Bio Rev -in room temperature, hatching time is 15 hrs

Fruitflies Larva
-consists of three instars
-within 24 hrs of hatching, larva molts to develop 2nd
instar larva
-after 48 hrs of hatching, 3rd instar larva
-during these stages, larva loses its spiracles,
mouth, and hooks

Pupa
-after 4 days of feeding, 3rd instar larva encapsulates
in a hard and dark-colored puparium
Females Males
-metamorphosis of the fruit fly takes place and gives
Body Shape Pointed abdomen Rounded
with a “spike” on abdomen rise to its wings and legs
dorsal surface at -in room temp, duration of metamorphosis lasts for 4
rear days
Color Each abdominal Rearmost
segment carries a abdominal Adult
narrow dark band segments almost -The adult fruitfly emerges through the operculum of
uniformly dark the puparium
Genitalia Few structures Complex -within 8-12 hrs of emergence, female fly is receptive
visible structures visible -mates with a male fruit fly for 30 minutes
on ventral surface
Sex Combs None A short row of
thick, closely Animal Development
spaced bristles
appearing as a Development
dark mass on the -involves formation of sex cells, zygote formation,
fourth segment of subsequent stages in one’s life span. Development is
the front legs terminated by death.
(often seen best Life Cycle
with fly lying on its
back)
- is defined as the development stages that occurs
during an organism’s lifetime. A life cycle ends when
an organism dies.
- Scientific Name: Drasophila Melanogaster
-holometabolous insects (means that they undergo
Meiosis
complete metamorphosis)
- occurs in the gonads (testes and ovaries) to
-4 distinct stages: egg, larva, pupa and adult
produce gametes (sperms and egg) which are
-20°C –life cycle is complete in 14-15 days
haploid (n)
-25°C –cycle lasts about 10 days
- when the sperm fertilizes the egg, a zygote (diploid
-77°F (pareho lang to ng 25°C) -8.5 days (gulo ng ppt
or 2n) is produced
eh)
-used in sexual reproduction in animals (produces the
-their life cycles are dependent on temperature
egg and sperm) and plants
-higher temperature speeds up the cycle
-Importance: to keep the chromosome number
-lifespan lasts for only several weeks
constant generation after generation and to ensure
-most versatile model organism in biology
the next generation has a different genetic makeup
-results in 4 haploid daughter cells –each will have
Eggs
½ the number of chromosomes of the parent cell
-about 0.5 mm
-Homologous chromosomes, each duplicated,
-females may lay as many as 400 eggs
resulting in 4 chromatids (tetrads)
-within 24 hours, eggs hatch

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- Crossing-over occurs between non-sister
chromatids but homologous chromosomes during
synapsis. This allows genetic exchange between
chromosomes to provide new combination of gene
that are different from either of the parent.
- Haploid (n) condition- When a cell has only half
the chromosome number or only one set of
chromosomes
- Diploid (2n) condition- When a cell has the full
chromosome number or two sets of chromosomes
Meiosis I
-reductional
-homologous chromosomes separate
Stages
Interphase
-chromosome consists of two genetically
identical sister chromatids, attached together
-chromosomes are not yet visible under the
microscope except as a mass of chromatin
-The cell’s centrosome has also duplicated
by the end of this interphase
Prophase I -most complex phase of meiosis
-occupies 90% of the time required for meiotic cell
division
-chromatin coils up
-Synapsis -homologous chromosomes, each
composed of two sister chromatids, come together
as pairs and chromatids of homologous
chromosomes exchange segments in a process
called crossing
-resulting structure is called a tetrad (consists of
four chromatids)
Five Substages:
1. Leptonema
-replicated chromosomes have coiled
and already visible. The number of
chromosomes present is the same as
the number in diploid cell.
2. Zygonema
-homologue chromosomes begin to
pair and twist around each other in a
highly specific manner. The pairing is
called synapsis. And because the
pair consists of four chromatids it is
referred to as bivalent tetrad
3. Pachynema
-chromosomes become much shorter
and thicker.
-The process of physical exchange of
a chromosome region is called
crossing-over.
-parts of the homologous
chromosomes are recombined
(genetic recombination)
4. Diplonema
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-two pairs of sister chromatids begin
to separate from each other
-area of contact between non-sister
chromatids, called chiasma, become
evident.
5. Diakenesis
-the four chromatids of each tetrad
are even more condensed and the
chiasma often terminalize or move
down the chromatids to the ends.
Metaphase I -chromosome tetrads are aligned on the
metaphase plate, midway between the two
poles of the spindle
-Each chromosome is condensed and thick
with its sister chromatids still attached at
their centromeres
-Spindle microtubules are attached to
kinetochores at the centromeres
-In each tetrad, the homologous
chromosomes are held together at sites of
crossing over
-For each tetrad, the spindle microtubules
attached to one of the homologous
chromosomes come from one pole of the
cell, and the microtubules attached to the
other homologous chromosomes come
from the opposite pole
-With this arrangement, the homologous
chromosomes of each tetrad are poised
to move toward opposite poles of the cell
-spindle apparatus is completely formed
and the microtubules are attached to the
centromere regions of the homologues.
-The synapsed tetrads are aligned at the
metaphase plate ( the equatorial plane of
the cell ) instead of only replicated
chromosomes.
Anaphase I -marked by the migration of chromosomes
toward the two poles of the cell
-the sister chromatids making up each
doubled chromosome remain attached at
their centromeres.
-Only the tetrads (pair of homologous
chromosomes ) split up
-Chromosomes in each tetrad separate and
migrate toward the opposite poles.
-The sister chromatids (dyads) remain
attached at their respective centromere
regions.
Telophase I & -chromosomes arrive at the poles of the cell
Cytokinesis -Each pole of the cell has a haploid
chromosome set, although each
chromosome is still in duplicate form at this
point
-each chromosome consists of two sister
chromatids
-Usually cytokinesis occurs along with
Telophase I and two haploid daughter cells
are formed
-In some organisms, the chromosomes
uncoil and the nuclear envelope re-forms
and there is an interphase before Meiosis II
 begins
-In other species, daughter cells produced
in the first meiotic division immediately begin
preparation for the second meiotic division
-In either case, no chromosome duplication
occurs between telophase I and the onset of
Meiosis II
-The dyads complete their migration to
the poles.
-New nuclear membranes may form.
-In most species, cytokinesis follows,
producing two daughter cells
-Each has a nucleus containing only one set
of chromosomes (haploid level) in a
replicated form
Meiosis II
-equational
-sister chromatids separate
-quite similar to mitotic division
-difference is in the number of chromosomes that
each daughter cell receives
-original chromosome number is reduced to half
-STARTS WITH A HAPLOID CELL
Stages
Prophase II -chromosomes condense again -
The nuclear envelope breaks down
-A spindle forms and moves toward
the middle of the cell
-THE DYADS CONTRACT
Telophase II & -Nuclei form at the cell poles
Cytokinesis -Cytokinesis occurs
-There are now four daughter
cells, each with the haploid number
of (single) chromosomes
-The MONADS are at the poles,
forming two groups of
chromosomes. A NUCLEAR
MEMBRANE FORMS around each
set of chromosomes.
Cytokinesis
-two nuclei are compartmentalized
into separate daughter cells and
complete the mitotic cell division
process.
-In animal cells, it occurs by the
formation of the constriction in the
middle of the cell until two daughter
cells are formed. The constriction is
often called cleavage, or cell
furrow
-In most plant cells, this
constriction is not evident Instead, a
new cell membrane and cell wall are
assembled between the two nuclei
to form a cell plate. Each side of the
cell plate is coated with a cell wall
that eventually forms the two
progeny cells.

Metaphase II -chromosomes are aligned on the Difference

metaphase plate with the Meiosis Mitosis
kinetochores of the sister 2 nuclear divisions 1 nuclear division
chromatids of each chromosome Chromosomes synapse and Chromosomes do not
pointing toward opposite poles. cross over synapse nor cross over
-CENTROMERES ARE DIRECTED Centromeres survive Centromeres dissolve in
TO THE EQUATORIAL PLATE Anaphase I Mitotic phase
AND THEN DIVIDE Halves chromosomes Preserves chromosome
number number
Anaphase II -centromeres of sister chromatids Produces four daughter Produces two daughter
nuclei nuclei
finally separate
Produces daughter cells Produces daughter cells
-sister chromatids of each pair,now genetically different from genetically identical to parent
individual daughter chromosomes, parent and each other and to each other
move toward opposite poles of the Used only for sexual Used for asexual
cell reproduction reproduction and growth
-SISTER CHROMATIDS (MONADS)
MOVE AWAY FROM EACH OTHER
AND MIGRATE TO THE OPPOSITE
POLES OF THE SPINDLE FIBER (daming table chenes sdnakj)

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 Meiosis I compared to Mitosis -sperm penetrates the egg gains a chance to have its
Meiosis I Mitosis unique set of genes combine with those of the egg
Prophase I Prophase and contribute to the next generation.
Pairing of homologous No pairing of homologous
chromosomes chromosomes Structure:
Metaphase I Metaphase
Bivalents at metaphase Duplicated chromosomes
plate at metaphase plate
Anaphase I Anaphase
Homologues of each Sister chromatids
bivalent separate and separate, becoming
duplicated chromosomes daughter chromosomes
move to poles that moves to the poles
Telophase I Telophase
Two haploid daughter Two diploid cells identical
cells not identical to the to the parent cell
-Streamlined shape is an adaptation for swimming
parent cell
through fluids in the vagina, uterus, oviduct of the
Meiosis II compared to Mitosis female
-sperm cell’s thick head contains a haploid
Meiosis II Mitosis
nucleus and is tipped with a membrane-enclosed
Prophase II Prophase sac, the acrosome (lies inside the plasma membrane
No pairing of No pairing of and contains enzyme that help sperm penetrate the
chromosomes chromosomes egg.)
Metaphase II Metaphase -The neck and middle piece of sperm contain a long,
Haploid number of Diploid number of spiral mitochondrion
duplicated chromosomes chromosomes at -The sperm absorbs high-energy nutrients, especially
at metaphase plate metaphase plate the sugar fructose, from the semen.
Anaphase II Anaphase -Thus fueled, its mitochondrion to provide ATP for
Sister chromatids Sister chromatids movement of the tail (flagellum)
separate, becoming separate, becoming -By the time a sperm has reached the egg, it has
daughter chromosomes daughter chromosomes consumed much of the energy available to it
that moves to the poles that moves to the poles -But a successful sperm will have enough energy left
Telophase II Telophase to enter the egg and deposit its nucleus in the egg’s
Four haploid daughter Two diploid, daughter cytoplasm.
cells not genetically cells genetically identical Process of Fertilization
identical to the parent cell
1. The sperm approaches the egg
2. Then contacts the jelly coat of the egg, the
Fertilization acrosome in the sperm head releases a
-where embryonic development begins cloud of enzyme molecules that digest a
-union of a sperm and an egg to form a diploid cavity in the jelly.
zygote. 3. When the sperm head reaches the vitelline
-introduces the sperm’s haploid set of chromosomes layer, species-specific protein molecules on
into the egg and also activates the egg by triggering its surface bind with specific receptor
metabolic changes that start embryonic development proteins in the vitelline layer. The specific
binding between the proteins of the sperm
Sperm Cell and egg ensures that sperm of other species
-only a single sperm can fertilize the egg cannot fertilize the egg.
-all the other sperms will die 4. The sperm’s plasma membrane fuses with
that of the egg.

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 5. The sperm nucleus to enter the egg
6. The vitelline layer hardens and separates
from the plasma membrane. The space
quickly fills with water and the vitelline layer
becomes the fertilization envelope
 Fertilization envelope is another
barrier impenetrable to sperm.
 If these events did not occur and an
egg were fertilized by more than
one sperm, the resulting zygote
nucleus would contain too many
chromosomes, and the zygote
could not develop normally.
 Membrane fusion also triggers a
burst of metabolic activity in the
egg. In preparation for the
enormous growth and development
that will follow fertilization.
7. The egg and sperm nuclei fuse, producing
the diploid nucleus of the zygote .
EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
Key Phases
1. Cleavage
-creates a multicellular animal from a zygote
2. Gastrulation
-organizes the embryo in three discrete
layers
3. Organ Formation
-generates embryonic organs from the three
embryonic tissue layers
A. Cleavage
-is a rapid succession of cell divisions that
produces a ball of cells ( multicellular
embryo) from the zygote
-Nutrients stored in the egg nourish the
dividing cells and the cell divisions partition
the zygote into many smaller cells
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-the number of cell doubles with each
cleavage division
-In sea urchin, a doubling occurs every 20
minutes and the whole cleavage process
takes about 3 hours to produce a solid ball of
cells.
-As cleavage continues, a fluid-filled cavity
called the blastocoel forms in the center of
the embryo
-At the completion of cleavage, there is a
large cavity surrounded by one or more
layers of cells. This hollow ball of cells is
called blastula.
-Cleavage creates a multicellular embryo,
the blastula, from a single-celled zygote.
-It is an organizing process, partitioning the
multicellular embryo into developmental
regions.
-During cleavage, regulatory chemicals
become localized in particular group of cells
where they activate the genes that direct the
formation of specific parts of the genes that
direct the formation of specific parts of the
animal.
B. Gastrulation
- second major phase of embryonic
development
-It adds more cells to the embryo and more
importantly, it sorts all the cells into distinct
cell layers.
-embryo is transformed from a hollow ball of
cells (the blastula) into a three-layered stage
called gastrula.
-The mechanics of gastrulation vary
somewhat, depending on the species. Ex. In
frogs, cleavage and gastrulation together
take about 15-20 hrs
THREE LAYERS (embryonic tissues)
1. Ectoderm -forms the outer layer (skin)
of the gastrula. This is where our
nervous system and the outer layer of
our skin cone comes from.
2. Endoderm -forms an embryonic
digestive tract. This is where innermost
lining of our digestive tract arises from.
3. Mesoderm -partly fills the space
between the ectoderm and the
endoderm. This is where most other
organs and tissues such as the kidney,
 heart, muscles, and the inner layer of
our skin (dermis) develop.
-Eventually, these three cell layers develop
into all parts of the adult animal.
Stages of Gastrulation
1. The Blastula
-formed by cleavage, the frog blastula is
a partially hollow ball of unequally, sized
cells
-As the cross section shows, the cells
toward one end, called the animal pole
are smaller than those near the opposite
end, the vegetal pole.
-The three layers on the blastula
indicate regions of cells that will give
rise to the primary cell layers: ectoderm
(blue), endoderm (yellow) and
mesoderm (pink).
-A glance ahead at parts 2-4 shows that
the cells will form endoderm move from
the surface to the inside of the embryo.
2. Blastopore Formation
-Gastrulation begins when a small
groove, called the blastopore appears
on one side of the blastula.
-The blastopore is the place where
cells of the future endoderm move
inward from the surface ( the dashed
part of the arrow indicate inward
movement)
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-Meanwhile, the cells that will form
ectoderm spread over more of the
surface of the embryo and the cells that
will form the mesoderm begin to spread
outside
3. Cell migration to form
-The beginning of the three layers can
now be seen in the cross section.
Migrating endodermal cells (yellow)
have produced a simple digestive tract
called the archenteron
-The advancing endoderm and the
archenteron have filled some of the
space formerly occupied by the
blastocoel.
-Cells that will form the mesoderm (pink)
are located between the endoderm and
ectoderm (blue)
4. Completion of gastrulation
-Gastrulation is completed when the
embryo is three-layered.
-Ectoderm covers the surface except for
a cluster of endodermal cells called the
yolk plug
-The yolk plug marks the site of the
blastopore and of the future anus. At
this stage, the endoderm and its
archenteron have replaced the
blastocoel.
-Mesoderm forms a layer between the
ectoderm and the endoderm.
**Gastrulation forms a new cavity, the archenteron
which is line by endoderm and which develops into
the animal’s digestive tract.
Derivatives of the Three Embryonic Tissue Layers
Embryonic Layer Organs and Tissues in the
Adult
Ectoderm Epidermis of skin and its
derivatives; epithelial lining of
mouth and rectum; sense
receptors in epidermis; cornea
and lens of eye, nervous
system; adrenal medulla; tooth
enamel
Endoderm Epithelial lining of digestive
tract (except mouth and
rectum); epithelial lining of
respiratory system; liver;
pancreas; thyroid; parathyroid;
thymus; lining of urethra,
 urinary bladder, and
reproductive system.
Mesoderm Notochord (in animals retaining
it as adults); skeletal system;
muscular system; circulatory
system; excretory system;
reproductive system (except
germ cells, which differentiate
during cleavage);

C. Organ Formation

-An organ called notochord has developed in
mesoderm and a structure that will become a hollow
nerve cord is beginning to form in the ectoderm.
-Notochord and hollow nerve cord are hallmarks of
the chordates.
Notochord
-forms form mesoderm just above the archenteron
-It is made of a cartilage-like substance which
extends for most of the embryo’s length and provides
support for other developing tissues.
-will function as a core around which mesodermal
cells gather and form the frog’s backbone.
Somites
-series of internal ridges that is revealed when part of
the ectoderm is removed
-blocks of mesoderm that will give rise to segmental
structures such as the vertebrae and associated
muscles of the backbone.
-The beginnings of the frog’s hollow nerve cord
formed from a portion of the ectoderm
Neural Plate
-thickened region of ectoderm and from it, arises a
pair of pronounced ectodermal ridges called neural
folds.
-rolls up and forms the neural tube which then sinks
beneath the surface of embryo and is covered by an
outer layer of ectoderm.
Neural Tube
-destined to become the brain and spinal cord.
-lies directly above the notochord. The relative
position of the neural tube, notochord and digestive
tract provide the basic body plan of a frog.
-The spinal cord will lie extensions of the dorsal
surface of the backbone (which will replace the
notochord) and the digestive tract will be ventral to
the backbone.

Body Cavity/Coelom
-hollow space that the mesoderm develops

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Tadpole Development
-A long tail and fin would grow form tail bud. The
timing of the later stages in frog development varies
enormously but in many species, by 5-8 days after
development begins, all the body tissues and organs
of a tadpole emerge from cells of the ectoderm, and
endoderm will be visible.
-Eventually, the structures of the tadpole would
transform into the tissues and organs of an adult frog.
CHANGES IN CELL SHAPE, CELL MIGRATION
AND PROGRAMMED CELL DEATH GIVE FORM
TO DEVELOPING ANIMAL
-Cells of the ectoderm fold inward by first elongating
and then becoming wedge-shaped
-The result is tube of ectoderm- the start of the brain
and spinal cord.
-Cell migration is also essential in development. For
instance, during gastrulation, ectodermal cells use
finger like extensions (pseudopodia) to “crawl” to the
embryo’s surface.
-Migrating cells may follow chemical trails secreted by
cells near their specific destination. Once a migrating
cell reaches its destination, surface proteins enable it
to recognize similar cells.The cells join together and
secrete glycoproteins that glue them in place.
-Finally, they differentiate, taking on the
characteristics of a particular tissue
Programmed Cell Death/Apoptosis
-The timely and tidy suicide of cells
-Animals have suicide genes coding for proteins that
kill the cell that produces them.
-In humans, the timely death of specific cells in
developing arms and legs creates the spaces
between fingers and toes.
-is also essential for the normal development of our
nervous and immune systems.
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-The cell on the left shrinks and dies because a
suicide gene has been turned on.
-Meanwhile, signals from the dying cell make an
adjacent cell phagocytic. This cell engulfs and
digests the dead cell, keeping the embryo free of
harmful debris.
EMBRYONIC INDUCTION INITIATES ORGAN
FORMATION
-All developmental processes depend on signals
passed between neighboring cells and cell layers,
telling embryonic cells precisely what to do when.
Induction
-The mechanism by which one group of cells
influences the development of an adjacent group of
cells
-plays a major role in the early development of tissues
and organs from ectoderm, endoderm and
mesoderm.
-Its effect is to switch on a set of genes whose
expression makes the receiving cells differentiate into
a specific tissue.
-A sequence of inductive signals leads to increasingly
greater specialization of cells as organs begin to take
shape.
-It illustrates the differentiation of cells that from the
vertebrate eye and two of the inductions that occur
during the process.
-Cells destined to give rise to the eye actually begin
during gastrulation.
Process:
1. The eye begins to take shape from an
outgrowth of the developing brain (the optic
vesicle) and an adjacent cluster of cells on
the body surface (the lens ectoderm)
2. As a result of earlier inductions, some of the
cell of the cells of the optic vesicle and lens
ectoderm undergo shape changes that
cause them to fold inward. optic vesicle-
transforms into the optic cup which will
become the retina, and the optic stalk.
 3. Cells of the optic cup induce the lens
ectoderm to start forming the lens of the eye
(these inductive signals from the optic cup
are shown as black arrows.)
4. Finally, cells of developing lens induce the
development of the cornea, the eye’s
transparent outer covering.
Pattern Formation
-involved in shaping of an animal’s major parts
-the emergence of a body form with specialized
organs and tissues all in the right places.
-Research indicates that master control genes
respond to chemical signals that tell a cell where it is
relative to other cells in the embryo.
-These positional signals determine which master
control genes will be expressed and consequently,
which body parts will form.
-It indicates how positional signals affect the
development of the limbs of vertebrates. Vertebrate
limbs develop from embryonic structures called the
limb buds.
-Cells nearest the zone- presumably those exposed
to the highest concentration of chemical signals from
it
- develop into posterior wing structures; cells farthest
from the zone form anterior structures.
-If a block of cells from this zone is removed from one
bird embryo (the donor) and grafted onto the anterior
part of the limb bud of another embryo (the host) the
host will develop additional wing structures- almost a
double wing.
Notes:
-summary to ng halos 100 slides ni mam sa
animal devt
-hirap iarrange jusme
-aralin niyo yung dalawa pang pdf na ginawa ni
mam, wala yun dito
-sorry andami HAHA feel free to skip yung ibang
parts

Example:
-Bird wings develop from the two anterior limb buds
-For a wing to form properly, each embryonic wing
cell must receive signals specifying its position in
three dimensions.
-Experiments have revealed that vertebrate limbs
have zones of cells that provide positional information
to other cells via chemical signals.
-Researchers have located one of such pattern-
forming zone on the posterior surface of the wing-
forming limb buds of birds.

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