COMPARATIVE SKELETAL ANATOMY

OF DOMESTIC SPECIES

Vertebral Column

The vertebral column is subdivided into five regions:

1. Cervical ,
2. Thoracic,
3. Lumbar,
4. Sacral,
5. Coccygeal.
The number of vertebrae in each region expect the last is more or less constant
for each animal. Thus the vertebal formulae of the domestic animals are as follows:-

C T L S Cy
(approximately)
HORSE 7 18 6 5 15
OX 7 13 6 5 18
SHEEP 7 13 6 4 16
PIG 7 14 6 4 20
DOG 7 13 7 3 20
FOWL 13-14 7 L/S 14 6

A typical vertebra is described as having:-

1. Body,
2. Arch,
3. Processes- i. articular,
ii. transverse
iii. spinous

Cervical vertebrae can be recognized by the fact that they are:-

1. Massive and quadrangular,
2. Longer than vertebrae in other regions,

Thoracic vertebrae have as regional characters:-

1. Facete for articulation with the ribs,
2. Long spinous processes.

Lumbar vertebrae have as regional characters:-

1. Short bodies,
2. Expanded transverse processes.

Sacral vertebrae are fused to form a single bone. Generally the sacrum is
described as having:-
1. Two surfaces,
2. Two borders,
3. A base,
4. An apex.
 In the Fowl the vertebrae the vertebrae of the lumbo-sacral region are fused
into a bony mass comprising the last thoracic, fourteen lumbo-sacral and the first
coceygeal vertebrae.

COMPARATIVE NOTES

A. ATLAS
Horse: Three foramina are present:
1. Intervertebral
2. Alar
3. Transverse
Ox/sheep: Transverse foramen is absent. The wings of the sheep atlas
project posteriorly.
Pig: Transverse foramen is situated in the posterior border of wing.
Dog: Alar foramen is a notch.

B. EPISTROPHEUS (axis)
Horse: Spinous process is bifed.
Ox/ Sheep: Dens is characteristically spout- shaped.
Pig: High spine directed posteriorly.
Dog: Dens is typically tooth-like.

C. 6th CERVICAL
The 6th cervical of horse has a trifed transverse process.
The 6th transverse process of the other animals has a well developed ventral
plate.
th
D. 7 CERVICAL
th
The 7 cervical can be recognized by the following features:-

1. Single transverse process,

2. Absence of transverse foramen,
3. Facet on either side of posterior body for head of
1st rib.

E. CAUDAL THORACICS
Caudal thoracics have an additional process- mammillary process
Last Thoracic has no posterior costal facets.

F. LUMBAR S OF HORSE
A characteristic of Equidae is that the transverse processes of lumbars 4, 5
and 6 articulate with each other.

RIBS

Ribs are described as having:-

1. A shaft,
 2. Two extremities- sternal and vertebral. The vertebral
extremity presents the head, neck and tubercle.

Points of note:
1. There is always one more pair of sternal ribs than there are
sternal segments (sternebrae).
2. The head of a rib articulates with the body of vertebra of same
serial number and that o the one in front.
3. The tubercle of a rib articulates with the tranverse process of the
vertebra of the same serial number.

ANIMAL RIB PLATE STERNAL ASTERNAL STERNEBRAE

Horse 18 8 10 7
Ox 13 8 5 7
Sheep 13 8 5 7
Pig 14 7 7 6
Dog 13 9 4 8
Comparative notes:

Horse: Narrow shaft, strongly curved in dorsal third.

Ox/ Sheep: Wide, flat shaft, long neck.
Pig: Narrow shaft, distinct angle.
Dog: Cylindrical shaft.

The first rib is distinguished by the fact that it is the shortest end of the shaft
st
widens greatly at the sternal extremity. A common feature of the 1 rib is the
scalene tubercle.

Addendum:
Number of pairs of ribs always correspond to the number of the
thorscic vertebrae; if 18 pairs of ribs = 18 thoracic vertebrae.

FORELIMB

The forelimb consists of four divisions:

1. Shoulder,
2. Upper arm,
3. Forearm,
4. Manus.

SCAPULA- The scapula is a flat bone forming the skeleton of the shoulder.
Horse: Spine fades out distally. Trapezius tubercle present. Ox/
Sheep: Bone distinctly triangular. Spine sinuous, dividing
lateral surface into unequal fossae.
Pig: Prominent trapezius tubercle overhanging infraspinous
fossa.
Dog: Spine bisects lateral surface. Distinct acromium.
 Determination of side:
1. spine is lateral,
2. tuber scapulae is anterior.

HUMERUS- The humerus is a long bone forming the skeleton of the upper arm, or
brachium.
Horse: Bicipital groove divided by a ridge.
Ox/ Sheep: Massive lateral tuberosity overhangs bicipital groove.
Pig: Lateral tuberosity almost converts bicipital groove into foramen.
Dog: Single lateral tuberosity. Coranoid olecranon fossae communicate
through supratrochlear foramen.

Determination of side:
1. crest is lateral,
2. head is posterior. Medial

RADIUS AND ULNA- The radius and the ulna are two long bones which
together form the skeleton of the forearm.
Horse: Ulna fused two- thirds of the way down shaft of the radius. Radius
longer than ulna.
Ox: Ulna complete. Projectts distally beyond the radius as the styloid
process. Ulna is longer.
Sheep: Ulna not necessarily fused. Extremely slender. Ulna is longer.
Pig: Ulna massive. Articulates with radius and ulnar carpal. Ulna is
longer.
Dog: Ulna never fused. Olecranon has trituberculate summit. Ulna is
longer.

Determination of side:
1. Radius:Radial tuberossity is medial
2. Ulna :Olecranon processis inclined laterally.

MANUS- The skeleton of the manus consists of:-

1. Carpus,
2. Metacarpus,
3. Digits.
In the domestic animals the basic carpal number is 8. There are 4 bones proximally
and 4 distally as follows:
Radial Intermediate Ulnar Accessory
MEDIAL 1st 2nd 3rd 4th LATERAL

COMPARATIVE NOTES

Brackets indicate that a bone need not always be present. Stroke indicates fusion.

HORSE: R I U A
(1) 2 3 4
Accessory articulates with (1) Radius (R,U)
(2) Ulnar carpal
OX/SHEEP: R I U A

2/3 4/X
Accessory articulates only with ulnar carpal. (U)
PIG: R I U A

1 2 3 4
Accessory articulates only with ulnar carpal. (U)
DOG: R I U A

1 2 3 4
Accessory articulates with (1) Ulna (U)
(2) Ulnar carpal
METACARPALS AND DIGITS The digital region is the terminal segment of

the manus. The mammalian manus is comprised of five digits

each of which bears three phalanges.
3 metacarpal is functional. 2nd and 4th are vestigial and termed
Horse: rd

splint bones. Only 3rd digit present.

th
Ox/Sheep: Metacarpals 3 and 4 are weight-bearing. 5 is vestigial. Four digits
present of which nos. 3 and 4 are functional.

Pig: Metacarpals 2, 3, 4 and 5. All metacarpals bear digits. 3rd and 4th
are functional.

Dog: Metacarpals 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. All metacarpals bears digits. Digital

possesses only two phalanges.

Determination of Side:

Large metacarpals of horse and ox – metacarpal tuberosity is medial.

 HINDLIMB

The hindlimb consists of four divisions:

(1) Hip
(2) Thigh
(3) Leg
(4) Pes.

HIP The hip bone is termed the os coxae. The os coxae is the largest flat bone
in the body. It consists of three parts:
(1) Ilium
(2) Ischium
(3) Pubis

The term pelvic girdle includes the os coxae of either side. The term bony
pelvis includes:
(1) Pelvic girdle
(2) Sacrum
(3) Coccygeals 1 and 2

The bony pelvis is described as having:

(1) a roof
(2) a floor
(3) Lateral walls
(4) An entrance
(5) An exit

COMPARATIVE NOTES

Horse: Wing of ilium has gluteal line.

Ox: Three (3) prominences on sciatic tuber. Obturator foram wide and
sharp medially. Pelvic symphisis has distinct ventral ridge.

Sheep: As ox. In addition, long axes of ilium and ischium form nearly
straight line.

Pig: Wing of ilium divided into two fossae by distinct gluteal line.

Dog: Wing of ilium distinctly concave.

SEXUAL DIFFERENCES IN PELVIC GIRDLE

A. Female: 1. Pubic floor concave,

2. Pelvic outlet large,
3. < of inclination of inlet greater
4. Obturator foramen bigger
5. Conjugated foramen bigger
 6. Transverse foramen greater

B. Male:1. Pubic thick medially,

2. Pubic floor convex,
3. Pelvic outlet small.

FEMUR The femur is a long bone in which forms the skeleton of the thigh.

Horse: Third trochanter present.

Ox/ Sheep: Single greater trochanter bordering a deep trochanteric fossa.
Pig: Shaft distinctly quadrilateral.
Dog: Shaft cylindrical and curved. Facetes posteriorly on distal
rd
condyles. 3 trochanter
Determination of side:
1. Head is medial,
2. Trochlea is distal and anterior.

TIBIA AND FIBULA The tibia and fibula are long bones that form the skeleton of
the leg.

Horse: Fibula reduced to a head and shaft only. Lateral malleolus fused.

Ox/Sheep: Lateral malleolus articulates separately.

Pig: Tibial crest long and distinct
Dog: Short prominent tibial crest marked with impression.

Determination of Side:
(1) Tibial crest is anterior
(2) Fibula articulates laterally.

PATELLA The patella is a large sesamoid which develops in the tendon of the
quadriceps femoris muscle. It articulates with the trochlea of the femur and is
desribed as having:

(1) Two surfaces – anterior and articular

(2) Two borders – medial and lateral
(3) Base – proximal
(4) Apex – distal

PES: The skeleton of the pes consists of:

(1) Tibial tarsal
(2) Fibular tarsal
(3) Central tarsal
(4) Tarsals 1, 2, 3 and 4

Horse: There are six bonesin the tarsus of the horse.

 T F C
½ 4 4
Ox/Sheep: 5 bones

T F C
1 2/3 4
Pig/Dog: 7 bones

T F C
1 2 3 4

TATARSALS and DIGITS

The metatatarsals and digits are similar to the equivalent bones in the forelimb
except that in Ox and Sheep the vestigial metatarsal remaining is the second.
rd rd
Distinguish 3 Metatarsal of the Horse from 3 Metacarpal

Metatarsal has:
(1) Cylindrical shaft
(2) Wider proximal proximity
(3) Central non-articular depression on proximal extremity

To help determine the side of a limb bone it should be remembered that as

the weight of the animal is thrown inwards, medial articular surfaces are larger
than lateral.

SKULL

The skull, excluding the hyoid bone and the mandible is considered as being
a long, four- sided pyramid. This pyramid has the following surfaces:
(1) Superior
(2) Two lateral
(3) Basal

(1) The superior surface of the skull is divided into four regions:
(i) Parietal,
(ii) Frontal
(iii) Nasal
(iv) Premaxillary
(2) The lateral surface is divided into three regions:
(i) Cranial
(ii) Orbital
(iii) Preorbital
(3) The basal surface is also divided into three regions:
(i) Cranial
(ii) Choanal
(iii) Palatine
ORBITAL GROUP OF FORAMINA
The orbital foramina are situated at the extreme posterior part of orbital
region of lateral surface of skull in front of the pteygoid crest. There are four chief
foramina:
(1) Ethmoidal,
(2) Optic
(3) Orbital
(4) Round.

Points to note:
(1) The trochlear foramen when present is found in the pterygoid crest.
(2) The alar canal opens in common with the round foramen.
(3) The small alar foramen is on a level with the orbital foramen
behind the pterygoid crest.

PTERYGOID-PALATINE FORAMINA

The pterygo-palatinen fossa is situated ventral to the orbital cavity. There are
three foramina in the fossa:
(1) Maxillary,
(2) Sphenopalatine
(3) Posterior palatine

PARANASAL SINUSES

The paranasal sinuses of the skull are large air spaces which communicate
directly or indirectly with the nasal cavity. There are four pairs of air sinuses in the
Horses’s skull:
(1) Maxillary
(2) Frontal
(3) Sphenopalatine
(4) Ethmoidal.

Of these, the maxillary and frontal are of importance.

(1) Maxillary sinus The maxillary sinus is the largest. It is divided by an

oblique septum into:
(1) Anterior compartment
(2) Posterior compartment.
Boundaries: (1) Lateral wall – maxilla, lacrimal and malar.

(2) Medial wall – maxilla, ventral turbinate and

lateral mass of ethmoid.
(3) Anterior limit – marked by line drawn from
anterior end of facial crest to
infraorbital foramen.
(4) Posterior limit - marked by transverse line in front
of root of supraorbital process.
 (5) Dorsal boundary – marked by line drawn backward
from infraorbital foramen
parallel to facial crest.
(6) Floor - formed by alveolar part of maxilla.

The largest three cheek teeth project into the cavity. They are covered by a thin
plate of bone. The extent of their projection depends on the age of Horse.

Communications:
The maxillary sinus has two openings:

(1) Fronto-maxillary - communicates dorsally with frontal

sinus.
(2) Naso-maxillary - communicates with posterior part of
middle nasal meatus.

Maxillary sinus of Ox:

The maxillary sinus of ox has three openings:

(1) Into lacrimal sinus
(2) Into palatine sinus
(3) Into middle nasal meatus.

(2) Frontal sinus The boundaries of the frontal sinus of the horse are:
(1) Roof - two plates of frontal bone.
(2) Floor - lateral mass of ethmoid
(3) Anterior limit - marked by a line through anterior
margins of orbits.
(4) Posterior limit – marked by a line through temporal
condyles.
(5) Lateral limit - extends into root of superorbital
process.
(6) Medial limit - marked by septum which separates
off opposite sinus.

The frontal sinus communicates with the maxillary sinus through the fronto-
maxillary opening.

Frontal sinus of Ox:

Points of note:

(1) Frontal sinus is very large. It involves nearly all the frontal
bone and a large part of the posterior wall of the cranium.
(2) It extends into the horn processes when these are present.
(3) Cavity is divided into one major and one to four minor
compartments. Each compartment has an anterior outlet into the
ethmoidal meatus and thus indirectly into the middle nasal
meatus.
MANDIBLE The mandible is the largest bone in the face. It carries the lower
teeth. It articulates with the squamous temporal bone on either
side by condyles. The mandible is described as having:

(1) a body
(2) two rami

(1) The body presents:

(i) two – surfaces - lingual and mental
(ii) a border - alveolar
(2) Each ramus presents:

(i) two surfaces - lateral and medial

(ii) two borders - dorsal or alveolar and ventral
(iii)two extremeties, anterior and ventral.
HYOID BONE The hyoid bone is situated between the vertical parts of

the
rami of the mandibles. It is attached on either side to the styloid
process of the petrous temporal bone by rods of cartilage. It
sup-
ports the following structures:
(1) Root of the tongue
(2) Pharynx
(3) Larynx
For description of the hyoid presents:
(1) A body
(2) Lingual process
(3) Three pairs of cornua
(i) thyroid cornua (thyrohyoids)
(ii) small cornua (keratohyoids)
(iii) great cornua (stylohyoids)

Points of note:

(1) Middle cornua (epihyoids) unite with the great cornua in

the adult horse.
(2) The lingual process of the hyoid of Ox is short and
tuberous.

TSECBT
Tympanohyoid cart
Stylohyoid
Epihyoid
Ceratohyoid
Basihyoid
Thyrohyoid
Arthrology

TYPES OF JOINTS

There are three subdivisions or types of joints:

(1) Synarthroses
(2) Diarthroses
(3) Ampiarthroses

(1) Synarthroses:Joints united by fibrous tissue, cartilage or a mixture of the two.

Often termed immoveable joints. There are four types of
synarthroses:

(A) Suture – applied to the joints of the skull where the

adjacent margins of the bones are interlooked. There are
three types of suture:
(1) Squamous, where the edges overlap –
prieto-temporal joint.
(2) Serrated, where the edges are irregular – Frontal
joint
(3) Harmonious, where the edges are straight – nasal
joint.
(B) Syndeamosis – Where the uniting medium is elastic tissue,
white fibrous tissue or mixture – attachments of costal
cartilages to each other. Intercarpal

(C) Synchondrosis – where the uniting medium is cartilage -

sphenoid and basilar occipital joint. Very few
synchondroses are permanent. Cartilage becomes ossified
making synostoses. Intersternal joints.

(D) Symphisis – applied to joints in the median plane. He

uniting medium is generally ossified cartilage and fibrous
tissue – symphisis pelvis. Mandibular

(2) Diarthroses:Diarthrodial joints are those which possess the

following features:
(1) a joint cavity
(2) a joint capsule with synovial membrane
(3) mobility

Classification of diarthrodial joints:

Moveable joints are classified on the form of the joint surfaces and the
movements which these surfaces allow. There are four chief classes:

(1) Ginglymus - hinge joint, elbow.

 (2) Arthrodia - gliding joint, intercarpals.
(3) Trochoid - pivot joint, atlanto-axial
(4) Enarthrosis - ball and socket joint, hip.
(3) Ampiarthroses: Joints which have both synarthrodial and diarthrodial

features – intercentral vertebral joints.

1. Articular surface

2. Articular cartilage
3.Marginal Cartilage
4.Articular/Sticapsule
5.Lig.
6.Meniscu
ARTICULATIONS OF THE BODY

TEMPORO-MANDIBULAR JOINT Between ramus of mandible and

Type: Diarthrodial squamoous temporal bone on either side.

Movements: (1) Rotation (2) Gliding (3)

Retraction
(4) Protrusion (5) Hinge action
Points to Note: The articular surfaces are rendered congruent by an articular

disc.
VERTEBRAE Movable vertebrae form two separate articulations:

(1) Intercentral – Between the bodies

(2) Interneural – Between the articular processes.
 Intercentral articulations are ampiarthroses, the uniting
media being ligaments and fibro cartilaginous discs.
 Interneural articulations are diarthroses.
 Antertransverse ariculations are diarthroses peculiar to
Equidae. They occur between the transverse processes of
th th
5 and 6 lumber, and between the latter and the wings
of the sacrum.
The atlanto-axial articulation is a diarthrodial joint with trochoid
filament.
The atlanto-occipital articulation is diarthrodial with
ginglymus filament.

Proximally ribs from two separate articulations:

(1)Costo – central - between the head of the rib and the two
adjacent bodies of the vertebrae
(2)Costo-transverse - between the facet on the rib tubercle and the
transverse process of the vertebra of the same
number.
 Both costo-central and costo-transverse are diarthrodial. The chief contents are
rotation with gliding between the costo-transverse.

COSTO-CHONDRAL The joints between the ribs and rib cartilage are
synarthroses.
In ox and sheep the 2nd to the 11th costo-chondral
junctions are diarthroses.
In Pig the 2nd and the 5th are diarthroses
CHONDRO –STERNAL Between the cartilages of the sternal ribs and the

sternum. They are diarthroses.

In the horse the 1st pair of ribs articulates in a common
joint capsule.
There are two important ligaments concerned with this
joint:
(1) Internal-sternal
(2) Radiate costo-sternal.
INTERSTERNAL The joints between the sternal segments commence as

synchondroses, becoming ossified as synostoses.

Comparative notes: st
Ox/Pig – The 1 sternal segment forms a diarthrodial
joint with the body on the sternum.
THORASIC LIMB ARTICULATIONS

SHOULDER Between head of the humerus and glenoid cavity of the

scapula.
Type: Diarthrodial
Class: Enarthrosis – ball and socket
Movement: Chiefly flexion and extension.
Points to note: Ligaments are absent from this joint. Dislocation is

prevented by:
(1) Muscles and tendons in the region
(2) Size of the head of the humerous.
ELBOW Between distal humeros and proximal radius and ulna.

Type: Diarthrodial
Class: Ginglymus - Hinge
Movement: Flexion and extension.

Points to note:
(1) Joint capsule forms a pouch in the ocleranon fossa.
(2) Synovial membrane is prolonged to the radio-
ulnar joints; also under the origin of the flexors of
the digits, and the lateral flexor of the carpus.
“KNEE” A composite joint between:
(1) Distal radius and ulna ( only radius in the
Horse) and proximal carpals.
(2) Intercarpal.
(3) Distal carpals and proximal metacarpals.
Type: Diarthrodial
Class: Ginglymus and anthrodial
Movement: Flexion and Extension between the radius
and ulna and proximal carpals. The same between
distal carpals and proximal metacarpals. Gliding
between carpals.

Points to note: Synovial membrane forms three sacs corresponding to the three
joints:
(1) Radio-carpal
(2) Intercarpal
(3) Carpo-metacarpal

FETLOCK Between distal metacarpals (metacarpus in the case of the

st
Horse), proximal 1 phalanx and proximal sesamoids.
Type: Diarthrodial
Class: Ginglymus, arthrodial – hinge gliding
Movements: Flexion and extension. Gliding in case of sesamoids.

The ligaments of the fetlock joints are:

(1) Collaterals – medial and lateral
(2) Intersesamodian, and the S O C (K)S ligament
(3) Short
(4) Oblique
(5) Cruciate
(6) Straight
PASTERN st nd
Between distal 1 phalanx and proximal 2 phalanx.
Type: Diarthrodial
Class: Ginglymus. Hinge
Movements: Flexion and extension (limited)
COFFIN Joint Between 2nd and 3rd phalanges and navicular bone.
Type: Diarthrodial
Class: Ginglymus. hinge
Movements: Flexion and extension

Points to note:
The joint capsule has three diverticuli. The largest extends
nd
proximally to the middle 2 phalanx. The others project as pouches against the
rd
cartilages of the 3 phalanx.
G - Ginglymus - Hinge -H
 A - Arthroda - Gliding -G
T - Trochord - Pivot -P
E - Enarthrosis - Ball & Socket -B

PELVIC LIMB ARTICULATIONS

A. SACRO – ILIAC Between the auricular surfaces of ilium and sacrum.

Type: Diarthrodial
Clas s: Arthrodial
Movements: A small amount of gliding.
Point to note: Joint capsule which is tight is reinforced by ventral

sacro-iliac ligament.
B. HIP Between head and femur and acetabulum.

Type: Diarthrodial
Class: Enarthrosis
Movements: All those of a typical ball and socket joint.

Points to note: There three important ligaments concerned with the hip
joint:-
(1) Tranverse acetebular which crosses the notch of
the acetabulum.
(2) Round ligament which runs from the sub-pubic
groove to the fovea on the head of the femur.
In addition, the Horse has an accessory ligament. This runs
from the prepubic tendon to the form just beyond the round ligament.
Otherwise, the acetabelum is deepened by a ring of fibro-cartilage, the:
(3) Cotyloid ligament which is attached to a bony
margin.

C. STIFLE

(1) Femoro-patellar between the trochlea of the femur and the patella.
(2) Femoro-tibial between the condyles of the femur, proximal tibia and
the
interposed articular menisci, or semi-lunar cartilages.
(1) Femoro-patellar

Type: Diarthrodial
Class: Arthrodial
Movement: Gliding
Points to note: There are three straight patellarligaments:
(1) lateral,
(2) midldle,
(3) medial.

(2) Femoro-tibial
 Type: Diarthrodial
Class: Ginglymus
Movements: Flexion and extension
Points to note: The joint capsule has two synovial sacs.

D. HOCK

(1) Tibio-tarsal,
(2) Intertarsal,
(3) Tarso-metatarsal

Type: Diarthrodial.
Class: Ginglymus
Movements: Flexion and extension. Other movements are negligible.
Points to note: The joint capsule has four synovial sacs:
(1) Tibio-tarsal,
(2) Proximal Intertarsal,
(3) Distal Intertarsal,
(4) Tarso-metatarsal.