Research Mid 2

Lesson
uantitative
Methodology: Qualitative vs- Q
Research
Objectives
on, you should be able to:
After! completing t his less earch Method
Differentiate Researc h Method
ology from Res
>
Compare and Contrast Qua litative Res
earch and Quantitative Research as to:
>
Deductive vs. Inductive
* Positivist vs. Interpretivist
* Objectivist vs. Constructivist
> Categorize the common types of Research as to
* Quantitative Research
* Qualitative Research
* Mixed-Method
eee Methodology
feusine
ess rese
Toarch
es is widely y rel
relevant, crucial, i and necessary before jumping
rah Esai researcher cian int meat
ally Fars but more so the magans
and approaches behind te
- é
interpretation to it are fo e digs dee
poinints ts to to illu
illustra
strate eg
how
quantitative room
ete rovides
dit
} ea Gongil
| alte = :
Scanne d with CamScanner

odology:
hh Methods vs. Meth
Res e a r e
thod aims at finding the solutions to rese: the other
sai d tha t re se ar ch me correct mu lt e problems. On
i coule |
be tation of
ho do lo gy aims at the implemen Iesonch in to find onouthothe
solution.
rescarel pmet
ol og y pav es the way for od w it will be
hand,
n gto ole that res
earch method , whereas each iaetii any
iy is i n t e r e s t
me th od ol og y is the beginning
arc h method is the end of
A resed rch
conducted. n-scle ntific res
earch.
t i f i c oF n o teristi
gcien
n t y p e s of res earch, its ocdhasrac web and
p o ne ,
ntsthe diff e r e
ue
t
s in R es e arch Meth
Now that
yo h the c o m
acquainstaerdy 10wit understand the three ma
in iss s. We begin by
. c e s y .
é
I ilso ne
S log
format. IC
e a h M e t h o d s a n d R e search Methodo
defining R e s r c
y
Methodolog rate data (c.g. questionnaires
Method vs. to specific activities designed to gene
re fe rs
ds. This methods by which you conduct
-atc archwSs mfietho
Reservic , ob se rv at io n, and triangul ation). These are the
yCUS BrOUPS undar, 2012)
pic (Go
into a subject or a to
research
n as the ph il os op hy beh ind the study to which the researcher had
odology. Th
is is know er chooses to
Research meth nd in g of res ear ch, and the strategy a research
ders ta you may proceed
to the attitude, un explains the method by which
anchored. It refers ch me th od olog y ive,
questions. Resear methodology can either be quantitat
answer the research oundar, 2012). Common types of research
“ouurr researc h (G
with yo
d methods.
qualitative, or mixe
and this process
in vo lves a pr oc es s in a logical progression,
ch is a me ss y ac ti vity. Research pos es OF bus ine ss purposes. The activities
Rese ar for academic pur of a
researc h, whether it is the literature. Formulation
applies to all types of d cri tic all y review ing
research problem an encompasses what to
involve formulating the arch er(s) and systematically
ch topic pro vid es a cle ar direction to the rese eratur e is done as early as possible
to get an
resear ad in g the lit
read and where to look for
the information. Re
in g for po ss ib le ap pr oaches done in another
ar ch
Keep on reading and se and messier.
‘dea of what is published. pt to yo ur field. A lit erature review is iterative
may ada
researcher discipline that you . The
c h. Th e re se ar ch er s are people, not machines
ults of the resear method he/she uses
The researcher affects the res exp eri enc es p rovi de a filter for which
ues and
rescarcher’s mindset and personal val
and what he/she sees in the results.
Qualitative Research Methodology
Comparison between Quantitative and
ctive (Qualitative)
Deductive (Quantitative) vs. Indu tive)
st (Qualita
Positivist (Quantitative) vs. Interpretivi
Vvw
tivist (Qualitative)
Objectivist (Quantitative) vs. Construc .
iv e ap proach st ar ts by lo ok in g at the theory, produces hypotheses
js
Deductive ive vs,vs, Inductive: The de
duct The
from the sai : the res ear ch, and the n pro cee ds to-test the theory.
the focus of investigation of various
inductive ee which relate to research and a thorough
tserabyte looking at the focus of the ——
methods that ai m ch to star
gen theory from res earch. oO
a a ee
Scanned with CamScanner
pee
Sana All!
|
casero
en ncie
a But | intend to start with my

my
| want to start
||
search with Observation.
Accounting Re
Theory. Then I will infer conclusions
irm my from my Observation.
Then | will conf
hypothesis based
on the
Unlike you, I will doa
|
|
theory. qualitative research.
to do a
| therefore intend
research.
quence
Ms. Deductive
Inductive (Qualitative)
Deductive (Quantitative)
Fi
igure 13.> Inductiv. e
vs. Deductive

Qualitative
The emphasis is on collecting and involves examining and reflecting on the

analyzing numerical data. It concentrates less tangible aspects of a research subject
on measuring the scale, range, frequency, e.g. values, attitudes, perceptions.
etc. of phenomena.
—— ; . |
_ Although easier to start, it can be often
Although harder to design initially, it is difficult to interpret and to present the

findings.
usually highly detailed and structured.
The results can be easily collated and
presented statistically.
| It has unstructured data collection,
involving smaller sample size and non-
tion,
It has structured data collec statistical.
data
involving larger sample size and
analysis.
measurement through statistical
Research
Figure 14. Quantitative vs. Qualitative
Table 7
Common Types of Quantitative Research rl
; —
Description
Types of Research determine their similarities an
Causal/Comparative Studies two or more existing situations to
differences.
lation coefficients
Correlation-Prediction Secks and interprets statistically significant corre
between and among a number of factors.
yses results.
Experiment Manipulates one or more variables and anal
ts behavio. rs, beliefs tion
tefc and observarations of
:
nnaire _ Indentifies reports and interpre
.
Survey- Questio
specific groups.
Trend Analysis Predicts or forecasts the future direction of events.

| ye
aE
‘Table 8 five Research principles that explain how thingy work i
sof Qualite ind of deseribe
lo n ‘Attempts (0 {
ry Constr uettio
CoThmmeoen t
gt DPE see way they do m= ——-
lected sample of one or more Phenonnens,
rctoriat ics CHa 4,
ene “Lixamines representitt
= rmin
detee e its special ma charpro
t pe in oF proj set followed the prescribed
egormi n s Whether i O e atated OULCONNES
oo ”
Hivaluation ey and achieved the sulec lle ranis
| procedur nn rent,d and evalu
B a tes new syslems oF prog
Design smonstralion_ _Construcls,Hcl tents experience yof the people (Greene, 1997)
“Phenom enology
Phenomen el ogy Studiesthelivedworld int ofof itsits social
fromn the standpoint
experte Mt mMs
social relation
Ethnography
“eth , ___—__ en
building sate
theory 1}from calegori4c grouns ed. in the edadata
cs that{ areCoyr
Grounded Theory us; ing n systemat ic analysis by comparing different data fragments with
systematic
one another eee a na Tae
and explaining past events |
Involves understanding, studying
i s Q * . a
= ani 1
Historical Research
Table 10
Mixed-Method
Case Study Observes, recorded, and analyzes the background, development, current
conditions, and environmental interactions of one or more individuals,
groups, communities, and businesses to look for stages of patterns in
relation to internal and external influences
Analysis Collects classes of data and conducts studies to recognize patterns and
formulate principles that might guide future actions
Positivist vs. Interpretivist A positivist approach is associated with natural science research and involves
an testing. Positivism states that only phenomena which you can know through
ta hee ae
your senses cl
ee me idea of experimentation and testing to prove or disprove hypothest
(inductive), Positiviet eine ene “/ putting lacts together to generate laws or princi
statements are seen to be the proper iireinate o than subjective statements and only the object!
scientists,
Ontology | Epistomology Paradigm or

Research
. Methodology
Figure 15
Paradigm

|
Table 10 radigm
terpretivist Pa
Positivism VS. In
Components Positivism paradigm
exists ts iindependently of
The world exis Th Prettiv;
Interpre ivis aradigm
Ontology 2 © World does tl -
(Nature of the researcher's know ¥
ledge of It.
i It 1s
1 Ind
i ependent]
$ Not exist
y of
Reality) called objective reality. knowledge of it, It
the r ese
Sca
a’r cher’s
is called
Subjective reality
It shows what is being researched It shows’S wha
Epistemology What t isis beibeing resear
ched
(Relationship and the researchers are independent and th
——— other.
from each eaclch © researchers interact with
with Researcher)
Methodology Quantitative in nature, a deductive Graig Ive In nature, »@ an inducti
uctive
ces,,s) approach. approach.
(Research ; Pro
; on Potivi-sm vs. vist was Ss adapted
Interpr efivist } rom ‘ A begi mner § guide
Sk de to to d ong
h I project esea
a researc
I} b 'y
and also' from Phi
Philo i paradigm
sophical ; s and other underpinnings of th tie
Sa ge Publi <7
cation Ltd.;
etric 7 quanti tative and
Flick, 2015. ective by Villiers and Fouche , 2015
ch methods: An accounting eduction persp , 2015, retrieved from
qualitative resear Ss 015. 1189 3430
?
ttps//doi.org/ 10.108 0/09718923.2
Constructivist. Objectivist states that social entities (like organizations, societi

Objectivist ¥5-
which is distinct from people in them. Constructivist, on the conte - . ose
have an existence,
dependent reality. It is constructed in the minds of those who dink abou ‘Laie
organization has no in
gan ization, they are constructing it into some kind of reality From the
people think about an or
only has an existence in the minds of the people, whether they
constructivist’s V jew, the organization PP liers, contractors, government, professional bodies, or business
omers, SU
are the staff or managers, cust
researchers.
that when know ledge is being constructed,
it does not exist independent
While constructivism states l and epistemological
kno wledge (Ch aralambos, 2 000). The major philosophica
of the learner’s
real world that sets boundaries to what we
can
(1) There is a
assumptions of constructivism are: of the world is
How eve r, real ity is loca l and ther e are multiple real ities. (2) The structure
experience. retation. Symbols are
wi th the world and is based on interp
created in the mind through interaction ls by perceiving
and they are used to cons truc t reality. (3) The mi nd creates symbo
products of culture ve and kno wl edge is acquired through sensor
y
an m ind is ima gin ati
and interpreting the world (4) Hum aning” is con structed depends
on his/her
al inte ract ion; (5) How the “me
experiences and soci
os, 2000).
understanding and experiences (as cited in Charalamb
Table 11
Objectivism versus Constructivism Theor
Objectivist Grounded Theory Constructivist Grounded
ies
Assumes an external reality Assumes multiple realit
through
me s mutual co nstruction of data
Assumes discovery of data Assu
interaction
s construct categories
Ass sumes ; conceptualizos
ation emerges from data Assumes researcher
le matic,
of data as prob
View .
iews representation of data as unproblematic Views representation
na |, and partial
relativistic, situatio , priorities,
: rver’s values
Assumes the obse
, passivity.ty,
3
authori ty
n
Assumes
ralityYP ews
cut and the actions affect vi
of the observer positions, and: de sign, and
. . lic ati a
ons Jor int er ac ti ot 7, course"al
uctivism versus objectivism: Imp
ed a Constra
ada
Note -‘ad
cm apy Educationa
eval,
ance edu cation by Vrasidas, 2000. p. 6. International J ournal of
Te dist
lecommuninic;atio
ns.
ON bee ing photon

Jenni¢ Lagman. -Bautista
hi tant leseny : itted
;
in any form of by any means, includ
deal t with by law.
book may be reproduced, distributed, or transm . Violators shall be
me. No pant of this the aut hor
Seeordinn a » cten narmie sin n of
Operational Definition of Variables
Objectives
After completing this lesson, you should be able to:
Apply operational definitions of different research variables
ality and unit of measure to the
Identify the variables and evaluate the attributable effects, caus
VV
dependent variables
Classify data collection as to the type of variables for statistical analyses
Compare and contrast mediating variable and moderating variable
VV
Operational Definition of V ariables

for the unit of measure used to collect
The chapter introduces the different classi fic ations of variables
students on how the variables affect the
and interpret data, study design, and causality. It acquaints the
a theory, or accept/reject a hypothesis
relationship or association being studied to accurately generalize or not.
ting effect, and can be controlled
as well as whether the variable has a direct, indirect, or modera

Fae isplaced perception. ato
There is a neg dy ™
nal defitie. is
ysion and MISE An oper dler, 2019).tioWheg, ini n
itions t con al defme
ionn”
tteratio initiour
as
ns. en
em t (Sc
at
hin
nal def al
Defge
l gua © rese a
in! ay lea
5 using 0 or
Op erationaran
tine eriali ae relaltab tingen
contin
jility,ty, con cy. rea «.
gency, tisk) the
or
ith the key ‘eria for tes ty, iab ili

The !an partic ee cit en mat
familiarize YOU'S” with isucs. The procedure an pe
in t€ is| pysical ot highly& d and the set of character nt person would classify ¢ ec
explanation stateddefined ie to be observ er *
; jrcumstancess any comp ete (s'
the objectto be cen 5 how it is
eci
meaning must §P expli cit that in norma i
ca
ee e. You will probably
.
spec. ific:ation mus' of
accounting of audit perspectiv
.
a .
object in the same m lat
could alter the
Try asking the css what mat se amount involved, oF aby thing that s of materiality ag
mt But if a researcherclearly defined the boundarie
decision of a f!
int
total com pan y asse t or 10% of the com pany's net Income usinga
study | sxe 5% of the onresofearmat eri ality. You may ownus
concerning the (3) year s, is a good ope rat ion ald bybydefi niti che rs or create your
for the past thre e d, accepted othe r
simple average de velo pe d, va li da te
ach already t types of variables,
a measurement ap ional definition of the differen
encourage d to know the operat
(Schindler, 2019). ‘It is
Variables bute (as cited in

an ev ent, act, characteristic, trait, or attri
A variable is a measurement symbol of
ty that can take two or more values (Mendoza, 2012).
Schindler, 2019). A variable is an empirical proper
identified and tested. Variables are
Variables are measured so that relationships between them can be
classified based on the unit of measurement, study design, and causality (Figure 8).
a
ff
OC
fe.
thar nd ay Behe Fe
“banica Methane ed distributed 1 crawl

e
Variables as Unit of Measur
Variables based on the unit of measurement are either qualitative or quantitative, Qualitative variables,
also called categorical variables, are labels or names assigned to categories CL, male or female; m
- rural, Categorical variables can be dichotomous or polytomous. Dichotomous
variables eat have ue
two values, yes or no, debit or credit, favorable or unfavorable,
capitalize, or expsvera am aloe pelea
polytomous variables can be divided into more than two categories, like the type of hatte namics ”
(sole proprietorship, partnership, or corporation), for purposes of data measurement, these types a
sategories use nominal scales. Nominal scales embody the lowest level ol measurement, Another type
of polytomous variables using ordinal scales such as first, second, third, or small, medium, large, extra-
large, oF ina four-point Likert scale the categories may be strongly disagree, disagree, agree, strongly
agree.
Quantitative variables may cither be numerical (discrete variables) or continuous (ratio)

variables.
Diserete variables are represented by data in terms of values, susceptible to the counting of whole
numbers called integers without fractions. The number of students in the class will never be “— or the
results in the formula of an Economic Order Quantity of "538.67 units will be ordered as
539 units.
While continuous variables are represented by measurement of continuous or non-infi
nite values such
as measuring distance, volume, or area, Other examples of continuum
data are family income, sales, cost
of goods sold, employment turn-over rate, inflation rate, ctc.), Continuum data may be presented in
fraction, percentage, or decimal point (5.8 kilometers, 89.75 grams,
Php 567,095.89 net pay).
Continuous variables have an infinite

Think of discrete variables as a “laying number of possible values. Then visualiz
milking a “cow”. A cow can give 6.47389e
chicken.” It can lay | egg to a dozen of
gallons. Next month could be 9.7785
cees. The counting is based on
definable whole numbers, gallons and so on. These are infin
ite
number of values that a continuous
variable could take on.
‘
Sure 17. Disc
rete Variables COWES
Figure 18. Continuous |
Variables

1* and Qnd Column
4, 50, 6th Con, Column yh

™ CotyumnContin,
~ us
Table 12 ding
Sample Data Sheet .
Gender Weight Height Sales .
Employee Job Position
No. Commission Sake in
350.7 Ibs 5.8” 150,000.00 uot

1 VP-Sales Male
2 Branch Manager Female 118.4lbs_ 6.1’ 567,095.89 is
3 Sales Agent Male 256.6 lbs 5.6’ 120,450.50 4th
4 Sales Agent Female 180.7 Ibs 4.9” 333,333.33 nd
5 Sales Clerk Female 213.8 lbs 5.9” 60,999.99 5th
6 Sales Assistant Male 120.5 lbs 5.4’ 15,500.80 6th
Variables as to Study Design

Variables based on study design can either be active or attribute variables. Active variables can be
changed, controlled, manipulated, and reflect the characteristics of the study population. These variables
are not under the researcher's manipulation as they are an inherent part of a person or object. They are
called attribute variables or passive variables (Glen, 2020). A variable that is passive in one experiment
ofan
may become active in another (Glen, 2020). In analyzing how to minimize the manufacturing cost
A and Factory
AA product using scenario analysis for different levels of production capacity of Factory
and liken to serve
B, the variable costs for materials, labor, and variable overhead are controllable
and administrative
active variables. While the fixed costs for warehouse rent, depreciation expense,
capacity may be
salaries, remain the same regardless of the volume of production within the normal
viewed as attribute variables.
Variables as to Causality eous,

nt, extranassured
And the third category is based on causality and it can either be dependent, indep ende
or intervening variables. The dependent variable (DV) is the variable that is being tested, 2 endent
predicted, or monitored and expected to be affected by the researcher’s manipulation ofthe ™ ims
variables (IV) (Schindler, 2019). While the DV is the effect, the [V is the cause and also tat one
interest to the researcher (Schindler, 2019). In each explored relationship, there 'S at variable is
independent variable (IV) and one dependent (DV). In regression analyses, the independent edict the
called the predictor variable. The predictor variable is a variable used by the researcher t0 P abilil)
outcome associated with the dependent variable (Salkind, 2010). The preditor vari
—-.
able uses Pei
t
n
tive mann
ae to measure the effect of the future occurrence of an event in a quantita
).
ronmen
. nt, ®
Iustrative Case: You want to study the impact of economic benefits, work enviVv ables (D ,
employee aptitude on voluntary empl = The d ependent
a qd emp Joy
would be the employes ¢ 2 ployee turn-over of U&I Company. - onment, pase
eudins ec ployee turn-over while the economic benefits, work env!t include
independent
© as thereview,
ththe 4 literature variables can be several IVs a researcher Mud:
There based
(IV). them
but he/she may limit on the nature and needs © me
_ ae

IV:
Work DV:
Environment imployee
‘Turnover
Figure 19. Dependent and Independent Variables
Moderating Variables
A moderating variable (MV) also called explanatory variable, isa secondary type of oe
variable that can strengthen, negate, diminish, or alter the original 1V-DV relationship trough in amuch
lesser degree than the effect of an independent variable (IV) (Allen, 201 7). It should also be oe
and included as part of the research study, for it could change the direction of the relationship. A!
can either be a continuous or categorical variable and exclusively used in quantitative research (Allen,
2017). Refer to Figure 20, the arrow pointing from the moderating variable to the line arrow between
the IV and DV indicates the cause-effect relationship of 1V and DV and between this associations, a
moderating variable connects and affects the relationship.
To continue the illustrative example, assuming the company conducted an aptitude exam for two
groups of employees, group A consists of employees with less than one year to three years of work
experience vs. group B consists of employees having beyond three to six years of work experience. The
results of the aptitude exam of both groups showed that Group B is higher by 15% assuming that in the
succeeding two years, the company Human Resource Management (HRM) increased by 50% the
requirement of workers having above three years of work experience. The HRM computed
the
corresponding employee turnover rate and it is 5% lower than the previous three
years. The HRM
concluded that work experience as a moderating variable has a total
effect of 10% to IV-DV (5% /50%
of the increasednumber of group B would yield a 10% increase). The positive difference
of 15% in the
oe cxam of Group B is 5% higher than the positive change in the number of Group B (computed
aimee in Aptitude test 1S% less 10% difference from the work experience).
aptitude exan ie Work
we relationship of IV and DV ina much lesser effect than the
effect of the
educational aitatnrnent or me may be other moderating variables that the researcher excluded, like
perhaps perceived alternative employment opportunities.
IV:
Employee
DV:
Aptitude
—p Employee
MV; Work Turnover Rate
0. Moderating Experience
Variable
be reproduced, dis
trib uted, or transmitt
methods, without ed j Nany fo ' : ;
email adden prio I wriltan nareinate. veo ‘fmor by any means, includina photoconvina
stuq ;
Extraneous Variable
s
nd en t va ri ab le bu t are not part of the
the depe ak -
s may influence to control extraneous %
Extraneous variable of the proponen t. There are four ways seq,
chosen research desi
gn ae pe reason(s) in the
(I) ty
) ee
the
iminate the variable (or to identify as a control variable eG os as confounding alVatign
®
el a
ndomization (3) to build it aS idered equ in le
limitation section (2) to apply randomization, the ame oe ane seo oF cons
. In ra MOTe parts and prog al
or (4) to match subjects archer ma y spl it a val Fen
aspects. To match the subjects , the rese eous variables as a |
el. Next, you mo ve to the two types of extran
to randomize within eachg valev
riables.
variables and confoundin
bias by exchug;
st be id en ti fi ed to en su re that the results are free from ample, the Ing
Control variables (CV) mu pr ev io us st udies. To continue the illustrative ex
re up wi th y affect,
them and preferably back the co ntro l va ri ab les. These control variables frma
pe of wo rk are om the Cy
of business organization and ty criteria, hence, excluded from the study. The arrow
your
dependent variable based on e th es e CV s ma y be identified by other research
ers -
en lin e wh er appropriate|
the DV represented by a brok tr ib ut e vari ables but in “your study", they are
de penden t or at
particular study as in an exceptionaly
d chain as to the type of organization has
identified as control variables (CV). A fast-foo (the type of work). To be identified as control variables
food servers
high employee turnover rate for or logistical support either locally
or globally. Ther
of industry, natur e of the busin ess,
consider the type
the study.
it is but appropriate to exclude these in
Area of Study
\
IV:
‘\ \ \
Economic
Benefits
DV:
IV: Ti Employee
Employee Turnover
Aptitude
MV: Work
Experience
5 snoop

we On the other hand, confounding variables (CFV) or confounders occur when two or more variables
“hy systematically covary. Ifa variable systematically varics with the IV, the CFV explains the changes in
‘ the DV other than the effects from the IV (Salkind, 2010). Confounders are not manipulated by the
ton researcher and also not a focal point of the study but may affect the relationship between the independent
tt and dependent variables. Variables such as nationality, age, gender, ethnicity, and site are examples of
Ie by! CFVs. They may affect the results but nothing can be done to change or control the CFV (Parker &
a4 Berman, 2016, p.199). They are being collected and studied to provide reassurance that they are not
\ affecting the conclusions of the study. In the illustrative case, it is better to treat nationality, religion, or
equality.
i perhaps even gender with fairness. The research community nowadays advocates gender
aa
KS @)
fs Ca)
Me! Work
CV: \
Type of ‘ CFV:
Organization NN Nationality Area of Study
|
IV: |
Economic |
Benefits |
|
\
|
\
|
|
\ DV:
IV: Employee
Employee
uit Aptinude Turnover
ma MV: Work
LO Experience
Figure 22. Confounding Variables
“| Intervening Variables
“| b Intervening variables (IVV) provide a causal link between variables that theoretically affect the DV
“|i ut has not been measured. The effects of the IVV must be inferred from the effects of the moderating
inde nependent variables being observed (Schindler, 2019). In the illustrative example, the three
i Pendent variables (lack of economic benefits, hostile work environment, undesirable employee
aptitude my all contri ontribute to an incr
‘ - ; x
tumover rate ease in job stresses but may also lead to an increase in employee
employ
HY Jennie‘aaman Bautista
5 NO partof thi is book may be reproduced, distributed,
Fp or transmitted ains any form or by any means, including
;
ot iets oc etaH methods, with
onie or photocopying,
f out prioior r writwri ten permisiSSi
sion of the author. Violators shall be dealt with by law. For
address at jenlag_bautista @yahoo.com.

CFV:
"Nationality
Area of Study
Economic
Benefits
IVV: DV:
IV: Job Stress Employee
Employee Turnover
Aptitude
Figure 23. Intervenning Variables
Table 13
Summary of Variable Ty‘ypes
Variable Code
Dependent Presumed effect on IV-DV Re
DV lationship _Action Needed
Independent Concept of interest (ou _
IV tcome)
The primary variable Measure
will have a Significant
Moderating effect on DV Manipulated
MV Secondary variable is
expected to affect the
Control CV
IV-DV relationship Measure
It might influence theon a lesser degree
IV-DV relationship.
Confounding identified but exclud It is _ Ignore; the effecti is
CFV tis not manipulated ed in the study randomized
and ig Not the focal
of the study, but point Measure
may affect the rel
Intervening ationship of
IVV a
Note. The sum y affects the Dy IV
marized distinction It but has not been
2019, p.9- _Infer effect Ov
] 1. McGraw-Hill/irvin, ao
OK may be re
produced, dist
_——
——
; the i ri inh
email addresanical methods, withou p
t ron ri OF transm fea}
s a t Jenjentlag_baut -bautista@yahoo
com Permission
itted inof ttheh tauthor. by: any meshall
m or Violators > dealt withith byby ka
ans, beinmcldee
udinn
g o t r "

What is the difference between mediating variable and moderating variable?
A moderator is a variable that affects the strength of the relation between the predictor and the criterion
variable fits into
variable. Therefore. mediation and moderation have to do with checking on how a third
influences the strength or
that relationship. Moderation is a way to check whether that third variable
variable. An easy way to remember
direction of the relationship between an independent and dependent
strength of a relationship from strong to moderate,
this is that the moderator variable might change the
as you change values of the moderator,
to nothing at all. It is almost like a turn dial on the relationship;
away. (Lani et al., para 2)
a statistical relationship that you observed before might dissolve
ndent variable (called the predictor
A mediating variable explains the relationship between the indepe
(criterion or outcome variable in statistical
using regression analysis) and the dependent variable ndent and dependent variables —
between the indepe
modelling). A mediator mediates the relationship variable is
exist. Another way to think about a mediator
explaining the reason for such a relationship to of change to
an independent variable leads to some kind
that it carries an effect. In a perfect mediation, er, in practice, the
a change in the dependent variable. Howev
the mediator variable, which then leads to variable are not tested
the independent variable, mediator, and dependent
relationships between
e of mediation analysis is to see if the influence
for causality, just a correlational relationship. The purpos
of the independent variable. (Lani et al., para 3, 4).
of the mediator is stronger than the direct influence
ting variable (Jacoby & Sassenberg, 2011).
A mediating variable cannot be at the same time a modera
ped by Baron and Kenny in 1986.
Refer to Figure 14 to illustrate the mediator model develo
Mediator
(M)
a b
=I Outcome/
Predictor
(X) Criterion (Y)
Cc
Figure 24. Mediator Model of Baron and Kenny (1986)
wana ista
Part of this book ma

. y be reprod
' oF mechanical method uced, distributed,wri or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying,
thods, without prio saat
the email address at j enleg,biaulistarpya ae ae sion of the author. Violators shall be dealt with by law. For
Unit IV
Lesson
Literature Review
Objectives
Discuss the purpose of literature review
VVVVV
Apply the 10 simple rules in writing the literature

Design an outline of the review
Argue extensively the research gap
Select the appropriate linking words to facilitate
coherent discussion of literature review
techniques on how to connect, capita

lize on previous authors’ theories,
generalizations, use them in esc concepts, models,
alatin the n
literature review the strength ighli
of your oiee on MERE DN ee ee

purpose of Literature Review
The Literature review is part of your research where you system
atically look for and evaluate
literature based on your research topic. You locate materials, classify references, scan and skim
articles, analyze documents, and sources that contain information that will justify your research
problem. By conducting an extensive literature review, the researcher can demonstrate a
credible investigation and familiarity with previous studies related to his/her study. There are
no shortcuts in conducting a literature review, but there is an efficient way to be able to present
a good one. The tasks should include the following: (1) ability to compare and contrast literature
(2) the ability to show both the advantages and disadvantages (3) fair presentation of arguments
both positive and negative aspects (4) ability to synthesize meaningfully the theories, concep
ts
or themes (5) intelligent showing of the research gap (6) creative connection and meaningful
translation of all relevant studies.
for?
What references to search
+ Asa general rule, look for academic references within the last three to five years recency for
scholarly journals, five to 10 years for books, and going back further if you cannot find enough
useful material. Avoid predatory journals.
Some questions a researcher may ask himself/herself in reading a published article.

1. Why am I reading this?
2. What does the author try to convey in writing this?
Is it relevant to what I want to find out?
Wo
How does it differ from what I plan to write?

Dows
How does it differ from the findings of other authors?

What use can I make of this?
Where to search?
* Libraries
Most colleges and universities have subscriptions to various electronic books and search engines
like Ebsco, Osiris, Oxford Reference Online, Science Direct, Wiley Online Library, Emerald
Insight, MintAsia Pacific, SCOPUS, Taylor and Francis Online, and so on.
Open-Access journals
Google Scholar, Journal of Business and Financial Affairs, Open Journal of Accounting,
Academy of Accounting and Financial Studies Journal, Journal of Accounting Education,
Journal of Applied Sciences in Accounting, Finance, and Tax, Open J ournal of Accounting and
Auditing, American Journal of Economics and Business, International Journal of Geomate and
Y Jennie Lagman-Bauti
sta
tof this book may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying,
er tsoe onic or mechanical methods, without prior written permission of the author. Violators shall be dealt with by law, For
Use the email address at jenlag_bautista@yahoo.com.

i= Sag Zhow
Brvgtingy an, Mrveg Diem. Koon Pet
ne Snereat A teraction 68 tA, Sexgat FO, 7320
;
DL. SR AL het. FOIE OS 3 Cretcnas BY Tot
Less Orpnannte.
Gresley Secateysin oh Carricnngs Regent ty Banies tes Oynaentic and
Finch Miartestis ty torteyerg 18 BS Sar Macamnatingy Fmansal leetrumente Case
Corer Haractere 9ot Soya
Kettle, see Han, tert, ee ee
Core Harta A baer nately PY ey 3. nhy 24, FFAS
OE AT At
AT TR WE Cee 167 Verwes
anaes Ch we Onallenges ans Coretties ceawe es ft Cen Ester prone beating urvGer te
Ten Simple Rules for Writing a Literature Review

Pautasso (2013)
1. Define 2 topic and audience.
2. Search and re-search the literature.
3. Take notes while reading.
4. Choose the type of review you wish to write. |

5. Keep the review focused, but make it a broad interest |

Rule 1: Define a topic and audience.
least be:
The topic must at .
« Interesting to you
s), and
ortefi
impl-d
« An wel ectue of the field (interesting 10 reader
antned aspiss
oA
You should also select a target audience.
-A discipline-based research has different jargons or language, though not restricting readers from
different fields, nonetheless, your target audience will be from the same field as yours.
Rule 2: Search and re-search the literature.

articles.
Search, read, and download relevant
» Keep track of the search items you use (so that your search can be replicated).
eval.
- Store soft copies of articles related to your study for fast retri
Suggestion: Rename the file by giving a uniform code plus the concepts, theories, or topics
these
Example: RRL1_Liquidity, RRL2_Materiality, and so on. Then you may temporarily incorporate
codes in the parenthetical or in-text citation while the manuscript is still a “draft”. Remove these codes
before manuscript submission.
——————~, Example: Either favorable or unfavorable variance, investigation of deviation becomes necessary if the
the saved soft copy, it will be easier
on =a
Miieeeea. variance is material (Lagman, 2021 RRL2). If you want to retrieve
because of the coding.
+ Define early in the process, the criteria for inclusion and exclusion of literature reviews. Include these
criteria in setting your scope. Use a paper management system like Mendeley.
Suggestion: If after reading the journal or reference book and it is classified as relevant, scan the
reference section of the said article or reference book. You may include it as an additional reading and
it might save time in searching for literature.
* Pay attention to the approaches, limitations, and conclusions of past reviews.
Suggestion: Read first the abstract. If the article is relevant proceed in reading the conclusion. If it
qualifies to what you are looking for, read the entire article. To facilitate an efficient search, instead of
reading all the journal articles or references, try keyword searches. Use the shortcut key “Alt-find” on
-. Computer keyboard, and take notice of highlighted keywords. The greater the number of
highlighted keywords in the article, the greater also the relevance of the study.
‘ :
. ine find a new angle that has not been covered adequately in. the previous reviews, and
*T
"porate new materials that have inevitably accumulated since their appearance.
®
lt eo Lagman-Bautista . . .
.” FeServed. N .
<eording, Or other e © part iof this book may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying,
=
. with by law. For
iene or mechanical Methods, without prior written permission of the author. Violators shall be dealt
'Ssion requests
ruse the email address at jenlag_bautista@yahoo.com.

a e os
Rule 3: Take notes while reading, jals, Look for an open-access database, and ask 4 libray;
: reading materials. L- ile reading, By the tim Flan4
pel vel a oats neon Simultancously take notes nan of the review The ‘dn if - ‘ ‘a
ormful : i ae ou also have developed a rough tie readings. Part ofA Ki will iy bo
erat! © ‘thinkin an restructuring as you accumulate ‘it h Chica Sandi rf Ng 18 to ine ig
APA 7th edition, BO, 1¢ like,
the: referencoe following the required format like
you wish to w rite,

Rule 4: Choose the type of review
Decide whether to have a mini or full review for publication es Mee Previous note-aking Wou
lead you to which one to choose. A mini-review presentation 1 a i cig in attracting busy readers
although due to limited issues tackled, it may leave out relevant matters. A full review ma Y Cover jn
,
detail the complexities of the study, but tedious for your target readers with limited UME to spare foe
main monographs. This also applies to integrative vs. descriptive reviews. Integrative reviey, aims tp
search common theories and concepts. For descriptive reviews, the focal point ig to interpret
methodology and findings of each reviewed study. The same is true between systematic and Narratiy
review. Systematic reviews through quantitative analysis produce meta-analyses by testin .
hypothesis of previous studies. On the other hand, narrative reviews are qualitative, The type fre
you wish to write depends on a case-to-case basis, like the nature of materials searched, preferences
of
target readers, number of co-researchers, and the needed time to complete the study. .
Rule 5: Keep the review focused, but make it a broad interest,
* The mainIn tar target of .

the reviewe.
0 a main issues argued, and ‘field,
* i
How you came across with
the research question
Some research,
ae ts aFe great sto
entifyin : ..
g opportutien especially in mapping and conne en su atudies, Othe
of relied fie © Solution lies,
ont. It could be yourRenat
q
e oe and most are
t that the foundation highly
of you
prays an ecicitanel at
sect in the reviet
: Tength, with Consistent practice oe
€ as you go through.
feproduced, distributed
—
os Mathout prigg slag \ansmited in any form or by any means, including phciooon/ne
aut stayaoo com Permission of the author. Viola tors shall be dealt with by 7

Rule 7: Find a logical structure.
. ical structure depends on how
The logice aders. You hold you organize the flow of idea
the torch inside the tunnel, s, theories, concepts,
and Principles
to target nee a conceptual Accor. ding to Pautasso (201
scheme with mind-mapping 3), it is generally
helpful to ; easily recognize a logic tech niques. Make use of a diagra
al
pattern and link the var ious sect m that
can
help readers septualization of diagrams ions of the literature review
and figures relevant to the topi . A
mindful ogically from one idea to the c can be a good structure. Whe
you! mov’ next, you aspire for c oherence n
in your review.
c 8: Make use of feedback.

al Id be soughtfrom other researchers, experts, collea
Feedback shou ive on the draft. It may provide conflicting views gues, and practitioners to obtain a
different perspect weaknesses, but these on the merits of the Paper, such as
are vital feedbacks. Reviewers can spot
the strengths i ambiguities that the author himself/hers inconsistencies,
3 ies, elf unknowingly failed to notice. These are
ee tips andan would timprove a review.
draft.
help
;
- | 9: Include your relevant research, but be objective.

Rule 9:
| Wi it comes to to your own published articles and self-citation, be objective. If it pertains to a
inuati of
continuation of y ou your previous published study and relevant to your current research, self-citation is
jecti i i
multiple itati
citations that are no tini any Ww way connected d toto the
"
COne at vil | roper. But if the objective is to earn
vi i f the p present
prop
study , then it is not appropri ate.
48 te ea)
a é “a ses.
°le foustuWV i)
tera Rule 10: Be up-to-date, but do not forget older studies
and welre
Par ost recent literature,
i online
ine journa
j ;
| publication is faster than book
tae intent took tt ee h topic may pose difficulty in literature retrieval, though it provides
™ ee i ‘rian
i i snaaiatiewers
ore and readers
and vee in
and innovativeness.
d i in terms of relevance and uggle would
The struggle would
on eed wart recent studies since the ones widely visible in the Net ae the es studies
she i al ffort in searching and to no avail, you are unsuccessful. You ave Baie gale
!| studies, but clearly and objectively narrate this in your introduction. This vouc
ololder os
undertake research, then you are on the right path.
How to make an outline of the Review (Trinidad, 2018)

(1) Studies with similar topics. You may present a table for several published
1 v itakale
i ony aim
athen
would be to consolidate these studies to find the gap and what is lacking, You may " or objenive ofthe
the author’s name, the year of publication, the name of the journal, brief conte ior or Teal
study. If you want to focus on a particular theme, factor, or aspect, provide a )
objective review, by presenting a summary of literature based on this aspect.
Part of this book may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any bah
i i ec i ae tocopying,
= ~
Gronic or mechanical methods, without prior written permission
of the author. Violators shall be
the email address at jenlag_bautista@yahoo.com.

(2018) an
As cited in Esmaceilian et al. Example 4
IHustrative e
of literatur
Summary
Table1 ———__
review papers and their scope.
Previous Scope
ie —
papers
Previous review IS SCs
ar tne paige
_
Ce Things
pep (2015) SC and ta of tnternet of
ig concept
od the aieae
Kreg (017) miele coer
Tatari aa
et al. (2017) hee
Chavhan et al. (2016) Cybersecurity oe
etal. (2017) ae © lens tnt
Alibasic et al. (2016)
Shuai, Maillé, Pelov (2016) waste management
| to support
ee
waste a
(2017) cities
Goulart Coelho et al. laste management models
Belién et al. (2012) IcT-enabled waste collection
Shatholy et al. (2008)
(2017)
Anagnostopoulos eta.
5
Illustrative Example
Summa of literature
in SC
practices
management
fecycie data collection
ion
ta-driven etal.
ring, open data
and citizen privacy (Martinez-Ballesté
Data secu rity
12), new
2013)
devices ( Lo mb ardi et al, 20
nnected
Intelligent & co n and communic
ation
data acquis itio
tructure an and Lee, 20
14)
Resilient infras techno logy (K og
n of
Standardizatio
odels s
Novel business m ular economy model
circ
Sharing economy.
participat ion. gree
Citizens ll ation among
Smart co abor
2012) th local culture
Technolo gies compatible wi
ms
ased syste
Reward-b
o.
anning l v e m e n t (Na
m and Pard
Strategic pl pa rties i n v o
economy
2011 b) with cireular
ee
ons co mpatib le
Laws and regulati
am includD wt
ES
frameworks o
Studies with sim ilar Yr perspectives, Or;
core
tamework and how other authors viewed or adopted it froma mon readers about the ideas of the
how itto applie s to your study. This is particularly helpful if you adoptPt aa
critically review diverse frameworks, how th well-wet
and moving towards
kno wr framework. You
n eed cy apply to ie:
:
tioner viewed the same, the perspective of other a
+
Pply to your discipli
ween those theories. .
ispracsituated bet
“Concise description of theory
patel tigers
the sctemes of a fn do me to otters
Priorty of t=
of oil togiirnote stakeholders Is Not seit-evidert
Ce
te out
four cera trasen retested
penatdadn anv Preetan offer ae =.
iptiv e in that h offers a ¥
descr
4. Stakehokier Theory Is worktor euiadieanee
at In offering a frame
2. Stakehaider Theory Is Instrument nce ard the praction of reo.
orma
inka between conventional Ren perf Sta enouey
management.
descriptive ard irestrurnenta tit
3. Amnough Stakeholder Theory ts interests and att
normative. Stakeholders are kdentitied by thelrte,
sicatly vatua
Interests are Considered to be intrin
mmen: attitudes, etryschures.
‘stakeholder Theory Is managerial int that It reco to the
that simuttanectn stterition: the «iver
ond practices: and requiresrs. itereats
holde
of nit jegitimatn stake
Freeman (1964)
Seminal articles
theory of the modern corporation:
Con son, T. & Preston,L. 1995. The stakeholder Review 20, 65-91
ce and Strate
Freeman, R. £. (1884).
ations, Academy of Management
implicgic management
: A stakeholder approach. Boston:
Pitman.
Frooman, J. (1999). Stakeholder influence : oo
191-205.
Review, 24(2),& Jones, stategios. Academy of Management
ot
Hil, C. W.L., T: M. 1
theory. Journal
(19 2). Stakeholder-agency
Management
Shadies, 29(2), 191-104.
Jawahar, 1. M4. 8 descriptive stakeholder theory:
An organizationalMcLa ughlin, G. L. (2001). Toward a
Me cycle approach. Academy of Manageme
nt Review, 26(3), 397-
414,
Theorizeit
> qd.-agman-Bautista
Nopart of this book =
or transmitted in any form or by any means, including phan

troni nay method
i. of mechanical s, uced,
be reprod priorbuted,
withoutdistri written permission of the author. Violators shall be dealt with by law. For
email address at jenlag_bautista@yahoo.com.

e
at ha ve inve stigated usinatgionth < met |
r y,studanieds in
foud th e if there was a devi
Lo
yo
ok
ur st clud cen |
s with mila
si m! r th e
methsame
ods. to s of an an al ytical mais
(3) Studie ent the pertin en t ru le
n how yo u ap plied n
he methodological
Ex plai rch, pres erations nn
redibconsid
., ;
made. For quantitative resea tted to incorporate | h
research out " th
assumptions, Some researchers Om | considerations. To have a credible
: t,
ae : d
study and highl ight only the theoreticawv the basis
highlig of analyzing an processing of your data lik "i
encouraged to state
in the literature revie
previous studies.
5.2.3 Fuzzy Multi-A

g ; is a
Fuzzy multi-criteria decision makin ing of
developed to support the mak
method that is es many related factors,
complex decisions. It includ
of railway maintenance,
for example, in the case
to maintenance, a status
including a degradation due
of sub-structure,
of the superstructure, a status
ironment, and
degradation due to the env
se factors are
degradation due to dynamic Load. The
not any less
detailed in figure 3. The fuzzy logic is
It is a
accurate than any other form of logic.
erently
mathematical method to handle inh
imprecise concepts (Negnevitsky, 2002).
FMADM was developed based on the basic
concepts of fuzzy set theory together with Multi-
Attribute Decision Making (MADM). Chen and
Hwang (1992) hypothesize that FM ADM may
and
consist of fuzzy data (words) and numeric data,
fuzzy data can be represented by fuzzy numbers.
Figure 29. Sample Citation of Methods in the Literature Review

Note. Phanyakit, T,,and Satienman, T., (2019). Fuzzy Multi-Attribute decision making for the selection of a suitable railway track maintenasce
plan: A case study in Thailand. International Journal of Geomate. Vol. 17, issue 60, pp. 96-104.
In addition. You may opt to start with the chosen theme(s) and cascade what other researchers have
avorable
aaa like the advantages and disadvantages, positive or negative effects, favorable or unfavors
venianoes, strengths, and weaknesses, Also, you may opt to begin with big-picture ideas and movie
oward specific applications of these ideas.
DeD a soins ° summarize i relevant articles into subtopics. Paraphrase and synthesi
clea ze os|
ie e ay and emphasize clearly how the current study is
similar or different from
es. This may lead you to identify the research
gap.

EE
Ray
ulate a well-argued research gap, a .
rev iew is to be able to ie
_ _ id 1 . co
veesearcl gap. It serves asa “hidden ae Current

me researcher js ee
make
ee! the research
ees atestdifferent
on WHAT fromTHE
the RESEARCHER
previous studies, KNOWS
What hasAgan examined pat
able soto fardig in in theand
HAS N s ‘a f i A THE PRESENT

y, It is ons,
a proanductthe0 extensive literature
corresponding researchreview which Aserv
hypotheses. re es as ; the basis; in formulating the
sti = : Se Se ar x rot
research que
., lacking in the theoretical framework, the link to this gap could he pe may originate from what
It may be a different methodological approach of in Ge cera
framework. Itise ontextual when the pertinent
; variable
i or theory, will ean
be sedi " an ceich ratanen
xtual.
conte , : s erent circumstance,
ation, September 25
setting, or study site which had not been done before (J. Lacap, personal communic ,
2020).
flow, it is i : .
Use Linking Words. To improve the sentence con ser oe
readers follow the logi oo Lage
VY connectors. This will help your : : . nts.
oa fi sentence connectors in English to improve the flow of sent ence s withi n
w Below is a list of
paragraphs.
Table 15 :
Linking Words _ Conclusion |
Illustration Comparision
Cause & Effect Contrast For example Equally motconelade
Because However
Such as As with In conclusion
Since Nevertheless Likewise Finally
Alternatively For instance
For
In other words In the same way On the whole
So Despite this
Similarly Summarising
On the contrary An instance Overall
Consequently
Therefore Yet As revealed by Like
Of contrast To sum up
Whereas To show that
Thus Despite this Evidently
Apart from In the case of
Hence In comparison
Even so As an example
Owing to For one thing In contrast
Asa result of Although Even though
Causes Despite
As a consequence While Persuasion |
Emphasis Addition
of Sequence Of course
Significantly And
Leads to Firstly Clearly
Secondly Notably Also
Contributes to In addition Evidently
Brings about Then In particular
In fact Further Surely
Results in Next
Furthermore Indeed
Afterwards To be sure
Because of this Besides Undoubtedly
co es reason Finally Truly
In addition to Decidedly
Comes oa Eventually Actually
Moreover Certainly
Results from Previously For this reason
Additionally
Is the result of Not only ... but Besides
Is the consequence also Again
of Then
Is due to
Again
Is caused by Finally
Note. Enelj
oo glish Stud y Here (n.d.). Retrieved
: from https://englishstudyhere.com/conjunctions/connectors-list!
ee
iy Haman-Bautsta
1 No part of thi uding photoc opying,
other ,electro
a PIUES nic wren be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any me ans, incl with by law. For
Ue the ; ical methods, without prior written permission of the author. Violators s hall be dealt
ail address at jenlag_bautista@yahoo.com.
|

Lesson
ks
Research Framewor
Objectives
, you should be abl e to:
After completing this le son tanding of theory, concept and construct in order to
develop the
ons tra te a dee per und ers
> Dem
research frameworks hors
rk from the lens of the previous aut
Design a theoretical framewo!
Design a conceptual framework
from the proponent’s lens
VVWv
the application of the proposed model

Develop an Operational Framework necessary for
or project options
system, procedures, business strategies,
The Research Frameworks

on of your research study based
You learned from the previous chapter on how to explicate the foundati
eworks are crafted based on the
on the previous autho rs’ lens. While in this lesson, research fram
c diagrams, models, with visual blueprint presentation of the
study for
proponent’s lens using schemati
theories, concepts, models, systems, or applications.
. ot ri
igman-Bautista ;
art of this book m, by any means, ni fo
Onic orTeen Feet distributed, or transmitted in any form or
permission of the author. Violators shall be de
the email address at jt battsehatonen

qheoretical Framework
k as somethin g synonymous with the
Tr k, oli ae theoretica
the, eren l framewortwo, in term s of to whose point of view
nts ewor
At presefram a isa huge diff ce between the
conceptual
of research it applies. A theoretical
they reFer, Ue theories or concepts, and to what type
ee ed in the review of
It refers to the existing theories delineat
ework is derived from abate studies. y of
, and acceptance by a communit
tests, validation
ieee mee have undergonhe to view the world (as cited in Grant & Osanloo, 2014)
related i
researchers. Its the research er's lens with whic quantitative designs for
perspech ives eee ee authors. Traditionally, it only applies to less structured
based on the
enti ng and peua lene hypo theses. Qualitative research, though with ora gene rate a new
ses of pres pse of theories to disprove, improve,
theoretical framework, would still have a glim quantitati ve,
used in different research designs, either in framework,
one. Utilizing ® theontical framework can be ). When crafting a theoretica l
uaitative ane methods (Grant & Osanloo, 2014
mixed examines the
starts with a broad theory,
pyramid where he/she theories, and then applies
the SET at apply ne iene l evidence of appropriate
serulini@es the empirica of the study is to support,
theoretical foundations and d, 2018). Thus, the defining phase
10 the present
ies rm, the theory. study (Tri nida
these , theor
OF confi
reject
What is a Theory? fact that provides members of a

The theory is an organized system of a validated and accepted
a frame of reference to explain a specific set of
professional discipline with a common language and new interpretations and new
phenomena (Kumar & Ramayah, 2017). Theories can give previous data
act as a bridge between
meanings based on how the researcher’s findings turned out. In research, theories
the dependent and independent variables (Kumar & Ramayah, 2017).
Independent Variable | Theory Dependent Variable
Figure 30. Role of Theory

s needed in the study (Kumar
A theoretical framework is a clear representation of interrelated theorie
and illustrates the connections among the
& Ramayah, 2017). It is logically crafted, and it describes,
nt of adopted theory(s) that the
variables relevant to the research problem. It presents the bluepri
s. The framework identifies which
researcher identified to draw boundaries in making generalization
e which likely becomes the basis
among the variables have caused an influence on the dependent variabl
ork draws the line between
for the occurrence of a phenomenon of interests. The theoretical framew
research.
testable hypotheses and the choice of research methods in quantitative
work are the following:

0 The features to be incorporated into the theoretical frame
and
1. Specify the broad theories used as the basis for the study, mention the proponents of each theory,
cite the main points emphasized in that theory.
2. Identify, contrast, and compare the different theories discussed in your literature review.
3. Set aside or reject theories not useful to your study.
©2020 by Jennie Lagman-Bautista

book may be reproduced, tdistrib by any mes? including photocopyingFor,
uted, or transmitted in any form or Violato
feserved. No part of thismechan ical methods, withou prior written permis sion of the author, rs shall be dealt with by law.
other electronic or
ts, use the email address at jenlag_bautista@yahoo.com.

%
3, Connect and describe the relationship between the theories and variables appticayy. me
Sf
A, Discuss firat in paragraph form the theoretical framework before presenting the dig etarn, If, the
i
and direction of the relationships can bere theorized based on the findings frorn previ OWS teen iy
or negative,
whether the relationships would be positive neath
* Mig
5, There should be a clear exp lanation as: to why you would expect these relationshing‘ 1, 6x;
important argument from the proponent 16, whether there is a need to innovate ¢ m Use the relay im
these theories in a different perspective from the previous studies, "Orso
6, Illustrate the theoretical framework through a schematic diagram so that the readers CAN see
and tap
comprehend the theorized relationships.
INustrative Example 6 ——_
Theoretical Frameworks
Design Theory ———__|
Endironment |fetersnes| 19 Research Hig | Knowledgs Base
“Peo
Sikes Dorel tisiA Foundations
iroone
es ’ Thectes Simms
Organizations | Buveers ! pyptesisn | “mateats

“drat & Care oe . mnt Jose Krone | “etcts
Marterckonias
ew dentate yo
Aer nre oe ih Formate
aon
Dnraserpraet a
Geechatens “Wetedaticrs Crensin fet
ae
as
Aerhaxtion ithe bikitiers
to the
Source: Hevner, A., March, S:T., Park, Pe
; | Design scien
in information
ce systems reséarche MIS quarterly, 241) 716
The unique competing space framework
The five forces that shape the industry
oF ive Forces
Tha SH
Source: Porter, M., (2008).
The Five
Strategy. Harvard Business Review. Vol. 86, fasue |, PP: BH
_
i mechanica mest
I addressat ientag|
a distributed, Of transmitted in any form or by any means,
Out prior nen permission of the author. Violators stall be deat
wit
ocx

it your Th
de you a visual idea or help you construct | r ctical Framew
rature revi ew
suggested we site wi make lite ie and et cilioes _ theo rizeit com,
ie pted theories, simi lar stud ies, and theoretical Papi uly ize the widet
a
’ y
oa papell ? a
e sear ch engine, and type “Theorizeit”.

corner
Use the Gos! e window, a search icon appears on the upper right Theory”
On the main pab the theory. For example, “Account ability
in the searc! h window
description, diagram /
wil l show the fol l owing: content-box, acronym, alternative name, concise
jt
tic of theory, orig
inating authors, and others.
schema
fights 20)ty Jennie: Lagman-Ba fista
ting oy ype, NO Pa OF thi eee

means, including photocopying,
distributed, or transmitted in any form or by anysion requests, use email address
1 OF othe, : IS book
gg, tor mecha aes

sion of the author. For permis
Without prior written permis
Kindy return COM) This is q draft versi
‘COM,
oa ao ook eveluaton purp
,
oses any. Any prot titr y acs commited wl be sb 1 legal
Bis bock ety

As cited in Lagman-Bautista (2016): a
IMustrative Example 7 ~~
Theoretical Framework time, coa— ‘
b ased on the iron-triangle of
Cost Manazement starts with performance measurement =
2009). The main objective is to become a cost leader by | mi ang
quality (Haponava & Al Jibour i,
increasing productivity (Kinney & Raibon, 2011), and can be achiev ed through, Upgrading/madig 8 ip
impro ving internal contro l (Prah alad & Hamel , 1990). A company using 4 oot
internal processes or
Stategy can use cost structure 43 4 tool to determine prices with the impact to give emphasis in me Wherg
to better control.
costs might potentially be reduced or cost be subjected
COSt presentation and
It is inevitable to have a cost system that will promote cost ascertainment,cost-control
may utilize the different methods ue
control (Welingkar, 2011). Business organization
of excessive expenditures, or comparison Of act as
periodic monitoring of ongoing activities, avoidance contro| involy Wities
vital improvement of internal
and costs against budgets (Kinney & Raiborn, 2011). A
Accountin a
looking for the most suitable system of monitoring and control activities for Project Cost detective _ Sutler
& Zelanzny, 2013) which can be achieved through “Variance Analysis”, as a preventive,
corrective control on project cost (Zhan, 1998). Under the umbrella of Project cost management are diff
Earned Value Management ( Sloninsky, 2013,"
variance analysis tools: Traditional method (Drury, 1992),
Cost Value Reconciliation (Potts, 2003).
PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT
Performance Measurement
(Haponava & Al-Jibouri, 2009)
Increase Production se Upgrade/ Modify Process.

<— -Lower Prices (Kinney & Raiborn, 2011 Prahalad & Hamel, 1990 Improve Internal Control,
Cost
ost System Internal Control
(Wetingiar, 2011) (Butler& Zelazny 2013)
Objectives * s Classifications
Cost Ascertainment
i ts Cost Strategy “| -Preventive Control
Cost Presentation (Kinney& Raiborn, 2011 -Detective Control
Cost Control (a) Periodic monitoring of on-going -Corrective Control
| activities Pa
(b) Avoidance of excessive
expenditure
(c) Comparison of activities & costs
against budgets
—* VARIANCE ANALYSIS ~
-“— (Zhan, 1998) ti
ij ~~ ~
~
_ -Traditional Method(Drury, 1992) ~~~

-Famed Value Management (Sloninsky, 2013)
-Cost Value Reconciliation (Potts, 2008)
ca by Jeomie Lagman- Batts copyitd:

WO of this i = ;
;
sz by el ee distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, includi Ni) ane fa
ys 00s, without prior written permission af the anthar Violators shall be dealt
in Lai snan-Bautista (2019): a o a
as cited 0 Ae —— IMustrative Haample &

Theoretical Framework
cpt ciara cmaiasecpha cae es ay :
ee
In APBL curricula, the students are the focal point where they practice “jue in time” learning by
2b-
hand (Wee Keny Neo & Kek Yih Chyn, 2002, py
ging relevant knowledge to solve the problem at for leaming, therefore, the
a To illustrate, the authors found that the problem forms the stimulus
= jem should represents a higher order of thinking and must replicate the challenye that the students will
i the real world when they graduate, Thus, itis the problem that would push the students to apply
the box.
prior knowledge and think out of
their
Student-Centered | eaming
Teacher-Centered Learning
Real World Proble

as Curriculurn
Student as
Problem
Solver
Traditional Learning Model APBL Model
Figure 1. Traditional vs. Authentic Problem-Based Learning Model pattern form

Outcomes Based Education. In APBL curricula, the student is the center of Jearning where
he’she practices “just in time” learning by seeking relevan knowledge to solve the problem
at hand (Wee Keng Neo & Kek Yih Chyn, 2020, pp. 26-27).

al Framework ; oe . .
onceptual F
Concept, Cor ustrnet,
and C~me aning
‘a or characteristics
, : linked representation
‘hte with certain of anents
aber enn
Situations ss Chery
A concept is an acceptable oe ‘ 2019). It is an intangible representat N abstract ide, (Kup
objects, or behaviors (Schindler, Nar B,
Ramayah, 2017).
-
ds derived
GC from life experienc es. They can either be in the form of os
¢ Concepts use words
reference or abstractions.
. Concepts Ee sssive
eeialchlevels of abstraction ~A chair is an objective CONCEP (first Jon.
of the object that the mind developed and
had bee, Re
}
designated label. The image of a square in our mind is a concrete object with four COMETS. Chane
~~
gual
isan abstract concept (second level) as it is much harder ie visualize but a symbolic
characteristic had been attached to the label (Schindler, 2019).
* During primary data collection, the concepts in the study must be
defined unmistakezbly to
prevent data confusion. You might, for example, ask a respondent to provide
an estimated tote]
family income. Income may seem to be a simple concept, but your subject may
have Varying
answers unless you restrict or narrow the concept by specifying the: -
|. Time-period, such as daily, monthly, semi-monthly, or annually.
2. Is it gross income or net income?
3. Is it compensation income, business income, or passiv
e income?
4. Will it include, fringe benefits, income in-kind,
or appraised value?
Construct is a higher level of concept. A construct is an abstract idea specifically invente
d for a given
research and/or theory-building purpose (Schindler, 2019). You build constructs by combining coneratz
eon indldeer, pecial
(Sch 2019).lyWhilwhen the idea or image you intend to convey is not subject to direct observatio
e the theoretical framework is the theory
framework is the operationalization on which the study is based, the concepuz!
of the theory (Kumar, & Ramaya
h, 2017).
A conceptual framework stems from the theoretical framework (Mendoza,
2012) which can be viewed 2s
whey Role
after the cut. is the the
cake,It while researc her’sor the
former concep
positio tualthe framew
n on ork is a slice of that cake that has been modified
proble m and gives direction to the study (Kumar &
Ramayah, 2017) but this time using a lens based on
the perception of the researcher and not from previo
authors as mentioned in crafti
ng a theoretical framew
will be able to show ork, Through the conc
.
the relationshi ps of different eptual LE ework, eiNie
-., os have a theoretical framework but a conceptual constructs subject to researchfram
investigation. al
framework is necessary as the bema a
connect . he Conceptual framework is a
visualization of the researcher’s proposition
substantiate oa problem on how Y
based on his/her abstractions of the literature
k. the mciual evidence to answer the research problem. As how he/ and ¢
researcher wi 3 a walkthrough ! the soacnots ft nt
literature r eview, provides high 4 critical assessment of the research problem, tie the riot
x II 202 1 byreserved.
rights Jennie Lagman
-Bauoftistthisa
No part YT
book may
x ‘pele
peording, Or other electronic OF mMerhanioat ‘be reproduced, istri
distributed. ar tranemittad in an farm ar hv anv means, ine judive aaitttgn OF ip
a es
.
ES
EERE
g A conceptual framework can be formulated by:

-- the adopted conceptual framework 5
ia)) Citing the Yadopte 7
Reviewing : rk or preferably creating your ow n
2 raemaifvine the variables, themes, or ¥Pe of data you wi
specific concepts that the
Clarifving the assumptions made one fo
m your study
a ashe the relationships of different constructs . =
(showing the direction of the study and the outcome

reia) Discus
justrasing first conce
ting the in parag form the conceptual framework before Presenting the diagram
ptualraphframework through a schematic di
nlnprenend «tenet : © Clagram so that the reader can see and casi
ease
the ideas in pursuing the study and a clear direction on the research outcome(s) _
4s cited in Lagman-Bautista (2020):

Illustrative Example 9
Conceptual Framework
The study proposed a scientific method to ascertain the degree of significant changes in
the four ecological footprint indicators in relation to waste generation per capita on the: (a)
level of consumption using average family expenditures (b) quality of population using
Human Development Index (c) level of income or average family income and (d) quality of
habitat using population density. The Ecological Footprint is used to gauge the exerted
degree of consumption of human beings on its ecological environment.
aon € 1. Conceptual Framework for Solid Waste Generation in the Philippines using
orrelational Analysis on Economic and Social Metrics
copying,
OFother elery tt this book may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any mean dealtdingwithphoto
halls, beinclu by law. For
Meniicete NC Of Mechanical methnde usthnut nrinr writtan nermission of the author, Violators s
126
= : i
the previous Illus trative Example 10
Continuation of
heses on the Conceptual Framework
os Research Hypot
Research Hypothesis
-
lationsh ipchin be between n W: waste generat
ion per capita and:
< a Sipni nt re
There is a significa
(B1) Population Density
nditure
(B2) Average Family Expe
me
(B3) Average Family Inco
ex
(B4) Human Development Ind
using the research variables

The illustrative example depicted a way of presenting conceptual framework
and hypotheses based on quantitative research design. While the conceptual framework of a qualitative
themes, etc.
research was based on propositions, using phenomenon,
Operational Framework. Applied business research and evaluation research has an operational
framework. It is helpful to strike a clear visual illustration on how to do the proposed specific procedures,
system, or model. It serves as a “how to do it” manual of your conceptual framework. It may be presented
using a flowchart or diagram to identify the step-by-step procedure, event, or activity. There can be several
operational frameworks within one study, depending on the number of proposed outcomes requiring
operational frameworks. For example, the research proposal to U&I Company recommends a change in its
inventory system from Just-in-time to Economic order Quantity (EOQ) or Periodic Order Quantity (POQ).
Hence, you need to construct two operational frameworks, one for the EOQ Model and the other for the
POQ Model. The purpose of the operational framework is to serve as an instructional manual
that you need
tounderstand first before using a newly purchased home
appliance.
As cited in Lagman-Bautista (2019),

unpublished portion:
Operational Framework
Appl
icat:
eduemprsuien ae of APBL. The students together with the supervision of a {3
students wilt be a aa scenario of an actual tax working envi
ronment. The
represented by their corres ar members will play the role of different taxp
ayers
act as a BIR examiner and will ing tax accountant as the group leader. The instructor W! ill
accountant is mandated t Provide actual real-life tax
scenarios. Each taxpayer/tax
0 report to stakeholders the tax
implications
. » Proposed strate ie .
prob lems encountered,
sennmunicates TespectiveBIR makin Putations, accomplishments of BIR forms and
learning will be ‘ lement &S, and Procedures
proced :
for tax compliance. Thehe APBLAF?
the final petiod od after
computation after nono all through-out the € 1 15! semestral
students sufficient] period but the bul k will be om
¥ acquired the technical knowledge in tax
; ; otoc0r p
: distributed“7
OF transmitted in any form or by any means, inca
Out prior py we
ee Permisasion of the author, Violators shall be deal
Mentoring/Orientation Stage. Before the actual implementation of the APBL
rogram, 4 closed group pre-test will be handled, Student inquiries on the APBL output
and student delivery will be tackled during the orientation. The mentoring stage will be.
nd group meetings will be recorded and submitted to the instructor.
minimal a
student
Learner-Center Approach. The strength of APBL lies on self-directed
he students realize the limits of their prior knowled ge, seek ways on how
learning’s where t hypothesize the possible
to get the information needed, and how to attack the problem, and
create possible solutions, thus refining
causes and effects as well as ways to generate and
group. They will interview members
their problem-solving approach as individual and as a Industry and other
0 f Internal Revenue (BIR), Department of Trade and
from the Bureau getting a the business
Ag encies to understand the whole process of
Local Government of registra tion, and
ova 1 of a business name, acquiring a certificate
permit, seeking appr
s.
filing of BIR form
will be
k Using theres be done on a per activity basis. Students
Evaluation Stage. The evaluation will ssme nt on
| Tamevaig,§ and written exam. The gencral asse
graded based on proposed rubrics for APBL emented to valid ate
i idually and as a group will be impl
the performance of the students indiv
nt in the four targeted skills.
if there is a significant improveme
reflections, and
tly, keen observations, documentations,
1» Enhancement of APBL. Las
research has nts, and the working group shall susta
in the life-
sik assessments from the tax facilitator, stude will be
¢ proposed assessment on the APBL activities
long process of APBL enhancement. Oral for continuous
ramework. h a y s t will be generated by the facilitator
conducted and a written summary repor
viThteey. improvement.
or acti 4 a
; proposed
en
any recomm
one
eriodic alt
l
)Q Mode
™
srvctioo
Mentoring)
Orientation Stage ~
amer-Center
spproach-
Figure 2
- Operati
ional Framework of APBL for Tax Accounting Students of HAU
Sry
Ml ihe! 8 Lag Baul
"orgy : No “Walutista
Varig ' °F other ectron121 Of this book May by e
Megueste i s mechanical mated. wan distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying,
eMail address atjenlag : ut rare written permission of the author, Violators shall be dealt with by law. For
wt 00,comM,

144
Unit V
Lesson
Research Methods
Objectives
Select the appropriate research design to the study.
Collect qualitative data from the respondents.
VV
Collect quantitative data from the participants.

Assess the impact of data measurement to the study.
VVVVV
Evaluate a research Instrument delineating the characteristics of a good measurement technique.

Apply the different sampling strategies.
Set up a sampling design.
Operate a statistical software & sample size calculator.
Research Methods
An inherent aspect of a research method is its ability for replication by future researchers. The chapter
allows you to learn to write the Method Section which includes data collection design, sampling dese
research instrument, and basis for analysis and interpretation.

EE
-=—C
gclect the appropriate research

design, The research design is the
blue print for collectin
fi itills objectives and answers questions, It helps ascertain the app g data that
sire the research objectives. Itis purpos roa ch which the researche
ely designed to answer two m ain r uses to
ree A . questions (Schindler, 201
9):
}* for data collection design:
What data need to be collected, how, and
in what format?
» for sampling design:
What data need to be collected, from whom, and from
how many’?
— ensions of Data Colle
ction Design. First questi: on, what type of dat a need to be colle
what format? The question pertains to the object of cted, how, and in
the study, the researcher’s ability to manipulate vari
to be studied, thetopical Sanpe, m asurement emphasis of research ables
techniques, the complexity of the design,
method of data collection, research environment, time dimension, participants’ research awareness.
Table I8 .
Collection Design Options
DataDimens ion Data collection design options
Obiective of the study Exploratory (requires the summation of explored data to
’ generate statistics for comparison, and to provide new
insights and discoveries)
Descriptive (to describe the data collected concerning the
research subject)
Causal either explanatory or predictive
Explanatory (why, how, now)
Predictive (what, why, future)
Researcher's ability to manipulate Experimental (ability to manipulate)
the variables in the study Ex post facto (no ability to manipulate)
Topical scope of the study Statistical study (significant breadth, some depth)
Case study (little breadth, significant depth)
Measurement emphasis of research Qualitative (emphasis on measures of the meaning)
techniques Quantitative (emphasis on measures of frequency)
Complexity of design Single Methodology or Multiple Methodologies
Method of data collection Monitoring or Communication study
Research environment Field setting
Laboratory research
Simulation
Time dimension Cross- Sectional (one measurement at one period)
Longitudinal (multiple measurement over a period of time)
Participants? research awareness No deviations perceived
With deviations perceived, not research-related
Note The a With deviations perceived but researchers induced
bove dat 4 collection design options were adapted from the Business Research Methods of
Schi
ndler. 2019
, p - McGraw-Hill/Irvin.
b
Ai ne Lagman-Bautista
Mite oy ved No Part of this book may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, ney
ere
"ie ey Electronic OF mechanical methods, without prior written permission of the author, Violators shall be dealt with by
law. For
w, USE the email address at jenlag_bautista@yaho
o.com.
ESE
Data are collective units of information ( financial statements, sales volume, number of defers;
products, inventory reports, data collected from an interview or Survcy, photos, behaviors, attribute, a
from a subject-object, participant, or respondent. Said data a SS a following a Consistent i
systematic procedure, Data can cither be primary or secondary. | rental os n irst-hand SOUTCES Collecteg
or recorded by the researcher using surveys, interviews, experiments, a ee for Purposes
analyzing a particular phenomenon, behavior, condition, object, oF ti ic ted (Schindler, 2919
While the collected secondary data are from surveys and experiments, a ii ste om Processed by other
people, organizations, government agencies, or from internet aan s ne ee )I 2). Secondary
could be used to validate primary data (like interviews). At BREE ee oe — are used as stand-alone
data particularly the company’s financial information, industry saosin Ba cee indicators, As to
reliability, the research community accepts secondary data for ee ae ity and quality dye +
lack of the proponent’s manipulation, especially when published by firms and the government.
Collecting Qualitative Data

Qualitative research is flexible and typically uses methods that elicit open-ended questions from the
respondents. There is a need for the researcher to consider the actual environment of the research Subjects
through observations, interviews, and questionnaires. An observation is a systematic and direct interaction
with individuals or a particular group of individuals. For the researcher, it can either be participant
observation (immersion) or non-participant observation (passive observer). One constraint of this method,
it is time-consuming. Another is the intricate extraction or interpretation of qualitative data.
An interview is a purposeful conversation to systematically, and uniformly gather the information that
would give shapes, answers, solutions, and clarity to the research questions. It can either be structured
(using an interview guide questionnaire), semi-structured (with guide questions but may include or exclude
items), or unstructured interviews (flexible with the delivery). When doing an interview, it is bestto listen
more and talk less. You may clarify and follow up on answers needing greater details or ambiguous answers.
It is always encouraged to ask prior permission and scheduled date of interview. It must be documented
which forms as an integral part of ethical considerations. Also, for all types of data collection, a consent
form must be signed to document voluntary participation and awareness of the proponent’s confidentiality
protection clause.
A focus group discussion is classified as an interview even though conducted between the researcher
and a group of people (usually 5-10 people having common experiences related to the topic of the study).
Whether it is individual or focus group interviews) it is advisable to record electronically the entire
conversation followed by a transcription. Transcribe according to themes like, What are the recurrent
answers? What are the insights from the interview? Why did people perceive
such things? How were
things or ideas delivered? What is the pattern of collated responses? What were the things that wereinesnot
disclosed in the limitation of the study? There will always be a need to summarize and connect thes?
gathered data to have significance to your study.
; eof
sof] tea:
A questionnaire °
isf a written :
list of ~ questions constructed and validated by the researcher. This tyP
A
stionnaire
mayme be scasent to a courier,
.
conducted through mobile calls, emails or in: person. The ae eat
ondent
s ie questionnaire with answers annii att ;
design ques tionnaires 4
rproficien")
ended or closed-ended questi answers, data, or explanation. Qualitative
and nded questions
4 needed technical depending on the objective of the study, participant’s level 0! P
descrintj for each ite ey
:
questionnaire. escription
P : :
ch item of consideration. :
For ‘tat?
quantitative ian
design,, mm, itis
itis ca called 254"
© 2021 by Jonnie Lagman-Bauisa 7 cory

Fighls.reserved, No part of this book Ged, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by a” hall
y means,
becui
deal
i
ithout prior wrillen permission of the author. Violators s
yahoo.com.

L
Types of
od
cee
questionnaire data |
|
|
|
Talogorical Duta
(Qualitative , Numerical Data i
(Quantitative
Variables)
Variables)
oc ae
an
on | Binary Ordinal Continuous Decrete
Continuous Continuous
Interval Ratio
hi ve ing
no nau
but are A special case of :
Categories that
Mate
ssumes that
——— . :
Theoretically can An integer is
~~
yell equivalent
ial number ne erinal
ty two data with | have a natural differences take on any possible usually a count
optional consistent ordering between scores of |] value within a given
nu score that can only
i on y ories given to | for ranking equal magnitude — |Jrange and is be represented
alter ca for data ae ae mean equal measured on a using whole
ae participan's differences in the }} consistent scale such
sure! numbers.
iable f 4
mgtcalvesofanalysis
statis |],
ier Yes or No,
or credit he, aging of variable that the value 0
receivables measuremen t represents an
ypes 0, el
i.e, number of
‘ ; 4
‘a . tion (sole n ve or False, (30days, 60days, ie, job absence sof
of the people, number of
organiza “hp ” Ale oF 90days or first, satisfaction quality being units to purchase,
ee ‘ yayors ble second, third, (measured ona observed. number of shares
pare x unfivora ucth, ate scale from 1-4) (i.e., age, height)
corporal! vartance, in stocks
aire Data
Figure 33. Types of Questionn
The characteristics of a good research instrument
Validity. The extent to which a tool measures what it is supposed to measure. The instrument is valid if it
tackles all the aspects of the concepts. | ty ote same
Reliability. The extent to which a measurement is free from error when applied caer Doe ert
object and would always yield the same result. Reliability has to do with the precision © eee
procedure, The other aspect of reliability measurement is the use of scaling designs. Se tie oF
Process of assigning numbers or other symbols to a property object to import some of the
number to the properties in question.
Practicality, Considers the actual deployment of the research instrument that ought Suneeniere
“Onvenient, and interpretable, It is economical if it is within the planned budget while ne cae
number of questions affects the degree of convenience to participants. More items provide a e ea he
Perspective but at the cost of the interviewee’s time. The participant tends to mechanically pe ‘ i E ao
nt ete
uy When confronted with a lengthy questionnaire. It could also affect the reliability 0
“Onsideration the convenience on the part of the one who administers the instrument. The p
©20095
ights Py dennires, eL 29 4N-Bautista
A altof this book may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in includi tocopying,
any form or Violators
by any mean s,
shall beCEdealt E i
witht h by
by law.rSFor
EE
clronic or mechanical methods, without prior written permission of the author. i
the email address at jenlag_bautista@yahoo.com.

148
brought by COVID-19 has changed the research landscape into a virtual approach intery;
and the like. Now, con thro,
forms, survey monkey,
meetings, and surveys on Google x data veg 2m
preference by providing conveni ence
both on the part of the researcher nig 2
detailed and clear instruction, scoring ali
Lastly, interpretability consideratior 7 includes Paras
rch results. wes NE defin:
technical terms, and the importance 0 f the resea Mii on =
Good Measurement
Figure 34. Good measuring characteristics of a research instrument
Common types of scales used in research are the following:

Rating Scales — can be dichotomous or have multiple choices.
Dichotomous Scale — has two possible answers to a question.
VVVV
Ranking Scales — rank preferences based on a list of related items. t of

— is used in statements wherein the respond ent shows the amoun
Likert Scale
agreement/disagreement. i
the respon dent selects 4 pom
Semantic Differential Scale- connects two bipolar words where
Vv
representing his opinion.

Importance Scale — rates the importance of an attribute.
Vv
Attribute Rating Scale — assesses the attributes from poor to excellent .

of the respondent to buy something.
VV
Intention-to-buy Scale — describes the intention

Ro
ed in La man-Bautista (2019);
ascited in REE Illustrative Example 13
Reseach Design —~
The study is a mixed-method of quantitative and qualitative

research. Anova was
nt eval
uation of APBL. mod
used for the quantitative analysis of stude the Then, Wilcoxon
test of ranks was employed to determine effectiveness of APBL . ules.
. based on the est pre-t
and post-test analysis,
The purpose of this research ts to apply an authentic tax cases to determine if there
studen t development based : on integratedto knowledge acquired,
sroblem-solving skills e andAPLself-
isan increa® inne lever
rr taxation in the thre directed learning skills. The ability
B modules from conception of business
apply the principles
needing permit to
srate or cert ific ate of registra
ope ome liabilities of employees and tion from the Bur eau of Inte rnal Revenue, and accounti
business entity were used, The module ng
ot ane for they were derived on real indi s are
viduals and business entities, supported with
a
ac tual schedules, payslips, financial statements, working paper used in the business
industry.
_
i. ' n
eae ign, either quantitative (bigger sample size) or qualitative (smaller sample size), must be
a reseair ene opulation that objectively represents the entire population to have statistical
beso on te eon deni RCanbe implies that the results of the statistics are reliable, but it does not
significance. A on th i the difference is substantial. Investigators see the importance of statistical
ee id reliable study design by identifying the proper sample size and sufficient statistical
significance “0 eS ue ve Wu, 2005). A researcher can not include all the population unless it is a census
press = cited in a opulation. But if it falls short in representing the population, it boils down to the
ae i iit of the results and conclusions. The purpose of collecting data from a sample is to
a rate ie her o generalize on the entire population based on the sample drawn. Two basic phage
ee
oe decisions about the sampling design (Easterby-Smith, et al., 20 ie ieee
precision. To ensure a good sample, there are two general precautions (Kumar et al.); (a pales toa valid
a g
samplin techni ue which is unbiased (b) split the population into segments or strata
eethe type of employees, organ
parameter like sanization, ; income, capitalization and so on,
Table 19
Sampling Strategies
Strate Procedure and Purpose ae - - wd
Random Sampling There is a probabilistic selection of participants or ati ‘for’
such that the sample is likely to reflect the target ae a miele
generalization purposes). Each has an equal probability 0 8
chosen.
; > a selected
ahilty.
afte sampling It is a non-probabilistic sampling, technique where ST
a based on some sampling rules like the ease of access an
ectof this book may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any including photocopying,
fonic or mechanical methods, without prior written permission of the author, Violators
ES wih by law. For
USé the email address at jenlag_bautista@yahoo.com.

ulated ris ks and is commonl
gy may le ad to uncalc tion a i
This st ra te
th e pri jority is the speed of data collec
here
situations w thering co
sts. e
data ga
lowering of
ticipants ae
led as ref err al sa mpling. Selected parpar
a ticipants ee
o cal
It isthealsres earc her to recommend other potential
by
Snowba; ll sampling
ing 0 its
ty sampling is
criteria for selection. This type of nonprobabili
the ulation.
limited access to the pop
useful in settings with
with a sample consisting of
Tris a type of purposive sampling include a wider variety of incidents
n sampling
Maximum-variatio extreme cases. The purpose 1s to F
on a given phenomenon.
cases, or con ditions
ve sampling tec hnique when interested in the

It uses the purposi
Typical-case sampling lity of the population. This sampling aims at
normality or typica
t ypical instances.
identifying the most
nd to the extent to which they
It involves selecting cases that correspo
Theory-guided sampling is a must to meet the
represent a particular theoretical construct.stuItdy.
eory of the
criteria set embodied in the th
n of cases or interviews
A purpo sive sampling technique is a selectio
Negative/deviant case of explanation, in contrast to
that are likely to contra dict a theory
sampling
theory-guided sampling.
n the study needs to glean
Expert sampling A purposive sampling technique used whe
ondents. It applies to
on the expertise or specific knowledge of resp
the exploratory phase of qualitative research.
in Smith,
above illustrated sampl ing strat egies were adopt ed from Tracy (2013); Miles, et al. (2014); as cited
Note. The
et al. (2018).
Statistical Software and Sample Size Calculator

ae omen eo ce access statistical software that could help you compute the sample oS x
oat oan Statistical software has made sample size calculation and power analy 7 aa 0
for researchers. You need to select the statistical test, YP
power analysis, » input uncomplicated
Input parameters or inclusion and exclusion criteria, and setting justification.

Thee teamnigen 0 ane oa Neem meric UF ste theme Yrs 0 Scere FG A tocemctAriane
arnsyea wtehd TI meowmt re2, yras ray be wile ts leet ae w farget
thane Ah erten Rie A the teagerecch mie opie lO 86 Af,
ie Lm Mees A 108 Sau hems & bein Sucre Ss
a
Thea <crtiw Hoval re Rhos merase of ome meh erty yous Con teense Sepgeise thed yom have 79 yes no quash In ytur surey Wath
tant? ten sakes wr omc? trom Se tom oS them enenrstcsns (1 TE), Yow Gace a carkdenre
level of 95%,
Ak som oh ania whey meererse v9 wOHiG bm rine Thien the mance of 9rroe meeay
ins ot
ent
gm
Te
earenr Tha iro mmvwer ta the paar netanes tis mend rt Hyon echanrt nah WAAR ome ptne from the trae
Hight (Ree hare mornmears 9 Kang Sienisn ra
ice ermeny tate a9 Sheen to cnterem yoo citi wart boone? Tha grmghe
Sire Crveyelt Change merch fen perpalatinecs
laxyr than 20,000
ares ee
Fen wath quate whan
Aa yrs wreak The sults
wll ha’ H tim semen is shened hictity One wary oF tha cthen tha populations prohatby mina W you der
ea won ogo 4 noe one UG atch
pore the barged peer oie oss ‘Ses beater umcer Wea inter maticn & thes 29 comtssinns,
os wt
Thee 1 the Oentrnsen inccornenntied
wren CF yirue seme MW ytul conshe a <aengle ch this many paocta aed gut inagenaes kom eevee, yrAlre teens Keely 1b get
ad
ge Cok antNCd sree thea ipate Sica TEAM a Netipa Mahe atten Diy A Reta Late ard any Oh the Bae TAB GORE lo ytrw surmy
Online servers with Vaviei have completion rates nf 64%!
WIR w corkideree leet of |

You sumpha site wend nod to be |
Save effort, cave tinne. Corndnet your servey online with Vevict
ie
Fee Edt Veew Texts Celculatoe beip

noncentsat distributions Protocet Of power analyses
Coraral and
en,
Critecal t — 1.97897
ea ——
used when the sub ate i
\
i
} ~
I| '{ ~
ledge of respostea
tae os ~
wi
|
ye reseach. joz
1
~
~
~
j
(os ae
ie A
13); Miles.
~
|
_——
oly ~~ ; z 3 5
—2 ~2 =3 a 1 = = * =
parameter & 2.82842713

ttoncentratity
Craicast 1.9789706
a
pr 126
mere prom | 9.05
040 Sample size group3 Ga
* O-B ere prow
' Sampte size group2 es
PEE FAY
Tt Fai
Total sample size
+28
Actual power 3014596
X-¥ ptot for a range of values [ cCakutare |,
fer P O
t i s tock
may pe
MF Besser. o theecheniesy reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying,
(Ue Nee tay A abe ot je a vathout prior written permission of the author. Violators shall be dealt with by law. For
ay bautistagyahoo.com.

a
Participants
Data measurement in quantitative research has toi do with numbers to be 7 measured stat \stical
i
while the meat
ata .
research subjects who would answer the survey SE are Thee

The se respondent iscri li
ndents.
subjects in qualitative research are called respo
conducted to a theoretically smaller number of individuals or focus groups. The goal is to ej cit Sufficient
knowledge, experience, and candidness from the respondents and be able to draw the real Condition,
the study.
problem, elements, themes, or phenomena of
There are three broad conditions to have a successful survey within the Control of the
participant/respondent (Schindler, 2019): (a) The participant must have knowledge on the information being
targeted by the researcher (b) The researcher must understand his or ss
her role in the survey as the pr vider
of accurate information (c) The participant must have adequate motivation to cooperate. While the factors
that could induce participation are the following: (a) The belief that the experience will be pleasant (b) Itis
worthy of their time (c) The objective of the study is valuable to them or to the community. Hence, the
researcher should take extra effort to convey the purpose of the study, design an appropriate research
instrument, and at times provide tokens to compensate the time consumed in answering.
As cited in the unpublished part of the doctoral dissertation of Lagman-Bautista (n.d.). Community-based
Model for Ecological Footprint Accounting of Waste Management in Angeles city: The Triple Bottom Line
Sustainability:
Participants
The perception-based survey on biodegradables and non-biodegradables will be participated by

the households of Angeles City. A sampling formula recommended by the Philippine Social Survey
Council will be applied to get the sample size of households based and on 95% confidence level and oh
concn of error. The resulting sampling size of 384 participants will be allocated based on the Philippiné
ae pepopulate
witha (eA) published city population of 411 000 for the year 2015 (for Barangay Bain
a on of 32 000/411 000 will have 31 participants equivalent to 8%). The household selec
ce on the listing of the barangay and random sampling will be performed.
Sampling Size Fi ormula
;
n= (NZu2) [p(1-p)]
NE?+ (Zu?Ip) -P)]
r distributed,
ted, or transmitted
Nsmitted iin any form or by any means,
" s, sacl 10
et Eitan permission of the author, For permission re vl be sures
ARAN nis. - . - oom = ae anmmille

Research Mid 2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Research Mid 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lesson

Scanne d with CamScanner

a But | intend to start with my

Scanned with CamScanner

The emphasis is on collecting and involves examining and reflecting on the

Although harder to design initially, it is difficult to interpret and to present the

Trend Analysis Predicts or forecasts the future direction of events.

Scanned with CamScanner

Ontology | Epistomology Paradigm or

Scanned with CamScanner

Constructivist. Objectivist states that social entities (like organizations, societi

ON bee ing photon

Operational Definition of V ariables

Scanned with CamScanner

ith the key ‘eria for tes ty, iab ili

Variables bute (as cited in

Scanned with CamScanner

Quantitative variables may cither be numerical (discrete variables) or continuous (ratio)

Continuous variables have an infinite

Scanned with CamScanner

4, 50, 6th Con, Column yh

350.7 Ibs 5.8” 150,000.00 uot

Variables as to Study Design

Variables as to Causality eous,

Scanned with CamScanner

Figure 19. Dependent and Independent Variables

Scanned with CamScanner

Figure 22. Confounding Variables

Scanned with CamScanner

Figure 23. Intervenning Variables

Scanned with CamScanner

Figure 24. Mediator Model of Baron and Kenny (1986)

Part of this book ma

Apply the 10 simple rules in writing the literature

techniques on how to connect, capita

Scanned with CamScanner

Some questions a researcher may ask himself/herself in reading a published article.

How does it differ from what I plan to write?

How does it differ from the findings of other authors?

Scanned with CamScanner

Ten Simple Rules for Writing a Literature Review

4. Choose the type of review you wish to write. |

Scanned with CamScanner

Rule 2: Search and re-search the literature.

* Pay attention to the approaches, limitations, and conclusions of past reviews.

Scanned with CamScanner

you wish to w rite,

Rule 5: Keep the review focused, but make it a broad interest,

* The mainIn tar target of .

Scanned with CamScanner

c 8: Make use of feedback.

- | 9: Include your relevant research, but be objective.

How to make an outline of the Review (Trinidad, 2018)

Scanned with CamScanner

fecycie data collection

or transmitted in any form or by any means, including phan

Scanned with CamScanner

5.2.3 Fuzzy Multi-A

Figure 29. Sample Citation of Methods in the Literature Review

Scanne d with CamScanner

veesearcl gap. It serves asa “hidden ae Current

HAS N s ‘a f i A THE PRESENT

Scanned with CamScanner

the application of the proposed model