Mat061 Techniques of Integration

I. Integration by Parts

Z Z
udv = uv − vdu (1)

Examples:

Find each of the following indefinite integrals.

Z Z
x
1. xe dx 3. x2 ex dx
Z Z
2. lnxdx 4. y2 sin(4y)dy

Z
1. xex dx
Solution:
We choose which part of the integrand to be assigned as u and dv. There is a trial
and error here. You will know if you have chosen the right assignment if after
substitution the right-hand side of equation (1) can be directly integrated using
the known formulas (or techniques).
Let u = x and dv = ex dx. Then, take the derivative of both sides of u = x and so
we have du = dx. Next, take the integral of both sides of dv = ex dx and thus we
get v + C1 = ex + C2 . We choose v where constant C1 = 0 = C2 , that is, v = ex .
Note: From now on, we evaluate this integral without putting constant C1 and
C2 .

We substitute in equation (1). We have

Z Z
udv = uv − vdu
Z Z
xex dx = xex − ex dx

= xex − ex + C

1
 Z
2. lnxdx

Solution: Do the same procedure in Example 1.

Let u = lnx and dv = dx. Then,

1
du = dx.
x
Now,
Z Z
dv = dx

and so

v = x.

By equation (1),
Z Z
udv = uv − vdu
Z Z
1
lnxdx = (ln x)x − x dx
x
Z
= x ln x − dx

= x ln x − x + C

Z
3. x2 ex dx

Solution:

Let u = x2 and dv = ex dx.

Then,

du = 3xdx.

Now,
Z Z
dv = ex dx

2
and so
v = ex .
By equation (1),
Z Z
udv = uv −vdu
Z Z
x e dx = x e −
2 x 2 x
3xex dx

In this case, the left-hand side cannot be integrated

Z using the known formulas (or
techniques). Again, apply the same technique for 3xex dx. Note that in Example
1,
Z
xex dx = xex − ex + C0 .

Therefore,
Z Z
x e dx = x e −
2 x 2 x
3xex dx

= x2 ex − 3(xex − ex + C0 )
= x2 ex − 3xex − 3ex + 3C0
= x2 ex − 3xex − 3ex + C , where C = 3C0 .
Note: Adding constant C may be done in the final answer.

Z
4. y2 sin(4y)dy

Solution: Z Z
Let u = y and dv = sin (4y)dy. Then, du = 2ydy and
2
dv = sin(4y)dy.
Z
dw
In sin(4y)dy, we use substitution. Let w = 4y. Then, dw = 4dy and so = dy.
4
Now,
Z Z
dw
sin(4y)dy = sin w
4
1
= − cos w + C
4
cos 4y
=− + C.
4

3
 cos 4y
Thus, v = − .
4
Hence,
Z Z
udv = uv − vdu (1)
Z ! Z
cos 4y − cos 4y
y sin 4ydy = y −
2
−2
2ydy (2)
4 4
! Z
2 cos 4y y cos 4y
= −y + dy (3)
4 2
Z
y cos 4y
We cannot use known formulas or techniques for dy except integration
2
by parts. Z
y cos 4y
Repeat the techniques for dy.
2
sin 4y
Let u∗ = y and dv∗ = cos 4ydy. Then, du∗ = dy and v∗ = .
4
It follows that
Z Z
u dv = u v −
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
v∗ du∗
Z
sin 4y sin 4y
=y − dy
4 4
y sin 4y − cos 4y
= − + C∗
4 16
Therefore, by Equation 3

y2 cos 4y y sin 4y cos 4y

Z
y2 sin(4y)dy = − + + +C .
4 4 16

Integration by Parts for Definite Integrals

Z b Z b
udv = [uv]ba − vdu
a a

Z π
2
5. Evaluate x cos xdx.
0

4
 Z 2
6. Find x3 ln xdx.
1

Z π
2
5. Evaluate x cos xdx
0

Solution: Z Z
Let u = x and dv = cos xdx. Then, du = dx and dv = cos xdx. Hence, v = sin x.
Therefore,
Z b Z b
udv = [uv]ba − vdu
a a
Z π Z π
2 π 2
x cos xdx = [x sin x]0 − 2
sin xdx
0 0
π π
= [x sin x]02 + cos x|02
π π π
    
= sin − 0 sin 0 − cos − (cos 0)
2 2 2
π
= +1
2

Note: In evaluating definite integral, we do not need to include constant C

beacause it is clearly that it will be cancelled after evaluating.

Z 2
6. Find x3 ln xdx
1

Solution:
Let u = ln x and dv =Zx3 dx. Z
1
Then, du = dx and dv = x3 dx.
x

5
 x4
It follows that v = . Therefore,
4
Z b Z b
udv = [uv]a −
b
vdu
a a
2 2
x4 x4 1
Z Z  
x ln xdx =
3
ln x|21 − dx
1 4 1 4 x
! Z 2 3
24 14 x
= ln 2 − ln 1 − dx
4 4 1 4
!2
x4 
= 4 ln 2 −
16 1


24 14
" ! !#
= 4 ln 2 − −
16 16
16 − 1
= 4 ln 2 −
16
15
= 4 ln 2 −
16
64 ln 2 − 15
=
16

Exercises.
(1) Find each of the following indefinite integrals.

Z
a. x4 cos xdx
Z
ydy
b.
(y − 1)5
Z
c. r2 e−r dr

Z π
2
(2) Evaluate x cos 5xdx.
0

Reduction Formula

6
 cos x sinn−1 x n − 1
Z Z
sin xdx = −
n
+ sinn−2 xdx
n n

Z
7. sin6 xdx
Z
8. sin5 xdx
Z
9. sec3 xdx

Z
7. sin6 xdx

Solution: Using Reduction Formula,

cos x sin6−1 x 6 − 1
Z Z
sin xdx = −
6
+ sin6−2 xdx
6 6
cos x sin5 x 5
Z
=− + sin4 xdx
6 6
cos x sin5 x 5 cos x sin3 x 3
Z !
=− + − + 2
sin xdx
6 6 4 4
cos x sin5 x 5 cos x sin3 x 3 cos x sin x 1
" Z !#
=− + − + − + dx
6 6 4 4 2 2
cos x sin5 x 5 cos x sin3 x 3 cos x sin x 1
"  #
=− + − + − + x +C
6 6 4 4 2 2
cos x sin5 x 5 cos x sin3 x 5 cos x sin x 5
= − − − + x+C
6 24 16 16

Z
8. sin5 xdx

7
 Solution: Using Reduction Formula,

cos x sin5−1 x 5 − 1
Z Z
sin xdx = −
5
+ sin5−2 xdx
5 5
cos x sin4 x 4
Z
=− + sin3 xdx
5 5
cos x sin4 x 4 cos x sin2 x 2
Z !
=− + − + sin xdx
5 5 3 3
cos x sin4 x 4 cos x sin2 x 2
" #
=− + − + (− cos x) + C
5 5 3 3
cos x sin4 x 4 cos x sin2 x 8
= − − − cos x + C
5 15 15

Z
9. sec3 xdx

Solution:
Writing sec3 x = sec x · sec2 x, we let u = sec x, and dv = secx dx. Then, du =
tan x sec xdx and v = tan x. Then,
Z Z
sec3 xdx = sec x tan x − tan2 x sec xdx
Z
= sec x tan x − (sec2 −1) sec xdx
Z Z
= sec x tan x − sec dx +
3
sec xdx.
Z
Transferring the term − sec3 xdx to the left side and dividing by 2, we get
Z Z
1 1
sec xdx = sec x tan x +
3
sec xdx.
2 2
Therefore,
Z
1 1
sec3 xdx = sec x tan x + | sec x + tan x| + C .
2 2

8
II. Integration of Trigonometric Expressions
Z
Type A: sinm u cosn udu

Case 1. Either m or n is odd, positive integer. If m is odd, we factor out

sin udu and change the remaining even power of sine to powers of cosine by the
trigonometric identity

sin2 u + cos2 u = 1.

If n is odd, we factor out cos udu and change the remaining even power of cosine
to powers of sine by the same identity.

Examples: Find each of the following indefinite integrals.

Z
1. sin5 xdx
Z
2. sin3 x cos−5 xdx
Z
3. sin4 2x cos5 2xdx

Z
1. sin5 xdx

Solution:
Since m = 5 is odd positive integer and n = 0, we have
Z Z
sin xdx =
5
sin x sin4 xdx
Z
= sin x(sin2 x)2 dx
Z
= sin x(sin2 x)2 dx
Z
= sin x(1 − cos2 x)2 dx

9
By substitution, let u = cos x. Then, du = − sin xdx and so −du = sin xdx.
Now,
Z Z
sin xdx =
5
sin x(1 − cos2 x)2 dx
Z
= −(1 − u2 )2 du
Z
= − (1 − 2u2 + u4 )du

2u3 u5
= −u + − +C
3 5
2 cos3 x cos5 x
= − cos x + − +C
3 5

Z
2. sin3 x cos−5 xdx

Solution:
Since m = 3 is odd and positive, we have

Z Z
3
sin x cos −5
xdx = sin2 x cos−5 x sin xdx
Z
= (1 − cos2 x) cos−5 x sin xdx
Z
= (cos−5 x sin x − cos−3 x sin x)dx
Z Z
= −5
cos xd(cos x) − cos−3 xd(cos x)

1 1
= − + +C .
4 cos x 2 cos2 x
4

Z
3. sin4 2x cos5 2xdx

Solution:

10
Since n = 5 is odd and positive, we write
Z Z
sin 2x cos 2xdx =
4 5
sin4 2x cos4 2x cos 2xdx
Z
= sin4 2x(1 − sin2 2x)2 cos 2xdx
Z
1
= (sin4 2x − 2 sin6 2x + sin8 2x)d(sin 2x)
2
1 1 1
= sin5 2x − sin7 2x + sin9 2x + C .
10 7 18

Z
Type A: sinm u cosn udu

Case 2. Both m and n are even and positive integers or zero. In this case,
the hal f − angle f ormulas are used to lower the degree of the expression. These
formulas are
1 − cos 2u 1 + cos 2u
sin2 u = , cos2 u = .
2 2

Examples: Find each of the following indefinite integrals.

Z
4. sin2 x cos2 xdx
Z
5. sin4 3udu

Z
4. sin2 x cos2 xdx

Solution:
Since m = 2 and n = 2 are both even and positive integers, we apply the half-angle

11
formulas. We have,
(1 − cos 2x) (1 + cos 2x)
Z Z
sin x cos xdx =
2 2
· dx
2 2
Z
1
= (1 − cos 2x)(1 + cos 2x)dx
4
Z
1
= (1 − cos2 2x)dx
4
Z Z
1 1
= dx − cos2 2xdx
4 4
Z
x 1
= − cos2 2xdx.
4 4

To this last integral we again apply the half-angle formula, and get

1 + cos 4x
Z Z
x 1
sin x cos xdx = −
2 2
dx
4 4 2
Z
x 1
= − (1 + cos 4x)dx
4 8
Z
x x 1
= − − cos 4xdx
4 8 8
x x 1
= − − sin 4x + C .
4 8 32

Z
5. sin4 3udu

Solution:

12
This is Case 2, with m = 4, n = 0. We have,

1 − cos 6u 2
Z Z Z  
sin 3udu =
4
(sin 3udu) du =
2 2
du
2
Z
1
= (1 − cos 6u)2 du
4
Z
1
= (1 − 2 cos 6u + cos2 6u)du
4
1 + cos 12u
Z
u 1 1
= − sin 6u + du
4 12 4 2
Z
u 1 1
= − sin 6u + (1 + cos 12u)du
4 12 8
u 1 u 1
= − sin 6u + + sin 12u + C
4 12 8 96
3u 1 1
= − sin 6u + sin 12u + C .
8 12 96

Z
Type B. tanm u secn udu

Case 1. n is an even positive integer. We factor out sec2 udu and change the
remaining secants to tangents, using the trigonometric identity.

sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x.

Examples: Find each of the following indefinite integrals.

sec4 udu
Z
1. √
tan u

sec4 udu
Z
1. √
tan u

13
 Solution:
We write
sec4 udu
Z Z
1
√ = (tan u)− 2 sec2 u sec2 udu
tan u
Z
1
= (tan u)− 2 (1 + tan2 u) sec2 udu
Z Z
− 12 3
= (tan u) sec udu +
2
(tan u)− 2 sec2 udu
Z Z
− 32 3
= (tan u) d(tan u) + (tan u)− 2 d(tan u)

1 2 5
= 2(tan u) 2 + (tan u) 2
5

Z
Type B. tanm u secn udu

Case 2. m is an odd positive integer: We factor out sec u tan udu and change
the remaining even power of the tangents to secants, again using the identity

tan2 u = sec2 u − 1.

Example:

tan3 xdx
Z
2. √3
sec x

tan3 xdx
Z
2. √3
sec x
Solution:

14
 1 4
We write (sec x)− 3 tan3 x = (sec x)− 3 sec x tan2 x tan x and get

tan3 xdx
Z Z
1
√3
= (sec x)− 3 tan3 xdx
sec x
Z
4
= (sec x)− 3 tan2 x(sec x tan x)dx
Z
4
= (sec x)− 3 (sec2 −1)d(sec x)
Z
2 4
= [(sec x) 3 − (sec x)− 3 ]d(sec x)

3 5 1
= (sec x) 3 + 3(sec x)− 3 + C .
5

III. Trigonometric Substitution

√ √ √
If the integrand contains expressions of the form a2 − x2 , a2 + x2 , or x2 − a2 ,
it is frequently possible to transform the integral into trigonometric forms.
√
A.) If an expression of the form a2 − x2 occurs, make the substitution x =
a sin θ (where we take θ = arcsin(x/a)).

In performing the substitution, the reader should sketch a right triangle, as

show in the figure on the right-hand side. The figure
√ contains all the essential
ingredients of the process, and it is evaluated that a − x2 = a cos θ.
2

15
 √
Z 3 √
Example 1. Evaluate 4 − x2 dx.
−1

Solution:

Let√ x = 2 sin θ. Then dx = 2 cos θdθ and , according to the figure above we
have 4 − x2 = 2 cos θ. Therefore,

√ π
Z 3 √ Z
3
4 − x2 dx = 2 cos θ2 cos θdθ
−1 − π6
Z π
3
=4 cos2 θdθ
− π6

By integration of trigonometric expressions type A, we get

√ π
Z 3 √ Z
3 1 + cos 2θ
4− x2 dx =4 dθ
−1 − π6 2
Z π
3
=2 (1 + cos 2θ)dθ
− π6
 π3
1

= 2 θ + sin 2θ π
2 −6
√
= π+ 3 .

√
B.) If an expression of the form a2 + x2 occurs, make the substitution x =
a tan θ (or θ = arctan(x/a).

16
 A sketch of this substitution
√ is shown in the figure on the right-hand side,
from which we see that a + x = a sec θ.
2 2

Z √
Example 2. Find x3 7 + x2 dx.
√ √
Solution: Let x = 7 tan θ. According to the figure above, with a = 7, we

√ √ √
have 7 + x2 = 7 sec θ. Also, dx = 7 sec2 dθ. Therefore,

Z √ Z
√ √ √
x 3
7+ x2 dx = 7 7 tan3 θ 7 sec θ · 7 sec2 θdθ
√
Z
= 49 7 tan3 θ sec3 θdθ.

This last integral is of Type B in integration of trigonometric expressions, with

17
m odd and positive. We obtain
Z √ √
Z
x 7 + x dx = 49 7 (sec2 θ − 1) sec2 θ(tan θ sec θ)dθ
3 2

√ 1 1

= 49 7 sec θ − sec θ + C.
5 3
5 3
√ √ √
Referring to the figure again with a = 7, we now find that sec θ = (1/ 7) 7 + x2 ,
and so
Z √ 1 5 7 3
x3 7 + x2 dx = (7 + x2 ) 2 − (7 + x2 ) 2 + C .
5 3

√
C.) If an expression of the form x2 − a2 occurs, make the substitution x =
a sec θ.

A sketch √
of this substitution is shown in the figure on the right-hand side. It
follows that x2 − a2 = a tan θ when we take θ = arcsec(x/a).

Z 6
√
x2 − 9
Example 3. Find dx.
3 x

Solution: We make the substitution x = 3 sec θ, dx =√3 tan θ sec θdθ. Further,
referring to the figure above with a = 3, we see that x2 − 9 = 3 tan θ. When
x = 3, we have sec θ = 1 and θ = 0; when x = 6, we have sec θ = 2 and θ = π/3.
Therefore,

18
 6
√ π/3
3 tan θ
Z Z
x2 − 9
dx = · 3 tan θ sec θdθ
3 x 0 3 sec θ
Z π/3
=3 tan2 θdθ
0
Z π/3
=3 (sec2 −1)dθ
0
= 3[tan θ − θ]π/3
0
√
π

= 3 3− .
3

Exercises:
Evaluate the following:
Z √
25 − x2
1. dx
x2
Z
dx
2. √
x x4 − 4
x2
Z
3. √ dx
9 − x2
Z
dx
4. √ dx
8 + x2
Z
dx
5. √
x x2 − 2

19
 Z 2
dx
6. √
1 x2 4 − x2

IV. Integration Involving Quadratic Functions

Integrand involving quadratic function of the form ax2 + bx + c.

The integration is usually simplified by completing the square. To complete the
square of a quadratic, we write the identity
!2
b2
!
b b
ax + bx + c = a x + x + c = a x +
2 2
+ c − 2.
a 2a 4a
b
Then the substitution y = x + changes the quadratic term.
2a

Examples:
Find each of the following:
Z
(2x − 3)dx
1.
x2 + 2x + 2
Z
dx
2. √
2x − x2
2x3 dx
Z
3.
2x2 − 4x + 3

Z
(2x − 3)dx
1.
x2 + 2x + 2
Solution:
We complete the square (with a = 1, b = 2, c = 2), obtaining x2 + 2x + 2 =
(x2 + 2x) + 2 = (x + 1)2 + 2 − 1 = (x + 1)2 + 1. Let y = x + 1, dy = dx, and write
Z Z
(2x − 3)dx 2y − 5
= dy
x + 2x + 2
2 y2 + 1
Z Z
2ydy dy
= − 5
y2 + 1 y2 + 1
= log (y2 + 1) − 5 arctan y + C
= log (x2 + 2x + 2) − 5 arctan (x + 1) + C .

20
 Z
dx
2. √
2x − x2
Solution:
To complete the square, we note that a = 1, b = 2, c = 0. Then we find
2x − x2 = −(x2 − 2x + 1) + 1 = −(x − 1)2 + 1.
We let y = x − 1, dy = dx, and so
Z Z
dx dy
√ = p
2x − x2 1 − y2
= arcsin y + C
= arcsin(x − 1) + C .

2x3 dx
Z
3.
2x2 − 4x + 3
Solution:
We perform the ordinary long division of 2x3 divided by 2x2 − 4x + 3, getting
2x3 dx
Z Z 
5x − 6

= x+2+ 2 dx
2x2 − 4x + 3 2x − 4x + 3
Z
1 5x − 6
= x2 + 2x + dx.
2 2x − 4x + 3
2

We complete the square to obtain

2x2 − 4x + 3 = 2(x − 1)2 + 1.
Therefore, the substitution y = x − 1 yields
2x3 dx
Z Z
1 2 5x − 1
= x + 2x + dy
2x − 4x + 3 2
2 2y2 + 1
d(2y2 + 1) 1
Z Z
1 2 5 dy
= x + 2x + −
2 4 2y + 1
2 2 y2 + 12
1 5 1√ √
= x2 + 2x + ln(2y2 + 1) − 2 arctan(y 2) + C
2 4 2
1 5 1√ √
= x2 + 2x + ln(2x2 − 4x + 3) − 2 arctan 2(x − 1) + C .
2 4 2

Exercises:
Find the indefinite integral.

21
 x+3
Z
1. dx
x2 + 2x + 5
x4 dx
Z
2.
x2 + 3x + 1

V. Integration of Rational Functions

Method of Partial Fractions

If P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials, an expression of the form

P(x)
Q(x)
is called a rational function. The integration of expressions of the form
Z
P(x)
dx
Q(x)
can, in theory, always be performed. In practice, however, the actual calculation of
the integral depends on whether or not the denominator, Q(x), can be factored. A
theorem which is proved in more advanced courses states that every polynomial
can be factored into a product of linear factors. That is, when Q(x) is a polynomial
of degree r, it may be written as a product of r linear factors: Q(x) = a(x − a1 )(x −
a2 ) · · · (x − ar ).

Theorem (IRF1)
Every polynomial (with real coefficients) may be decomposed into a product
of linear and quadratic factors in such a way that each of the factors has real
coefficients.

Theorem (IRF2)
Suppose that two polynomials

S(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an Xn ,
T(x) = b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + · · · + bn Xn

22
are equal for all except possibly a finite number of values of x. Then, ai = bi for all
i = 0, 1, 2, ..., n.

Steps in integrating the rational function P/Q

1. If the degree of P is larger than or equal to the degree of Q, apply long

division.

2. Factor Q(x) into a product of linear and quadratic factors.

3. Apply Theorem IRF1 and IRF2. That is, write P(x)/Q(x) as a sum of simpler
rational functions, each of which can be integrated by methods we already
learned.

Case 1. The denominator Q(x) can be factored into linear factors, all different.

x2 + 2x + 3
Example 1. Decompose into partial fractions and integrate. Then,
x3 − x
x + 2x + 3
Z 2
find .
x3 − x
Solution: Since the degree of the numerator P(x) is less the degree of the denomi-
nator, we proceed to step 2 and 3. Then, Q(x) = x3 − x = (x − 0)(x − 1)(x + 1). We
write,

x2 + 2x + 3 A1 A2 A3
= + + ,
x(x − 1)(x + 1) x x−1 x+1

which is an identify for all x (x , 0, 1, −1) if and only if

x2 + 2x + 3 = A1 (x − 1)(x + 1) + A2 x(x + 1) + A3 x(x − 1). (4)

Multiplying out the right side, we obtain

x2 + 2x + 3 = (A1 + A2 + A3 )x2 + (A2 − A3 )x − A1 . (5)

If these two polynomials are to be identical, every coefficient on the left must
equal every coefficient on the right. Then the polynomials are the same for all
values of x. Generally, it is better to work with equation (4) than with equation
(5). We proceed as follows:

23
 If in (4) we set x = 0 3 = −A1 and so A1 = −3.
If in (4) we set x = 1 6 = 2A2 and so A2 = 3.
If in (4) we set x = −1 2 = 2A3 and so A3 = 1.

We conclude that
(x2 + 2x + 3)dx
Z Z 
3 3 1

= − + + dx
x(x − 1)(x + 1) x x−1 x+1
= −3 ln |x| + 3 ln |x − 1| + ln |x + 1| + C
 
 (x − 1)3 (x + 1) 
= ln   + C .
 x3

Case 2. The denominator Q(x) can be factored into linear factors, some of
which are repeated.
If Q(x) = (x − a)s1 (x − a)s2 · · · (x − a)sr where s1 , s2 , ..., sr are positive integers, then
the partial fraction decomposition introduces a number of different types of de-
nominators.

Example: A factor such (x − 1)4 give rise to the four terms

A1 A2 A3 A4
+ 2
+ 3
+ ,
x − 1 (x − 1) (x − 1) (x − 1)4

where A1 , ..., A4 are properly chosen constants.

x+5
Z
Example 2. Find dx.
x3 − 3x + 2
Solution:
We factor the denominator, obtaining

x3 − 3x + 2 = (x − 1)2 (x + 2).

This falls under Case 2 with a1 = 1, a2 = −2, s1 = 2, s2 = 1, and we write

x+5 A1 A2 A3
= + + .
(x − 1)2 (x + 2) x − 1 (x − 1)2 x + 2

Multiplying through by (x−1)2 (x+2), we obtain x+5 = A1 (x−1)(x+2)+A2 (x+2)+A3 (x−1)2 .

We let

24
 x = 1 : 6 = 3A2 ⇔ A2 = 2;
1
x = −2 : 3 = 9A2 ⇔ A3 = ;
3
1
x = 0 : 5 = −2A1 + 2A2 + A3 ⇔ A1 = − .
3
Therefore,

(x + 5)dx
Z
1 2 1
= − ln |x − 1| − + ln |x + 2| + C .
(x − 1) (x + 2)
2 3 x − 1 3

Case 3. The denominator Q(x) can be factored into linear and quadratic factors, and
none of the quadratic factors are repeated.
If for example Q(x) = (x − a1 )(x − a2 )(x − a3 )(x2 + b1 x + c1 )(x2 + b2 x + c2 ), then

P(x) A1 A2 A3 A4 x + A5 A6 x + A7
= + + + 2 + 2 .
Q(x) x − a1 x − a2 x − a3 x + b1 x + c1 x + b2 x + c2
where A1 , ..., A4 are properly chosen constants.

3x2 + x − 2
Z
Example 3. Find dx.
(x − 1)(x2 + 1)
Solutions:
According to Case 3, we have

3x2 + x − 2 A1 A2 x + A3
= +
(x − 1)(x + 1) x − 1
2 x2 + 1

or 3x2 + x − 2 = A1 (x2 + 1) + (A2 x + A3 )(x − 1).

To find A1 , A2 , and A3 we substitute any values of x in the above identify. When

x = 1 : 2 = 2A1 ⇔ A1 = 1;
x = 0 : −2 = A1 − A3 ; ⇔ A3 = 3;
x = 2 : 12 = 5A1 + (2A2 + A3 ) ⇔ A2 = 2.

Therefore, after carrying out the appropriate integrations, we find

3x2 + x − 2
Z
dx = ln |x − 1| + ln(x2 + 1) + 3 arctan x + C .
(x − 1)(x2 + 1)

Case 4. The denominator Q(x) can be factored into linear and quadratic factors, and
some of the quadratic factors are repeated.

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 Example. If the denominator contains a factor such as (x2 + 3x + 5 − 1)3 , it will give
rise to the three terms
A1 x + A2 A3 x + A4 A5 x + A6
+ 2 + 2 .
(x + 3x + 5) (x + 3x + 5)
2 2 (x + 3x + 5)3

2x3 + 3x2 + x − 1
Z
Example 4. Find dx.
(x + 1)(x2 + 2x + 2)2
Solution:
This is Case 4 since x2 + 2x + 2 cannot be factored into real linear factors. Thus, we have

2x3 + 3x2 + x − 1 A1
=
(x + 1)(x2 + 2x + 2)2 x + 1
A2 x + A3
+ 2
x + 2x + 2
A4 x + A5
+ 2
(x + 2x + 2)2
or

2x3 + 3x2 + x − 1 =A1 (x2 + 2x + 2)2

+ (A2 x + A3 )(x2 + 2x + 2)(x + 1)
+ (A4 x + A5 )(x + 1).

When

x = −1 :A1 = −1;
x = 0 : − 1 = 4A1 + 2A3 + A5 and 2A3 + A5 = 3;
x = 1 :5 = 25A1 + (A2 + A3 )(10) + (A4 + A5 )(2) and
5A2 + 5A3 + A4 + A5 = 15;
x = 2 :20A2 + 10A3 + 2A4 + A5 = 43
x = −24A2 − 2A3 + 2A4 − A5 = −3.

Solving the four equations for the four unknowns, A2 , A3 , A4 , and A5 , we get (after
quite a bit of algebra)

A2 = 1, A3 = 3, A4 = −2, A5 = −3.

Therefore,

2x3 + 3x2 + x − 1 (x + 3)dx

Z Z
dx = − ln |x + 1| +
(x + 1)(x2 + 2x + 2)2 x2 + 2x + 2
Z
(−2x − 3)dx
+ .
(x2 + 2x + 2)2

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 We complete the square and set u = x + 1, du = dx, obtaining

(x + 3)dx u+2
Z Z
1
= du = ln |x2 + 2x + 2| + 2 arctan(x + 1).
x + 2x + 2
2 u +1
2 2
Z Z Z
−2x − 3 −2u − 1 1 du
dx = du = 2 −
(x2 + 2x + 2)2 (u2 + 1)2 u +1 (u2 + 1)2
1 1 1 x+1
= 2 − arctan(x + 1) − .
x + 2x + 2 2 2 x2 + 2x + 2
The last two terms on the right are obtained by using a trigonometric substitution in the
integral immediately above. Combining all the integrals, we conclude that

2x3 + 3x2 + x − 1
Z
1 3 1 x−1
= − ln |x + 1| + ln(x2 + 2x + 2) + arctan(x + 1) − · 2 +C .
(x + 1)(x2 + 2x + 2)2 dx 2 2 2 x + 2x + 2

Exercises: Find the indefinite integral.

x3
Z
1. dx
x2 − 6x + 9
2x2 + 3x − 1
Z
2. dx
(x + 3)(x + 2)(x − 1)
x2 − 2
Z
3. dx
(x + 1)(x − 1)2
x2 + 3x + 3
Z
4. dx
(x + 1)(x2 + 1)
x2 − x + 1
Z
5. dx
x4 − 5x3 + 5x2 + 5x − 6

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