
ongt
hepage.I
ndoi
ng
t
his,t
heygetaccust
omedt
othecor
rectf
luencyweekaf
terweekal
ongwi
tht
he
cor
recti
nfl
ect
ionoft
hev
oices.Thest
udent
smi
ghtt
ovowelconnect
ionwor
kint
hei
r
r
eadi
ng j
our
nal
s.Thi
s mi
ghtbe bl
ends,sound a l
i
kes,pr
efi
xes,r
ootwor
ds,
compar
isonsofsoundset
c.Ast
heweeksgobet
hest
udent
shav
ebegunt
obeon
t
hei
rwayt
obet
terf
luency
.
www.ijrp.org

11
 Abdulmalik Usman / International Journal of Research Publications (IJRP.ORG)

Theassessmentr
efer
stot
heK-
6.Resear
ch:“
theNRPr
evi
ewofr
esear
chr
elat
edon
phoni
csi
nst
ruct
ionf
oundt
hatchi
l
dren’
sreadi
ngf
luencyi
mpr
oveswhent
heyar
e
t
aughtdecodi
ng usi
ng sy
stemat
ic appr
oaches t
o phoni
cs i
nst
ruct
ion”(
p65)i
n
“
Resear
ch-
BasedPr
inci
plesf
orAdul
tBasi
cEducat
ionReadi
ngI
nst
ruct
ion”
,Nat
ional
Fl
uencyGov
ernmentPar
tner
shi
pforReadi
ng.

Byt
hef
if
thday
,theyar
ethr
oughwi
tht
hei
rst
ory
,andt
heywi
l
ldoahol
i
sti
cappr
oach
f
rom t
her
eadi
ngt
owr
it
ing.Thest
udent
smi
ghtwr
it
epoemsonf
alll
eav
est
hatt
hey
hav
ejustr
eadi
nthest
orybookaboutHenr
yandMudge.Theywr
it
efal
lpoemswi
th
t
hei
ruse ofdescr
ipt
ive wor
ds aboutt
he br
il
li
ant
,col
our
fulf
alll
eav
es,usi
ng
adj
ect
ives,nouns,v
ivi
dver
bs,andpr
eposi
ti
onalphr
ases.Per
hapst
heyr
eadabouta
par
k,sot
heywi
l
lcr
eat
ivel
ywr
it
eaboutt
hedayt
heywentt
oapar
k.Si
ncet
heyar
e
l
ear
ningaboutt
hecompassr
osei
nsoci
alst
udi
es,notonl
ywi
l
ltheydr
awt
hei
rver
y
ownpar
kusi
ngN-
S-E-
W andakeymapshowi
ngwher
eev
ery
thi
ngi
sbutt
heywi
l
l
wr
it
eanar
rat
iveaboutal
ltheact
ivi
ti
est
heydi
dusi
ngdescr
ipt
ivewor
dsi
nthei
r
st
ori
es.Theyhav
ewor
dst
heycan“
grabont
o”t
hatt
heyhav
ebeenbr
ainst
ormed,
wor
dst
heyhav
eseen,smel
l
ed,hear
d,(
usi
ngonomat
opoei
awor
ds)
,fel
t,et
c.t
hei
r
st
ori
eshav
eset
ti
ngs,char
act
ers,pl
aces(
whi
chbr
ingsi
npr
opernouns)
,thi
ngst
hey
di
dwi
themphasi
sont
hei
rfeel
i
ngs,et
c.Thenextappr
oachwoul
dbei
nwr
it
ing
nar
rat
ivesusi
ngquot
es.Thi
swayt
heywi
l
lhav
esomecommuni
cat
iongoi
ngon
usi
ng“
sai
d”wor
ds.I
tisencour
agedf
ort
hem t
ouset
he“
sai
d”wor
dsonl
yonceand
chooseanyot
hersy
nony
msoft
hesai
dwor
ds(
ofabout50)t
hatar
ehangi
ngona
post
erboar
dal
lyearl
ong.Goi
ngr
ightal
ongwi
thwhatSuzanneRei
dsai
dint
hebook
-
BookBr
idgesf
orESLSt
udent
s.“
….pr
ovi
deoppor
tuni
ti
esf
orst
udent
stopr
act
ice.
Engl
i
sh-
pusht
hem gent
lyt
ospeak,
read,
copy
,wr
it
e,ask,
respond,
answer
,compar
e,
cont
rastandev
encompl
ain”(
p6)BookBr
idgesf
orESLst
udent
s2002-
2004.

Anot
heri
mpor
tantst
rat
egyi
shomewor
k,whi
chi
sgi
vent
othem onceaweekal
lyear
l
ong.Take-
Home-
Reader
sthatgoal
ongwi
tht
hest
oryr
eaddur
ingt
heweek.I
tisnot
t
hesamest
ory
,butt
hekeepwor
dsar
ethesame.I
tiscopi
edof
ffort
hem each
Monday
,andt
heyar
etogr
idt
het
imei
ttookt
hem t
oreadi
tonMondayofeachweek.
Al
ongwi
tht
his,
thepar
enti
stosi
gnof
feacht
imet
heyr
eadev
eryday
.Thef
ir
stt
ime
onMondayt
heyhav
etot
imei
t,andt
hent
hel
astt
imeonThur
sdayt
heyhav
etot
ime
www.ijrp.org
i
t.Eachdayt
hest
udenti
stor
eadt
went
ymi
nut
esofsel
ect
edTake-
Homer
eader
s.
12
 Abdulmalik Usman / International Journal of Research Publications (IJRP.ORG)

Theycanr
eadot
herbooksont
hesi
dei
ftheysodesi
resuchasl
i
brar
ybooks,
books
t
heyhav
eathomeet
c.howev
er,t
hemai
npur
posei
nthi
sexer
cisei
sfort
hem t
o
compet
eagai
nstt
hemsel
ves.Thi
shast
obeemphasi
zed,
asi
ttakest
hepr
essur
eof
f
wi
nni
ngorl
osi
ng.Thet
eachert
henf
oll
owsupbyl
ooki
ngatt
hegr
idev
eryFr
idayand
congr
atul
ati
ngt
hem f
ort
ryi
ngori
mpr
ovi
ng.Theywi
l
lhav
eabout36smal
lTake-
Home-
Reader
sfort
hesummert
oread,t
oo!Theyar
etokeept
her
eader
sinav
ery
speci
alpl
acesot
heycanhav
ethesebooksf
ort
hei
rver
yownandr
eadt
hem agai
n
andagai
nwhenev
ert
heywant
.

I
nther
esear
ched-
basedpr
inci
plesf
orAdul
tBasi
cEducat
ionReadi
ngI
nst
ruct
iont
he
aut
horemphasi
zef
luency
:“t
her
epeat
edr
eadi
ngofpassagesoft
ext
,wor
dsf
rom
t
extandot
hert
extuni
ts”ar
eal
lused.“
Sev
eral
studi
eshav
eusedr
epeat
edr
eadi
ngt
o
i
mpr
ovest
udentf
luency
.St
udent
sreadt
hesamet
extsev
eralt
imesunt
ilt
heyar
e
abl
etor
eadi
trapi
dlyandaccur
atel
y”(
p7)“
Resear
ch-
BasedPr
inci
plesf
orAdul
tBasi
c
Educat
ion Readi
ng I
nst
ruct
ion”
,Nat
ionalFl
uency Gov
ernmentPar
tner
shi
pfor
Readi
ng.Ther
esear
chf
rom K-
12l
evelf
oundt
hat“
procedur
est
hathav
est
udent
s
r
eadi
ngpassagesor
all
ymul
ti
plet
imeswhi
l
erecei
vi
nggui
danceorf
eedbackf
rom
peer
s,par
ent
s,ort
eacher
sar
eef
fect
ivei
nimpr
ovi
ngav
ari
etyofr
eadi
ngski
l
ls”
.In
t
hesamest
atementi
tteacher
sar
eef
fect
ivei
nimpr
ovi
ngav
ari
etyofr
eadi
ngski
l
ls”
.
I
nthesamest
atementi
treads:Manypr
ocedur
es,suchasr
epeat
edr
eadi
ng(
wit
h
andwi
thoutf
eedback)
.Pai
redr
eadi
ng,shar
edr
eadi
ng,andcol
l
abor
ati
veorassi
sted
or
alr
eadi
ng,seem t
o be ef
fect
ive”
.Thi
sresear
ch st
ates:t
he NRP r
evi
ew of
pr
ocedur
essuchasSust
ainedSi
l
entReadi
ngandot
her
sthatencour
agest
udent
sto
r
eadmor
e(andt
husper
hapsdev
elopt
hei
rreadi
ngf
luency
)doesnotf
indt
hatt
hese
appr
oaches ar
e ef
fect
ivei
nimpr
ovi
ng st
udent
s’r
eadi
ng”(
p8)“
Resear
ch-
Based
Pr
inci
ples f
or Adul
t Basi
c Educat
ion Readi
ng I
nst
ruct
ion” Nat
ional Fl
uency
Gov
ernmentPar
tner
shi
pforReadi
ng.

Onemor
ethi
ngt
hati
saddedt
hroughoutt
hey
eart
othef
luencyi
s“Reader
’st
heat
er”
Thet
eacherf
ir
str
eadsi
ttoeachr
eadi
nggr
oupt
ogett
hef
eel
,mai
nidea,ener
gy,
v
oiceofdi
ff
erentchar
act
ers,andv
isual
i
zest
hepl
ayi
tsel
f.Thenextdayt
hepl
ayi
s
r
eadt
oget
her
,andt
het
hir
ddayt
heychoosewhi
chchar
act
ert
heywantt
oread.Two
ort
hreest
udent
scanbechosenf
ort
hesamechar
act
er.Thei
mpor
tantpar
toft
hisi
s
www.ijrp.org
t
ohav
ethem geti
ntot
hepl
aywher
etheydon’
tfeel
thel
eastbi
tint
imi
dat
ed,
andt
hey
13
 Abdulmalik Usman / International Journal of Research Publications (IJRP.ORG)

f
eel
comf
ort
abl
e.Lat
er,
theyr
eadt
hewhol
epl
ayt
othemsel
ves,
pract
icepeerr
eadi
ng,
andev
ent
ual
l
ytheyal
lreadasonebi
ggr
oup.Thepl
ayst
art
stot
aket
hem.t
he
char
act
ersar
echosenf
ort
hepar
ts,t
hecuesar
elear
ned,pr
oject
ionofv
oicei
s-
pr
act
ices,t
hechar
act
er’
semot
ionsar
erehear
sed,Theset
ti
ngorseenei
sset
,the
makeupi
scr
eat
ed,cost
umedar
epr
epar
edi
fneeded,t
hest
udent
smemor
izet
he
pl
ay,andf
inal
l
yiti
sti
mef
ort
heper
for
mance.Al
linal
l
,itt
akesal
i
ttl
eov
ert
wo
weekst
oper
fect
.Somet
imest
heywi
l
lev
encr
eat
eapl
aybi
l
lwi
tht
hesummar
y,
char
act
er’
snames,andal
i
ttl
eaboutt
hedi
rect
or.Thepar
ent
sar
einv
itedaswel
las
gr
andpar
ent
s,aunt
s,anduncl
es.Att
imest
heywi
l
linv
itepr
inci
pal
s,t
eacher
s,and
st
udent
sofdi
ff
erentcl
assest
obet
heaudi
ence.

Asanext
ensi
onoft
hepl
ay,f
orexampl
e,JohnnyAppl
eased,t
hecl
asscanwr
it
ein
l
ett
erf
ormatt
oadi
stantr
elat
iveofhi
sandaskquest
ionst
heymi
ghtst
il
lhav
e
concer
ningt
hechar
act
er,
wri
tewhatt
heyl
i
kedabouthi
m orwhatt
heyl
ear
ned.They
hav
eext
endedt
hepl
aybygener
ati
ngt
heconceptofat
imel
i
neusi
ngt
hemai
n
ev
ent
sofJohn’
sli
fe.Theel
abor
ati
onofhi
sli
fei
sgi
veni
nful
ldet
ail
soft
hei
r
r
eadi
ngsandbr
ingsf
ort
hri
chwr
it
ings.Thi
sgoesr
ightal
ongwi
thSuzanneRei
d’s
bookasshehassai
d,“
…ti
mel
i
neofmanev
ent
sthatl
edupt
o(anexampl
e)
Amer
icanRev
olut
iongi
vi
ngf
ulldet
ail
sbyt
her
eadi
ngs–t
hent
akeupwhatt
heysay
andcl
ari
fybyusi
ngpi
ctur
es”
-gi
vi
ngt
imef
orspeechandwr
it
easmuchaspossi
ble
(
p9)SuzanneE.Rei
d’
sBookBr
idgesf
orESLSt
udent
s2002-
2004.

Att
heendoft
heschooly
ear
,ast
oryi
stakenei
therf
rom soci
alst
udi
es,ar
eadi
ng
book,
andt
hest
udent
sor
igi
nat
ethei
rownpl
ayf
rom t
her
eadi
ngs.Theyheart
heend
f
ornar
rat
or,t
hesoundef
fect
susi
ngonomat
opoei
awor
ds,t
hechar
act
ersandwhat
t
heyshoul
dsay
,thepr
opsf
oraset
ti
ngorscene,
thecl
othi
ng,
etc.Thi
swayt
heycan
dosomet
hingt
hati
sbot
hfunandcr
eat
ive,
int
hepur
sui
tofr
eadi
ngf
luencyov
ert
he
summer
,wi
tht
hei
rfr
iendsandr
elat
ives.

PhasesofDev
elopmenti
nLear
ningt
oReadbyAdul
ts
Oneoft
hegr
eatmy
ster
iesconf
ront
ingl
i
ter
acyr
esear
cher
sishow mat
urer
eader
s
ar
eabl
etor
eadwr
it
tenmat
eri
alssor
api
dlyandf
luent
lyy
etwi
thf
ullcompr
ehensi
on
(
Adams,
1990;Bar
ron,
1986;Chal
l
,1983;Per
fet
ti
,1998;Ray
nerandPol
l
atsek,
1989)
.
www.ijrp.org
Acapabi
l
ityt
hathaspr
ovencent
rali
nexpl
aini
ngt
hisf
eati
stheabi
l
ityt
oreadsi
ngl
e
14
 Abdulmalik Usman / International Journal of Research Publications (IJRP.ORG)

wor
dsr
api
dlyandaut
omat
ical
l
ybysi
ght(
LaBer
geandSamuel
s,1974)
.Reader
sar
e
abl
etol
ookatawor
dandi
mmedi
atel
yrecogni
zei
tsmeani
ngwi
thoutexpendi
ngany
ef
for
tdecodi
ngt
hewor
d.Mor
eov
er,si
ghtoft
hewor
dtr
igger
srecogni
ti
ondespi
te
r
eader
s’i
ntent
iont
oignor
ethewor
d(Gut
tent
agandHai
th,1978)
.Amaj
ort
askf
or
r
esear
cher
shasbeent
oexpl
ainhowbegi
nner
sacqui
ret
heabi
l
ityt
orecogni
zesi
ght
wor
dsr
api
dlyandaut
omat
ical
l
y.

Ther
ear
eot
herway
sthatwor
dsmi
ghtber
ead,
butt
hesear
eusedmai
nlyf
orwor
ds
notknownbysi
ght(
Ehr
i,1991,1994)
.Decodi
ngorphonol
ogi
calr
ecodi
ngr
efer
sto
t
hepr
ocessoft
ransf
ormi
nggr
aphemesi
ntophonemesandbl
endi
ngt
hephonemes
i
ntopr
onunci
ati
ons.Readi
ngbyanal
ogyr
efer
stot
hepr
ocessofusi
ngknownsi
ght
wor
dst
oreadunknownwor
dst
hatshar
elet
ter
s,f
orexampl
e,r
eadi
ngBLI
GHTby
anal
ogyt
oNI
GHT(
Cunni
ngham,1976;GoswamiandBr
yant
,1990;Mar
shetal
.
,
1981)
.Readi
ngbypr
edi
cti
ngr
efer
stot
hepr
ocessofgener
ati
ngeducat
edguesses
aboutwor
dsbasedoncont
extcuesori
nit
iall
ett
ersorbot
h(Goodman,1976)
.
Al
thought
heseot
hermeansofr
eadi
ngwor
dsar
eav
ail
abl
etor
eader
s,si
ghtwor
ds
r
eadi
ngi
sinv
okedt
hemostbecauset
hispr
ocessi
sfastandaut
omat
ic.

I
tisi
mpor
tantt
odi
spelwor
dsar
ereadbysi
ght
.Iti
snott
ruet
hatonl
yir
regul
arl
y
spel
l
ed wor
dsar
eread bysi
ght
.Rat
heral
lwor
ds,ev
eneasi
l
ydecoded wor
ds,
becomesi
ghtwor
dsoncet
heyhav
ebeenr
eadsev
eralt
imes.Al
so,
iti
snott
ruet
hat
si
ghtwor
dsr
eadi
ngr
efer
stot
hef
lashcar
dmet
hodoft
eachi
ngst
udent
stor
ead
wor
ds.Si
ghtwor
dreadi
ngr
efer
snott
oamet
hodoft
eachi
ngr
eadi
ngbutt
othe
pr
ocessofr
eadi
ng wor
dsbyaccessi
ng t
hem i
n memor
y(Ehr
i,1992)
.Anot
her
mi
sconcept
ioni
sthatsi
ghtwor
dsl
ear
ningi
nvol
vesmemor
izi
ngt
heshapesofwor
ds
orot
herv
isualf
eat
uresandhasnot
hingt
odowi
thl
ett
er-
soundcor
respondences.
Thi
sisnott
rue.Ther
esear
chwehav
econduct
edov
ert
hey
ear
s.

PhasesofSi
ghtWor
dDev
elopment
Rev
eal
sthatmat
uref
ormsofsi
ghtwor
dleani
ngar
eal
phabet
icandphonol
ogi
calat
r
oot(
Ehr
i,1978,
1980,
1984,
1987,
1992)
.

Basi
cal
l
y,si
ghtwor
dsar
ewor
dst
hatr
eader
shav
ereadaccur
atel
ysev
eralt
imes.
www.ijrp.org
Reader
srecogni
zet
hewor
dsbyr
emember
inghow t
heywer
ereadpr
evi
ousl
y.The
15
 Abdulmalik Usman / International Journal of Research Publications (IJRP.ORG)

t
erm‘
si
ght
’indi
cat
est
hatsi
ghtoft
hewor
dtr
igger
sthatwor
dinmemor
y,i
ncl
udi
ng
i
nfor
mat
ion abouti
tsspel
l
ing,pr
onunci
ati
on and meani
ng.How t
o expl
aint
his
capabi
l
ityi
snoteasy
.anadequat
eaccountmustexpl
ainhow r
eader
sar
eabl
eto
l
ookatspeci
fi
cpr
int
edwor
dst
heyhav
ereadbef
oreandi
mmedi
atel
ylocat
ethei
r
pr
onunci
ati
onsandmeani
ngsi
nmemor
ywhi
l
eby
passi
ngt
housandsofot
herwor
ds,
i
ncl
udi
ngt
hosewi
thv
erysi
mil
arspel
l
ingsormeani
ngs(
Ehr
i,1992)
.Mor
eov
er,an
adequat
eexpl
anat
ionmustcov
erhowr
eader
sar
eabl
etost
oreandr
emembernew
wor
dseasi
l
yaf
terv
eryf
ewencount
ersr
eadi
ngt
hewor
ds(
Ehr
i,1980;
Rei
tsma,
1983)
.
Theki
ndofpr
ocesst
houghtt
obeatt
hehear
tofsi
ghtwor
dsl
eani
ngi
saconnect
ion-
f
ormi
ngpr
ocess.Connect
ionsar
efor
medt
hatl
i
nkt
hewr
it
tenf
ormsofwor
dst
o
t
hei
rpr
onunci
ati
onsandmeani
ngs.Thi
sinf
ormat
ioni
sst
oredi
nther
eader
’swor
d
memor
ybankorl
exi
con.

I
nst
udy
ingt
hecour
seofdev
elopmentofsi
ghtwor
dlear
ning,wehav
efoundt
hat
di
ff
erentt
ypesofconnect
ionspr
edomi
nat
eatdi
ff
erentpoi
ntsi
ndev
elopment(
Ehr
i,
1991,1994)
.Si
ghtwor
dsl
ear
ningbegi
nsasanon-
alphabet
icpr
ocessi
nvol
vi
ng
memor
yforconnect
ionsbet
ween l
ett
ersi
n wr
it
ten wor
dsand soundsi
nthei
r
pr
onunci
ati
ons.Atf
ir
stconnect
ionsar
epar
ti
al,l
i
nki
ngt
hemostsal
i
entl
ett
erst
o
sounds.Whenr
eader
sacqui
ref
ullknowl
edgeoft
heal
phabet
icsy
stem,compl
ete
connect
ionscanbef
ormedbet
weengr
aphemesi
nspel
l
ingsandphonemesi
nthe
pr
onunci
ati
onofwor
ds.Assi
ghtwor
dsaccumul
atei
nmemor
yinf
ull
yanal
yzed
f
orms,l
ett
erpat
ter
nsr
ecur
ri
ngi
ndi
ff
erentwor
dsbecomeconsol
i
dat
edi
ntomul
ti
-
l
ett
eruni
tssy
mbol
i
zingphonol
ogi
calbl
ends.Al
phabet
icconnect
ionsl
i
nki
ngal
lof
t
hel
ett
ersi
nspel
l
ingst
othei
rpr
onunci
ati
onsenabl
emat
urer
eader
stor
epr
esent
t
housands of wor
ds uni
quel
yin t
hei
r ment
all
exi
cons and t
o l
ocat
ethe
pr
onunci
ati
onsandmeani
ngsoft
hesewor
dsaccur
atel
yandaut
omat
ical
l
yupon
seei
ngt
hem i
npr
int(
Ehr
i,1980,
1984,
1987,
1992;
Per
fet
ti
,1992)
.

Tocapt
uret
hechangest
hatoccuri
nthedev
elopmentofsi
ghtwor
dsr
eadi
ngIhav
e
di
sti
ngui
shedf
ourphaseschar
act
eri
zedbyt
hei
nvol
vementoft
heal
phabet
icsy
stem.
Thi
ssy
stem r
epr
esent
sther
egul
ari
ti
est
hatunder
li
ethewr
it
tenf
ormsofEngl
i
sh
wor
dsandt
hatal
llear
ner
smusti
nter
nal
i
zei
nor
dert
obui
l
daf
ull
yfunct
ioni
ngsi
ght
v
ocabul
ary
.Thet
erm‘
al
phabet
ic’i
ndi
cat
esnotsi
mpl
ythatwor
dsconsi
stofl
ett
ers
www.ijrp.org
butt
hatt
hel
ett
ersf
unct
ionassy
mbol
sforphonemesandphonemebl
endsi
nthe
16
 Abdulmalik Usman / International Journal of Research Publications (IJRP.ORG)

wor
ds.Thef
ourphasesar
e:pr
e-al
phabet
ic,par
ti
alal
phabet
ic,f
ullal
phabet
ic,and
consol
i
dat
edal
phabet
ic.Eachphasei
slabel
edt
oref
lectt
hepr
e-domi
nantt
ypeof
connect
iont
hatl
i
nkst
hewr
it
tenf
ormsofsi
ghwor
dst
othei
rpr
onunci
ati
onsand
meani
ngsi
nmemor
y.

Youmaybemor
efami
l
iarwi
thot
hert
ermsr
efer
ri
ngt
othef
ir
standf
our
thphases,
basedonFr
it
h’sst
aget
heor
y(1985)
:logogr
aphi
crat
hert
hanpr
e-al
phabet
ic,and
or
thogr
aphi
crat
hert
han consol
i
dat
ed al
phabet
ic.Sev
eralr
easons necessi
tat
ed
r
epl
aci
ngFr
it
h’sl
abel
s.Anumberofr
esear
cher
sincl
udi
ngPhi
l
ipGoughandConni
e
Juel(
per
sonalCommuni
cat
ion)consi
dert
het
erm‘
l
ogogr
aphi
c’t
obemi
sleadi
ng
becausebegi
nner
sint
hef
ir
stphasedonotr
eadwor
dsl
i
kemat
urer
eader
sof
l
ogogr
aphi
cor
thogr
aphi
essuchasChi
nese.Wher
easbegi
nner
sremembersel
ect
ed
v
isualcuest
oreadsi
ghtwor
ds,t
ruel
ogogr
aphi
creader
sremembersi
ghtwor
dsas
anal
yzed Gest
alt
s.The t
erm ‘
Ort
hogr
aphi
c’i
srepl
aced because a v
ari
ety of
meani
ngshav
ebeeni
mposedoni
tbyr
esear
cher
s,hencer
ender
ingt
het
ermt
oo
gener
alandambi
guous.Myt
ermi
smor
epr
eci
seandmakesexpl
i
citt
hef
actt
hat
pr
ocessi
ngcont
inuest
obeal
phabet
icbuti
nvol
vesconsol
i
dat
ingl
ett
ersi
ntol
arger
uni
tsi
ncont
rastt
opr
evi
ousphases.

Obj
ect
ivesoft
heSt
udy
- Toassesst
hear
eaofdi
ff
icul
ti
esf
acedbyESLAdul
tlear
ner
sinr
eadi
ng
Engl
i
shl
anguaget
ext
.
- I
dent
if
ythel
evel
ofpr
ofi
ciencyofESLl
ear
ner
sinr
eadi
ngEngl
i
shl
anguage.
- Toanal
yseESLl
ear
ner
sper
cept
iononr
eadi
ngEngl
i
sht
ext
.

Met
hodol
ogy
The st
udy adopt
ed descr
ipt
ive sur
vey r
esear
ch desi
gn whi
ch accor
ding t
o
Cr
eswel
l
(2012)i
sapr
ocedur
eofdescr
ibi
ngapar
ti
cul
arphenomenon.At
otalof50
ESLl
ear
ner
swer
esel
ect
edoutof110st
udent
sfr
om Gener
alSt
udi
esofAbubakar
Tat
ariAl
iPol
ytechni
cBauchiwhower
eunder
taki
ngEngl
i
shCommuni
cat
ionSki
l
ls.
Thi
sfi
gur
erepr
esent
s40%andaccor
dingt
oCr
eswel
l(2012)whent
hepopul
ati
oni
s
notl
arge40%coul
dbesel
ect
edt
orepr
esentt
hewhol
e.Quest
ionnai
reandReadi
ng
Al
oud pr
ocesswer
eused asa r
esear
ch i
nst
rument
sto el
i
citt
hedat
a.I
twas
www.ijrp.org
desi
gnedbasedont
heobj
ect
ivesoft
hest
udyandadmi
nist
eredt
other
espondent
s.
17
 Abdulmalik Usman / International Journal of Research Publications (IJRP.ORG)

Thedat
acol
l
ect
edwer
eanal
yzedusi
ngsi
mpl
eper
cent
ageandf
requency
.

Dat
aAnal
ysi
s

Tabl
e1Di
ff
icul
ti
esf
acedbyl
ear
ner
sinr
eadi
ngEngl
i
sht
ext
.
Responses Fr
equency Per
cent
age

Fearofmi
stakes 10 20%

Fearofaudi
ence 16 32%

Poorf
oundat
ion 20 40%

LackofConf
idence 4 8%

Tot
al 50 100%

Ther
ear
efourdi
ff
icul
ti
esf
acedbyt
her
espondent
sinr
eadi
ngEngl
i
sh.Thet
abl
e
abov
e shows t
hat40% ar
efaced wi
tht
he chal
l
enge ofpoorf
oundat
ion,32%
i
ndi
cat
esf
earofcol
l
eaguest
olaughatt
hem,20% ar
eaf
rai
dofmaki
ngmi
stakes
whi
l
e5%denot
esl
ackofconf
idence.

Tabl
e2Di
ff
icul
ti
esf
acedbyl
ear
ner
sinl
ear
ningEngl
i
sh.
Responses Fr
equency Per
cent
age

I
nabi
l
ityt
opr
onouncecer
tai
nwor
k 20 40%

Lackofunder
standi
ngofnewwor
ds 16 32%

Di
ff
icul
ti
esi
ncompr
ehendi
ngnewwor
ds 14 28%

Tot
al 50 100%

Thet
abl
eabov
eindi
cat
est
hat20% oft
her
espondent
swhor
epr
esent40% hav
e
di
ff
icul
ti
esi
npr
onounci
ngcer
tai
nwor
dsespeci
all
ythosewi
thsi
l
entl
ett
erssuchas:
debtcombandpl
umber32% i
ndi
cat
esl
ackofunder
standi
ngofnew wor
dswhi
l
e
14%f
indi
tdi
ff
icul
ttocompr
ehendnewwor
ds. www.ijrp.org

18
 Abdulmalik Usman / International Journal of Research Publications (IJRP.ORG)

Tabl
e3Lev
elofPr
ofi
ciencyofLear
nersi
nReadi
ng.
Responses Fr
equency Per
cent
age

Fl
uent 13 22%

Notf
luent 47 78%

Tot
al 50 100%

I
tiscl
eari
nthet
abl
eabov
ethatonl
y13f
requencyr
epr
esent
ing22% ar
efl
uent
wher
eas47f
requencyr
epr
esent
ing78%ar
enot
.Thi
scanbeat
tr
ibut
edt
othepoor
f
oundat
ionandf
earofnegat
ivej
udgmentf
rom col
l
eaguesasi
ndi
cat
edi
ntabl
e1.

Tabl
e4Lev
elofPer
cept
ionofLear
ner
sinReadi
ng.
Responses Fr
equency Per
cent
age

Goodper
cept
ion 25 50%

Notconcer
ned 11 22%

Di
ff
icul
t 14 23%

Tot
al 50 100%

Thet
abl
eabov
erev
eal
sthat25% oft
her
espondent
shav
egoodper
cept
ionon
r
eadi
ng.22%ar
enotconcer
nedwhi
l
e23%per
cei
vedi
tasadi
ff
icul
ttask.

Concl
usi
on
Thepaperhasr
eveal
edanumberofpr
obl
emsf
acedbyESLl
ear
ner
sinr
eadi
ngand
l
ear
ningEngl
i
shl
anguage.Thepr
obl
emscanbesummar
izedt
oLackofexposur
e
t
her
apywhi
chhasbeeni
dent
if
iedasamaj
orf
act
ormi
l
itat
ingagai
nstt
hesmoot
h
r
eadi
ngf
luencyandl
ear
ningEngl
i
shoft
her
espondent
s.I
tist
her
efor
esuggest
ed
t
hatt
her
eist
heneedf
ort
eacher
stodev
icemeanst
hroughexer
cisest
hatwoul
d
exposet
hest
udent
sreadi
ng f
luency
.Theexer
cisesshoul
dfocusf
rom Engl
i
sh
phonemesr
ecogni
ti
ont
hatwoul
dexposet
hest
udent
sont
heappr
opr
iat
ew ay sof
www.ijrp.org

19
 Abdulmalik Usman / International Journal of Research Publications (IJRP.ORG)

wor
dspr
onunci
ati
on.Thi
swi
l
lgoal
ongwayi
nimpr
ovi
ngst
udent
sreadi
ngf
luencyi
n
par
ti
cul
arandEngl
i
shl
anguagel
ear
ningi
ngener
al.

www.ijrp.org

20
 Abdulmalik Usman / International Journal of Research Publications (IJRP.ORG)

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