Structure And Class Of Engineering Materials

TASK 1

Categorization in Engineering Material

Various engineering materials are categorized as follows in table 1 below:

Name of Engineering Classification Sub-Categorization

Materials

Iron (Ferrite) Metal(M) Ferrous

CsCI (Cesium Chloride) Non-metal(NM) Inorganic Compound

Diamond Non-metal(NM) Natural Material

Glass Non-metal(NM) Ceramic

Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) Non-metal(NM) Polymer (Thermoplastic)

Epoxy Non-metal(NM) Polymer (Reactive)

CFRP (Carbon Fiber Non-metal(NM) Composite

Reinforced Composite)

Nickel-Titanium alloy Metal(M) Non-ferrous

Table 1 Category of Materials

Description of Structure of Engineering Materials

a) Ceramic. Glass, a common material which belongs to a unique range of ceramic materials
described primarily by its structure of atoms. Glass do not show an ordered crystalline structure
unlike other ceramic materials but instead it is highly made up of disordered amorphous
structure. The amorphous structure makes the glass unique and exhibit highly different properties
in comparison with other crystalline ceramics. Glass is a rigid in nature. Dry materials are mixed
and heated to a viscous state and then the elements are cooled rapidly enough to prevent the
formation of a consistent crystalline structure. For a perfect crystal arrangement, the atoms
become locked in a disordered state as soon as the glass material is cooled down before the
atoms can form into the perfect solid crystal arrangement. Ionic bonding is used in the formation
of glass. The glass atoms are linked together by essential forces as found in crystals. The atoms
oscillate in a definite equilibrium positions over large ranges of temperature. An extended three-
dimensional networks are formed in crystals .The glass network and a crystal network are
differentiated by the presence of periodicity and symmetry and periodicity (Edén, 2020).

Figure 1 Structure of Glass (Edén, 2020)

b) Non-metal. The diamond has a face centered cubic crystalline structure. Covalent bond is
used in the formation of diamond. Every atom of carbon is joined with other four carbon atoms
in regular tetrahedrons or triangular prisms shape to form a diamond. The diamond crystals can
be made into various shapes and sizes based on the cubic form and its very symmetrical atom
prearrangement. This is known as the habits of crystal. A flawless cleavage is formed in diamond
in 4 different directions. This indicates that a diamond will detach neatly with these directions
rather than breaking it in a rough way. The cutters of diamond take benefit of cleavage lines to
facade gemstones. The cleavage lines are an outcome from the diamond crystal which has fewer
chemical bonds along its octahedral face plane rather than in other directions. (Co, 2020).

Figure 2 Structure of Diamond (Co, 2020)

c) Polymers. Materials such as Epoxy and PVC have a polymer structure. Polymers are those
materials that comprises of molecules formed by long chains of repeating units. Polymers are of
two types which is natural or synthetic. The molecular ability to form long chains plays an
important role in formation of polymers. The polymer structure is made up of many simple
molecules of repeating structural units known as monomers. These million monomers are
arranged in a linear, cross-linked or branch type structure. Covalent bonding is used to hold the
atoms together in the polymer structure. The polymeric material is formed by holding groups of
polymer chains together with the help of secondary bonds (Rudin & Choi, 2015).

Figure 3 Structure of Polymers (Rudin & Choi, 2015)

d) Metal. Materials such as Iron and Nickel-Titanium alloys are formed through metallic
bonding. Each has different properties and is determined by the force which holds together the
atoms of metal. Metals have three different crystalline structures namely body-centered cubic,
hexagonal and cubic face centered. The metal atoms of the body-centered cubic metal structure
occupy the 8 corners of a cube along with 1 atom in the exact center whereas, there are 8 atoms
at each corner of the cube and 6 atoms in the center of each face in the centered face cubic metal
structure. The metal atoms in the hexagonal structure are arranged in the shape of a hexagon
rather than in the form of a cube. The iron has a body centered cubic metallic structure whereas
the hexagonal metallic structure is followed by Titanium alloy as shown in figure 4 (Bhaduri,
2018).
 Figure 4 Structure of Metals (Bhaduri, 2018)

e) Composite. A composite material such as carbon fiber reinforced is a substance in which one
or more communally insoluble substances are mixed or fused together (Mechanicalc, 2021).

TASK 2

Classification of engineering material

Various engineering materials are classified into metals and non-metal as follows in table 2
below:

Name of Engineering Materials Classification Material Properties

Metal (M) Ferrous It is ductile and has high

Steel
strength

Non-metal (NM) Ply wood doesn’t have any

Natural metallic structure and is a poor
Plywood conductor of electricity.
Plywood has a high impact
resistance

Metal (M) Non Good conductor of heat and

Aluminum ferrous electricity and has a shiny
metallic structure

Non-metal(NM) Bad conductor of heat and

Polyacrylic rubber
Polymers electricity

Stainless Steel Metal (M) Ferrous It has high strength and has
 Metal(M) Ferrous high melting point. Good
conductor of heat and electricity
High-speed steel
and has a shiny metallic
structure

Metal(M) Non It is highly malleable and has

Brass ferrous good thermal and heat
conductivity

Metal(M) Ferrous It has high strength and has

Plain Carbon steel high melting point. Good
conductor of heat and electricity

Silk Non-metal (NM) It has low density and little

Natural luster

Concrete Non-metal (NM) It has low density

Composites

Cobalt Metal (M) Non It has a high melting point

ferrous

Leather Non-metal (NM) Bad conductor of heat and has

Natural material no luster

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Non-metal (NM) Bad conductor of heat and

polymers electricity

Polypropylene (PP) Non-metal (NM) Bad conductor of heat and

Polymers electricity

Gold Metal(M) Good conductor of heat and

Nonferrous electricity. It is ductile and
highly malleable.

Glass Non-metal (NM) Low density

Ceramics

Silicone rubber Non-metal (NM) Bad conductor of heat and

Polymers electricity
 Carbon-fiber reinforced plastic Non-metal (NM) Bad conductor of heat and
(CFRP Polymers electricity

Smart alloy Metal (M) Alloy High strength

Nickel Titanium (Ti-Ni) Metal (M) Alloy It has high strength and has a
high melting point. Good
conductor of heat and electricity

Diamond Non-metal (NM) Bad conductor of electricity

Natural

Epoxy Non-metal (NM) Bad conductor of electricity

Polymers

Silica Non-metal (NM) Bad conductor of electricity

Ceramics

Polyethylene (PE) Non-metal (NM) Bad conductor of heat and

Polymers electricity

Glass fiber reinforced polymer Non-metal (NM) Bad conductor of electricity

Composites

Ceramic-matrix composite Non-metal (NM) Bad conductor of electricity

Composites

Cermet Non-metal (NM) Bad conductor of electricity

Composites

Table 2 Classification of Material

TASK 3

1. Mechanical Properties

Mechanical properties are the physical characteristics that a material exhibits when forces are
applied to it. Brittleness, hardness, embrittlement, and homogeneity are just a few examples.

Examples of Mechanical Properties

a) Hardness: A high level of hardness, for example, will increase a material's resistance to
localised deformation; tungsten, for example, has a high level of hardness.

b) Brittleness: Cast iron, for example, is brittle because it fractures with little elastic
deformation and little plastic deformation when subjected to stress mechanical properties

c) Tensile Strength: Tensile strength of a material such as steel rod or timer dowel piece can be
measured by gripping it together at the ends then with force pulling them apart till the material
ends and trying to pull it until it is broken down. In this manner, a tensile load is placed upon the
material and resistance of the material is checked before using it in any construction work. Other
examples of tensile strength material is spider silk, carbon fiber (Fractory, 2021)

d) Fatigue Strength: A good example of fatigue strength is breaking a thin steel rod or wire

with your hands after bending it back and forth several times in the same place.

e) Material strain and stress: a stress on a rubber band produces larger strain (deformation)

than the same stress on a steel band of the same dimensions because the elastic modulus for
rubber is two orders of magnitude smaller than the elastic modulus for steel.

f) Ductility: Most metals are good examples of ductile materials, including gold, silver, copper,
erbium, terbium, and samarium. Examples of metals that are not very ductile include tungsten
and high-carbon steel. Nonmetals are not generally ductile.

g) Modulus strength and elasticity: Young Modulus, Shear Modulus & Bulk Modulus

h) Toughness: It is a measure of the amount the material resists the change in shape. A good
example is to withstand wear or deformation, gearing in a machine or a car. Cutting tools can
withstand deformation and wear.

2. Physical properties

Physical properties are those that can be measured or observed without affecting the substance's
chemical nature. Appearance, texture, colour, odour, melting point, boiling point, and density are
all factors to consider. When observed, density, for example, can be used to identify pure
substances as well as characterise and estimate the composition of a variety of mixtures.
a) Density b) Specific gravity c) State Change temperatures d) Coefficients of thermal expansion
e) Specific Heat f) Latent heat g) Fluidity h) Weld ability i) Elasticity j) Plasticity k) Porosity l)
Thermal conductivity m) Electrical Conductivity

Example: Checking the density of the Styrofoam cup before using it. The cup made up of
Styrofoam is less dense than the cup made up of ceramic. Due to this reason the Styrofoam cup
will float in water and the cup made up of ceramic will sink down (Callister & Rethwisch, 2018).

Water can give an excellent example for state change in different temperatures. Water is a liquid
at room temperature, but becomes a solid (called ice) if it is cooled down. The same water turns
into a gas (called water vapour) if it is heated up. The changes only happen when the substance
reaches a particular temperature. Water turns to ice at 0ºC (32ºF).

3. Electrical properties

The ability of a material to conduct electrical current is defined by its electrical properties.
Resistivity, conductivity, temperature coefficient of resistance, dielectric strength, and
thermoelectricity are examples of these properties. A material with high conductivity, such as
copper, will allow an electric current to flow more freely. Silver is a highly resistive material.
Electrical resistivity is a measurement of how well a material resists electric current.

Electrical properties of engineering material are described as follows:

a) Resistivity: A measure of the resisting power of a specified material to the flow of an

electric current. Calculated resistivity of copper at 20 degrees is 1.7 × 10-8 ohm
(Solymar, et al., 2015).
b) Conductivity: The degree to which a specified material conducts electricity, calculated as
the ratio of the current density in the material to the electric field which causes the flow
of current. Conductivity is the ability to transmit heat, sound or electricity. An example
of conductivity is heat transferring from hot pot of soup to a metal ladle sitting in the pot.
c) Temperature coefficient of Resistance: It is defined as the change in resistance as a
function of the ambient temperature.
 d) Permittivity: The ability of a material to store electrical potential energy under the
influence of an electric field measured by the ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor with
the material as dielectric to its capacitance with vacuum as dielectric.
e) Thermoelectricity: It is the direct conversion of temperature differences to electric
voltage and vice versa via a thermocouple.

4. Thermal properties

Thermal properties are defined as a physical property of a solid body in terms of heat energy
application. Thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity, specific heat capacity, thermal effusivity,
material density, and expansivity are all included in this category. Expansivity is used in railroad
tracks and bridges that have expansion joints that allow them to expand and contract freely in
response to temperature changes. Aluminum is a material with a lot of room for expansion. The
quantity of thermal energy that flows per unit through a unit area with a temperature gradient of
1 degree per unit distance is defined by thermal conductivity, which is the ability of a material to
conduct heat. Copper is a heat-conducting metal.

Thermal properties of engineering material are described as a) Thermal conductivity b) Specific

heat c) Melting point or heat resistance d) Thermal expansion e) Thermal shock f) Thermal
diffusivity g) Thermal effect

Example: The railway tracks often expand in summers and as a result of thermal expansion get
twisted due to extreme heat and high temperatures (Wang, et al., 2017).

The melting point of a substance is the temperature at which it changes state from solid to liquid.
At the melting point the solid and liquid phase exist in equilibrium. The melting point of a
substance depends on pressure and is usually specified at a standard pressure such as 1
atmosphere or 100 kPa.

5. Magnetic properties

Magnetic properties are the characteristics that a material exhibits when exposed to an external
magnetic field. Initial permeability, effective permeability, vacuum permeability, susceptibility,
and mass susceptibility are all included. The greater the magnetic permeability of a material, for
 example, the greater the conductivity for magnetic lines of force, and vice versa. The
permeability of iron is 2.5 times that of copper.

Magnetic susceptibility determines whether a material is drawn into or repelled from a magnetic
field.

Magnetic properties of engineering material are described as follows:

a) Permeability
b) Retentivity of Magnetic Hysteresis
c) Coercive force
d) Reluctance

Example: Flowing of water through a porous rack. and the magnetic permeability of vacuum is
found to be zero (Electrical, 2021).

A reluctance motor is a type of electric motor that induces non-permanent magnetic poles on
the ferromagnetic rotor. The rotor does not have any windings. It generates torque through
magnetic reluctance.

TASK 4

Effect of Typical Processing Methods on Structure and Behavior

Structure
a. The effect of different elements in steel in alloying processing. Alloying is making the
amendments and changing the structure and construction of steel by incorporating
components with reason to enhance its properties when contrasted with the plane
carbon steel. The addition of alloying of steel through some elements and the impacts of
the expansion of such components are illustrated beneath:
Carbon (C). The main constituent of steel. It raises elasticity, hardness, and resistance from
wear and scraped spots. It brings down pliability, durability and machinability and ductility.

Chromium (CR). Increments elasticity, hardness, hardenability, durability, resistance,

defiance from rusting and roughness, and scaling at raised temperatures.

Cobalt (CO). Expands strength and hardness and grants higher extinguishing temperatures
and builds the red hardness of high velocity steel. It likewise increases the individual impacts
of other significant components in more perplexing steels.

Columbium (CB). Utilised as balancing out components in stainless steels. Each has a high
proclivity for carbon and structures carbides, which are consistently scattered all through the
steel. In this way, restricted precipitation of carbides at grain limits is forestalled.

Copper (CU). In huge sums is inconvenient to hot-working steels. Copper contrarily

influences forge and manufacture welding, however, does not genuinely influence circular
segment or oxyacetylene welding. Copper can be unfavorable to surface quality. Copper is
gainful to corrosion of the atmosphere when present in sums surpassing 0.20%. Enduring
steels are sold having more noteworthy than 0.20% Copper.

Manganese (MN). It increments elasticity, hardness, hardenability, and protection from

wear (resistance). It diminishes propensity toward scaling, bending and distortion. It builds
the pace of carbon-entrance in carburizing.

Molybdenum (MO). Builds strength, hardness, hardenability, and sturdiness, just as creep
obstruction and strength at raised temperatures. It improves machinability and protection
from erosion, and it strengthens the impacts of other alloying components.

Nickel (NI). Builds strength and hardness without forfeiting pliability and durability. It
likewise builds protection from erosion and scaling at raised temperatures when presented in
appropriate amounts in high-chromium (hardened) steels.
Zirconium (Zr). Builds strength and cutoff points grain sizes.

Boron (B). Exceptionally powerful hardenability specialist, improves deformability and

machinability.

Figure 1: Effect of Alloy Elements (Tugraz,2021)

b. The effect of temperature related re-crystallization in rolling or work

hardening. At the point when metals misshape plastically by crystal slip at raised
temperatures, the work solidifying and hardening created by distortion will in
general be neutralised by recovery measures. These recovery measures cause
adjustment, obliteration, and annihilation of dislocation so that, as strain builds,
the separations will in general frame into two-dimensional sub-grain dividers. In
certain metals and combinations, the recovery completely balances work
solidifying and hardening, and consistent state is accomplished and can be kept
up to enormous strains before break happens. In different metals in which
recuperation is less fast, certain states of pressure and temperature of deformity
 can bring about the amassing of adequately high neighborhood contrasts in
dislocation density to nucleate recrystallization during deformity. This
recrystallization is alluded to as dynamic recrystallization to recognize it from the
static recrystallization that can happen altogether metals when deformation is
ended however the raised temperature is kept up, or when twisting is completed
at low temperature and the metal is in this way toughened.

c. The effect of cold working in metals.

Cold Working. Metal is supposed to be cold worked on the off chance that it is
precisely prepared underneath the recrystallization temperature of the metal. A
large portion of cold working cycles are performed at room temperature. Hot
working normally brings about the refinement of grain structure though cool
working just mutilates the grains and does little towards lessening its size.

Effects of Cold working in metals.

i. Cold working produces an improved surface completion, without scale and brilliant
surface and closer dimensional resistances. Cold working cycles are by and large utilised
in making end-use items in light of their economy in delivering the ideal shapes. It is
likewise used to create remaining stress into specific metals to have improved weariness
life, e.g., by shot peening in the event of leaf springs.
ii. The grain structure is contorted and erosion and resistance from working continues
expanding because of the grid twisting.
iii. Leftover anxieties are set up in the metal which stays except if they are taken out by
resulting heat treatment. When reheating is done underneath the crystallization
temperature, the lingering residual stresses are taken out without calculable change in
actual properties of grain structure. Further warming into the re-crystallise range kills
the impact of cold working and reestablishes the metal to its unique condition.
iv. The effect of cold rolled results in loss of flexibility, increment in strength and durability
and hardness of metal.
v. Surface completion and the finish is improved, and close resistances can be kept up.
 vi. Re-Crystallization temperature for steel is raised.
Cold working causes crystal grains and inclusions to distort in response to metal flow,
which can result in work hardening and anisotropic material properties. Tensile strength
can be increased at the expense of ductility by lowering the rolling temperature. Steel,
aluminium, and copper are the most common materials used in this process.

Figure 2: Effect of Cold Working (Finetubes,2021)

Thermoplastic polymers

a. The effect of temperature in polymer processing.

i. At the point when substances made of small atoms and little molecules are
warmed, they just dissolve or melt and structure a free-streaming fluid; anyway,
with polymers the interaction is more unpredictable.
ii. At the point when polymers are cooled, they will regularly turn out to be weak,
fragile and brittle. At the point when warmed and heated, the polymers will
initially get adaptably flexible prior to liquefying.
 iii. This is because of their construction. In certain polymers, there are territories of
translucent, crystalline and indistinct areas. In the glassy form, the tangled
polymer chains in the nebulous area become frozen, which forestalls simple
development of the chain’s comparative with one another. In the event that the
polymer is compelled to change shape, it does as such by breaking.
iv. At the point when the polished/ glass material is warmed by heating, the
polymer chains will arrive at a temperature at which they can move comparative
with one another (the glass change temperature Tg). On additional heating of
the polymer glass, it gets adaptable, flexible and shows the more traditional
properties expected of a plastic.
v. In the end, if the polymer is adequately heated to a certain temperature for
enough time , the dissolving temperature Tm will be reached (the plastic turns
into a gooey viscous liquid). This cycle is reversible for thermoplastics.

Figure 3: Effect of Temperature on Strength of Polymer (Naser,2015)

vi. Nowadays, polymers are intended to have Tg and Tm esteems which are
identified with the ideal properties of the substance.
vii. Adaptability can happen when the chains are not firmly stuffed or tightly packed
and some opportunity of development is conceivable.
viii. Cumbersome side-groups likewise influence the measure of turn and rotation
that can happen around the connecting bonds.
 ix. Intermolecular powers may likewise have their impact upon adaptability and
flexibility; more grounded intermolecular powers will imply that the chains are
held together more firmly and are in this way are more sustainable.

The current measured value of a particular part of a process that is being monitored or
controlled is referred to as a process variable, process value, or process parameter. To avoid
the mould being forced open and the part being damaged after the mould cavity has been
filled, injection pressure may need to be reduced at the changeover point in the injection
process.

b- The effect of process parameters (e.g. injection pressure)

In plastic injection molding, injection pressure refers to the force being applied by the
reciprocating screw forcing plastic resin into a mold till it reaches roughly 95% capacity.
While the mold is empty there is not much resistance opposing the flow of the resin so it
fills up quickly. Resin is heated and acquires the shape of the mold. When the mold is close
to about 95% of its capacity the will be a sharp increase in pressure. This increase in
pressure can cause the mold to open prematurely, potentially causing damage to the part
and/or the machine. In order to prevent this from happening, pressure is reduced at this
time, which is called the changeover point.
At the changeover point, the system switches over from injection pressure to what is known
as ‘holding pressure’. The holding pressure of the system is lower than the initial injection
pressure and is also held for a longer amount of time. There are several reasons for this,
such as: to give gases in the resin time to escape, applying pressure for a longer time allows
the molecules to realign and reach a higher density and it gives time for thin-walled sections
of the part to fill in fully. Another thing that needs to be taken into account with holding
pressure is that extending it for too long can also be a problem, as the cavity needs to be
filled in less time than it takes for the resin in the gate to solidify, otherwise the gate will
become blocked.
Another process parameter to bear in mind with plastic injection molding is clamping
pressure. Clamping pressure refers to the force applied to the outside of the mold in order
to keep it shut during the injection process. The clamping pressure needs to be greater than
the injection pressure, otherwise the mold could be forced open before the end of the
injection process, or you can end up with ‘flash’, which is a small amount of waste plastic
that slips between the halves of the mold.
Thermosetting polymers

a. The effect of cooling rate in processing. Thermoplastics are prepared in the liquid
expression or state, their concluding or finalizing shape and internal design are set up by
cooling. Likewise, after molding the thermoset polymers, their polymer chains,
regardless of whether fanned or direct, stay discrete. Materials are characterized as
materials that will go through or have gone through a substance response chemical
reaction by the activity of heat, catalyst and ultraviolet light, and so forth, bringing about
a generally infusible state. When the material has gone through these actions and
undergoes a chemical reaction or change it can't over and over be mellowed and
softened after warming with heat and solidified after cooling.

Figure 4: Effect of Cooling Rate (Naser,2015)

Ceramics
a. The effect of the clays water content. The coupled interaction between water and clay
content has a significant impact on the behavior of unsaturated clayey soil. Experiments
were conducted on various aspects of the behavior of artificial clay–sand mixtures with
varying water content. Consistency limits, the stress–strain relationship, strength
parameters, hydraulic conductivity, and other parameters were determined using
laboratory tests Volume change characteristics in soil mixtures with various
combinations of water and clay content.
New normalised consistency limits; the combined effect of clay content and water
content on the stress–strain relationship and the strength parameters and the effect of
clay content on hydraulic conductivity and swelling potential are among the various
clay–sand mixtures studied. Clayey sand cohesion increases with increasing water
content up to a point, after which it decreases.

Figure 5: Effect of Water Content(Naser,2015)

Although Poulenard et al. (2018) and Lichner et al. (2019) observed monotonic increases
in water repellency with drying, water repellency varies non-linearly with soil water
content. At water levels above the critical water content (CWC), soils become wettable
(Dekker et al. 2021; Lichner et al. 2016). According to the report, the water repellency of
various soils varies based on the volume of water present. They noticed that some soils
have one or two peaks of repellency as a function of water quality, while others are not
repellent at all. Soil water repellency improved with atmospheric relative humidity,
according to Doerr et al. (2021) When the water content was increased from air-dried to
near wilting point, the water repellency increased. Water repellency of volcanic soils
improved as water quality declined from field ability to permanent wilting point,
according to Regalado and Ritter (2015). The non-linear behavior of water-dependent
repellency, on the other hand, has remained a mystery. Water repellency has been
 shown to decrease farm production. As a result of increased drainage and deforestation,
they lead to soil loss (. It can cause pasture and seed germination to be delayed, making
the soil susceptible to wind erosion. The addition of fine particles to these water-
repellent soils is successful as a remedial treatment. Alternative approaches include
prolonged shaking and causing the oxidation of hydrophobic organic carbon.

b. The effect sintering-pressing has on the clay. The combination of compositions and
firing temperature are significant core factors in manufacturing a high-quality Ceramic
product. The bulk density of ceramic bricks is proportional to the temperature at which
they are fired. The firing temperature has an approximately linear effect on compressive
power.
Firing temperature has an opposite relationship with porosity percentage. As the firing
temperature is increased, the percentage of porosity reduces. In all tests, the
appearance of ceramic bodies is strong (no flaws) and the colors of ceramic bodies are
appropriate. The microstructure of sample S1 sintered at 900°C, is characterized by a
high porosity. It comes to a conclusion from the work concluded that the composition
needed to manufacture high-quality Ceramic bodies was determined by the maximum
firing temperature (1050 °C).In this way the strength of ceramic bodies is increased.

Composites
a. The effect of fibre alignment to the direction of stress on carbon-fiber reinforced
plastic(CFRP): The effect of fiber orientation on material properties is one of the
most significant aspects that the injection molding process affects mechanical
efficiency. Adding fiber insulation to plastic components poses special structural
analysis problems. Variations in material properties and fiber orientations may be
important during injection molding operations, but they are often ignored. As a
result, the model is oversimplified, omitting essential considerations such as poor
areas caused by weld lines, residual strains that affect wear age, and property
differences caused by fiber orientation. As a consequence, sections are often
 overdesigned or require trial-and-error optimization. Those methods are just right in
a market where molders are trying to boost efficiency while lowering costs. The
effect of fiber orientation on material properties is one of the most significant
aspects that the injection molding process affects mechanical efficiency. The
following diagrams demonstrate two distinct ways fiber orientation affects the
structural behavior of fiber-filled sections, as well as the significance of using a bi-
directional design and research approach.
Fiber orientation is influenced by the direction of flow and the mold cavity geometry
as the inserted fluid flows through the mold and can differ greatly across the
component. The mechanical properties of the resulting fiber orientation are closely
related.

Figure 6: Effect of Stress on CFRP (Finetubes,2021)

b. The effect of de-lamination on composite. The processes by which delamination

leads to fiber-reinforced composite failure are addressed. The result of delamination
in impact and compression after impact was considered first, followed by through-
 thickness loss due to interlinear stresses. In-plane loss can be caused by
delamination and matrix fractures joining together to form a fracture surface
without the need for breeching. The next step is to look at how in-plane collapse can
be caused by delamination and matrix fractures joining together to create a fracture
surface without the need to split fibers. Large differences in unnoticed tensile
strength controlled by delamination from the free ed show up in examples of quasi-
isotropic laminates loaded at different off-axis angles and with different numbers
and thicknesses of ply blocks.
The hole size effect, in which tensile strength increases with decreasing hole
diameter due to increased delamination and splitting, is caused by similar
mechanisms that determine the strength of notched specimens. With increasing ply
block thickness, open hole tension and over-height compact tension tests with
constant in-plane dimensions show a transition in failure mode from fiber-
dominated fracture to complete delamination. The relative propensity to delaminate
is the critical factor controlling strength in all of these cases.

c. The effect of particle reinforcement on cermet. Cermet is a mixture of ceramic and

copper. That is what there is to it! Why would one like to bring metal and ceramic
together? Metals, despite their versatility, are unable to survive the intense
temperatures used in Aeroplan jet engines and space rockets. Ceramics are brilliant
at high temperatures and can survive chemical and oxygen attacks, but their utter
ineptitude means they are just pretty boring most of the time. Ceramics are brilliant
at high temperatures and can survive chemical attacks as well as oxygen in the air,
but their inertness leaves them pretty dull much of the time. Teapots and false teeth
are made of it, but it is useless at conducting electricity or heat, or bending and
flexing. If one wants something that can bear the test of time.
Cermets, and most composites, "work" by making a substance with a microstructure
that shares those features with each of its constituents. The metal portion, for
example, essentially causes electrons to pass through the material, causing a
 ceramic insulator to conduct electricity. As a consequence, cermets tend to be
relatively stable systems in which the met is present.
This indicates that cermets are relatively stable structures with the metal and
ceramic set in place, but this isn't always the case. Cermets tend to have a complex
surface coating under certain conditions, with metal particles continually detaching
and reattaching themselves. This produces a cleaner, stronger, and more wear-
resistant top layer, which affects how a metal behaves like cermet (Chen, and at al,
2019).
A cermet's metal part makes it more ductile, in addition to stronger electrical
properties (capable of being drawn thin into strands or wires). It also increases
thermal shock resistance: when one component of a ceramic material (such as glass)
is hotter than another, it may break fatally or shatter; the metal portion of a cermet
tends to prevent this by conducting the excess heat. The metal component of a
cermet helps to prevent this by securely conducting and dissipating excess heat
through the material (Aramian, and et al, 2020)

Effects of post-productions apply in smart material including

a. The effect of impact or stress on Piezoelectric materials. This chapter explores the
dynamics of ferroelectric materials coupled wide field action. Since the models are
multiaxial in both stress and electric fields, they can be used in finite element analysis.
The material behavior is defined in terms of fundamental behavior that occurs on a
range of length scales, from the atomic to the macroscopic. At the atomic level, the
crystal structure and an example of a lattice defect are provided. At the size of tens of
atoms, a simplistic model of unit cell activity is given. This results in domain structures at
the single crystal length scale, as well as a description of compatibility problems at
domain, step, and grain boundaries. The macroscopic behavior can be as a volume
average of smaller length scale behavior (Maurya, D., and et al, 2018).
b. The effect of temperature on Shape memory alloys (SMA). Two distinct crystal
structures or phases can be found in form memory alloys. The step of the SMA is
determined by temperature and internal stresses (which play a role in super-elasticity).
At lower temperatures, martensite forms, and at higher temperatures, austenite forms.
At lower temperatures, a SMA takes on the martensite type. At lower temperatures, a
SMA can quickly be deformed into some shape since it is in martensite form. As heated,
the alloy undergoes a transition from martensite to austenite. The memory metal
"remembers" the shape it had until it was deformed during the austenite process. The
stress vs. temperature graph below shows that martensite occurs at low stress and low
temperature. Austenite forms at higher temperatures when further stress is applied
with martensite.
c. The effect of temperature or viscosity on Color change materials. Thermo Chromaticity
is determined by the content and hue. In the low end, a color difference can be
determined after a temperature change of just 5° Fahrenheit on a ceramic tile. It can
require a greater change to note a difference in print media on corrugated cardboard.
We performed an experiment with the green tile that comes with many of our industrial
devices to demonstrate the effect of thermal chromaticity on a ceramic sample. To
establish the norm, first test it at room temperature. Then I put it in the freezer until it
hit 35 degrees Fahrenheit. The Ci7860 was then used to test it as it returned to room
temperature every few minutes. The color of the tile was influenced by the rising
temperature. (DeRieux, and et al 2018).

Task 5
How the item properties are affected in processing phase

a) Gears manufactured with carbon steel (EN32).

The general composition of this material consists of ;
Carbon ,C 0.90-1.03%
 Iron,Fe 98.38-98.8%
Manganese,Mn0.30-0.50%
Phosphorus,P<=0.040%
Sulfur,S <=0.050%

Medium-carbon steel. Because of their high strength, protection from wear and
durability, medium-carbon preparations are frequently utilised for rail line tracks, train
wheels, driving rods, and gear and apparatus parts requiring this mix of properties.

The benefits got from utilizing heat-treated amalgam prepares instead of warmth
treated plain carbon prepares are as per the following:

i. Expanded surface hardness and profundity of hardness entrance for a similar carbon
content and extinguish.

ii. Capacity to get a similar surface hardness with a less extraordinary extinguish and, on
account of a portion of the amalgams, a lower extinguishing temperature, subsequently
giving less mutilation.

iii. Expanded sturdiness, as demonstrated by the higher estimations of yield point,

extension, and decrease of territory.

iv. Better grain size, with the subsequent higher effect sturdiness and expanded wear
obstruction.

v. On account of a portion of the amalgams, better machining characteristics or the chance

of machining at higher hardness’s.

Heat-Treatment that Licenses Machining

When crushing stuff teeth isn't an alternative and a high level of accuracy is needed, hardened
gets ready can be pulled in or tempered to a hardness that requires the teeth to be sliced. This
treatment results in a much more polished growth, outstanding strength, and, despite the low
stiffness, incredible wear characteristics. Because of the impacts created by botches, the lower
intensity is effectively compensated before the completion of the expansion stacks. When readies
with a low degree of hardness join from the surface to the concentrate and are handled as such,
the structure cannot be focused on actual properties that vary from the hardness at the surface.
The reduction in hardness from surface to concentrate would result in lower real properties at the
establishment of the teeth, where the pressing factor is usually important, since genuine
properties are directed by hardness. Depending on the steel used and the hardness penetration
required, the smothering medium may be oil, water, or a saline solution. Clearly, the percentage
of mutilation is greater in immaterial, considering the way that the machining is done after heat-
treating.

Making Pinion Harder than Gear to Equalise Wear

Having the gears harder than the stuff yields useful results from a wear outlook. Since the pinion
has fewer teeth than the stuff, it typically does more work per tooth, and the hardness difference
between the pinion and the stuff (the amount being subject to the proportion) helps to control the
rate of wear. The tougher pinion teeth correct any flaws in the stuff (the sum being subject to the
proportion) helps to control the rate of wear the tougher pinion teeth tend to polish the teeth of
the stuff and improve its capacity to withstand wear by the more notable hardness due to the cool
working of the surface, and thereby correct the mistakes in the stuff teeth somewhat by
underlying wear. When the stuff proportion is high and there are no large stun loads, an
unfeeling pinion operating on oil-treated material that has been hardened to a Brinell hardness
where the teeth can be cut after treatment is an excellent combination. Since the pinion is
normally small, it isn't twisted much, and mutilation in the material is prevented by cutting the
teeth after care.
c. Housings manufactured with aluminum (LM6). LM6 metal grid composite has been
progressively utilised in cutting edge applications like Aviation, Vehicles and Marine. These
composites are exposed to distinctive ecological conditions, consequently this work
manages creating Aluminum based metal grid composite and afterward contemplating its
mechanical properties like Elasticity, Effect strength, Shear strength, Torsional strength and
Hardness with created test example. Aluminum compound and titanium-boron has been
picked as a network and building up material individually, analyse has been led by changing
weight part of 18% and 20% of titanium-boron. The mechanical properties may change with
the expanding level of support. Test examples have been arranged utilizing Stirrer
projecting procedure. Sizes of the examples are as indicated by ASTM guidelines.
Strength at raised temperature

Rigidity and hardness of this aluminum projecting combination diminishes decently consistently
with expanding temperature and becomes generally poor at 250°C.

Task 5 c

Windows and door seals manufactured with neoprene. Gaskets can be made of paper,
elastic, plug, metal, rubber, felt, neoprene, fiberglass, Teflon, or a synthetic polymer and
can be found in the results of different projects. Foamed synthetic rubber is an extremely
simple substance used in constructing gaskets, and it can shock you to find out how they are
made. Gaskets have a limited amount of space. They're used to create a seal between two
items that don't quite come together perfectly. Gaskets avoid cracks and assist in the
proper functioning of a number of mechanical instruments. In general, how are these
gaskets created? Elastic gaskets arrive at the industrial plant as large level pieces of material
that are regularly elastic. A "bun" is the term for this scavenged stuff. The bun is delivered in
a big, level cushion. The cushions are trimmed to the desired width using a bun parting unit.
Each cushion can be very dense as it is conveyed, necessitating the use of a bun splitter
machine to tighten it to the perfect detail.
When larger parts are reduced to smaller, more manageable elements, the specialist feeds
each new sheet of elastic into a covering system. These machines are profoundly particular,
and they apply both pressing factor and warmth to the crude material. The cement layer
has a paper side, which can be pulled back effectively for the material to adhere to any
surface.
Then, utilizing a CNC bite the dust cutting machine, gaskets are made as the machine gets
rid of them of the bigger sheet. After the gaskets are created, they are bundled and
dispatched everywhere in the world. As referenced, crude materials fluctuate in gasket
creation, however by and large, the interaction is the equivalent. These gaskets will
appropriately seal two pieces found in machines and in apparatuses across agrarian, auto,
little motor, clinical, military and modern organisations.

Task 6
Appropriate Materials for the products
a) Electrical wires
Copper. Copper can be used in a range of uses, including electrical wires. It's probably
made of copper, whether it's a force connection for a tv, PC, kitchen computer, or
production unit. This red-earthy alloy, which includes the nuclear number 29, has been
essential to our everyday lives by assisting in the charging of various machines. Copper,
though, is not the only metal that can be used (Yousef, and et al, 2021).

Type of Material: Metal

Standard:

ANSI American National Standard Institute

ANSI MC 96.1 Temperature measurement thermocouples

 BS British Standard Institution

BS 4937l International thermocouple reference tables

BS 5308 Standard for instrumentation cables

BS 5839-1 Fire detection and alarm system for building. Code of practice

Specification for performance requirements for cables required to maintain circuit

BS 6387
integrity under fire conditions

Method of determination of amount of halogen acid gas evolved during combustion of

BS 6425-1
polymeric materials taken from cables

Determination of degree of acidity (corrosivity) of gases by measuring PH and

BS 6425-2
conductivity

BS 6724,
Measurement of smoke density using the 3 m test cube (Absorbance)
Appendix F

BS 7622 Measurement of smoke density of electric cables burning under defined conditions (LT)

BS 8434 Method of test for assessment of the fire integrity of electric cables

High Conductivity. Copper is an extraordinarily conductive metal in comparsion to

platinum. This ensures that electricity can be transferred through it without the user
needing to raise a finger, making it suitable for use of electrical wires. Other
conductive metals can be used to render electrical wires for companies. If they're using
platinum, Copper's high conductivity properties, on the other hand, allow for a longer
distance travelled by electrical current. Copper, rather than most other conductive
metals, can be used to build longer, higher-performing electrical wires (Sofi, and et al,
2019).
 Cost and Availability. As compared to other metals, copper is still usually inexpensive.
Gold, for example, is an ideal power transmission, but it is many times more costly
than copper. Companies would be losing money if they used metal to make electrical
wires because copper is more conductive and costs less than gold. . This is enough of a
justification to make copper the standard for electrical wires.

High Ductility. Copper is not only conductive, but also malleable. At the end of the day,
copper can be bent and flexed — to a degree — without cracking or causing damage.
What is the meaning of this? Electrical wires can, in general, travel through dividers,
floors, roofs, and other restricted spaces on a daily basis. As a result, they appear to
curve and crawl their way around the house or office where they are working. Copper
electrical wires can fold and stretch due to its pliable properties. They can directly
submit electricity, and their force intensity will not be harmed by form distortion.

Warm Safe. Copper electrical wires have the benefit of being warm secure, which is
often forgotten. According to ESFI, electrical fires are blamed for more than 51,000
private house fires in the United States each year — and this does not include
business/commercial fires. Since copper electrical wires are impervious to war, they
are safer to use than wires made of any other conductive metals (Chelladurai, and et
al, 2018).

b) Seat Chair
Both plastics are polymers, with poly deriving from the Greek polis, which means
many, and mere deriving from the Greek meros, which means parts; hence, polymer
denotes a vast number of parts. A monomer is the basic structure square of a standard
long-chain polymer (mono is the Greek word for one). Thermoplastics are plastics with
two-dimensional subatomic shapes that can be heat mellowed and reused. Two
thermoplastics regularly utilised in the furniture business are polypropylene and eco-
problematic PVC (polyvinyl chloride), utilised for board edging and thwarts.
When shaped, plastics with three-dimensional inner designs, known as thermosets,
will not soften with heat. Polyurethane (cements and upholstery froth), phenolics
(cements), and polyester are among the polymers in this group that play a consistent
role in furniture manufacturing (completes, textures). Polymers may also be joined to
one another (much like metal composites) or to other materials, for example, glass
fiber - Eero Saarinen's tulip seat is an exemplary model. Plastics are significantly less
harmless to the ecosystem than wood (a characteristic polymer). Their monomers are
frequently harmful; Plastics manufacturing consumes a lot of energy; most polymers
are actually produced from non-sustainable oil; and thermosets are impossible to
reuse. With the exception of PVC and certain thermosets, the vast majority of these
problems can be mitigated by control advancement, strict eco-naming/reusing, and
research into bio-based monomer creation options. Before using polymers, designers
and manufacturers should think twice, and just use them for applications where the
positive properties outweigh the negative. Plastics, for example, will take care of
business with undeniably less material thanks to their low weight and high strength
(Doneva, T. and Namicev, M., 2019).

These concerns are less of a concern for small to medium size enterprises (SMEs)
because they lack the funds needed to implement thermoplastic infusion shaping
equipment to deliver a wide variety of plastic furniture. The production of small
segments from sheet stock is an environment where thermoplastics can play a
significant role. In contrast to plastic, a portion made of steel is less expensive but
heavier and more vulnerable to oxidation; aluminium is lighter but more expensive in
cost and an energy-burning-through indulgent individual. Furthermore, no matter how
environmentally friendly, wood cannot equal the simplicity of plastics. ABS,
polycarbonate (PC), glycol-adjusted polyethylene teraphylate (PETG), polylypropylene
(PP), and polymethyl methacrylate are examples of plastics found in sheet form that
can be handled with simple carpentry equipment or regulated with ease warming
 devices (PMMA). The Young's modulus (firmness) and development force of the five
thermoplastics; MDF was incorporated to show the distinction between wood/plastic
boards (heng, Y., et al, 2021)

Task 7
Thermal Property of expansion of railway track is chosen
Extreme weather is harmful not only to humans but also to airlines. It also allows train travel
risky by twisting railroad tracks. Steel tracks will stretch as temperatures increase, so they will
grow longer. Warmth-related extension adds a lot of pressure on the ties, stabilisers, and rail
fasteners that hold the tracks in position. At last, the tracks will clasp under the power. These are
classified "sun crimps." It makes the tracks look like spaghetti.
The production of liquor in a thermometer is one of many typical examples of warm extension,
or the change in size or volume of a given mass as a function of temperature. Since hot air
increases in volume, the thickness of the hot air is less than the thickness of the surrounding air,
resulting in a light (upward) impact on the hot air. The same phenomenon happens in both fluids
and gases, allowing characteristic warmth to increase in houses, oceans, and temperature
systems. Warm extension is often encountered by solids. Extension joints, for example, enable
railroad tracks and scaffolds to freely expand and contract in response to temperature changes
(Huang, et al, 2017).

What are the most important features of thermal extension? To begin with, temperature change is
inextricably linked to thermal growth. A bimetallic strip will twist further if the temperature
change is important. Second, it is based on the material. In a thermometer, for example, the
production of liquor is much more important than the expansion of the bottle in which it is
stored.
What is the primary cause of thermal development? As mentioned in the article Active
Hypothesis: An rise in temperature means an increase in the complex energy of the individual
particles, according to Nuclear and Subatomic Explanation of Pressing Component and
Temperature. The particles or atoms in a solid, unlike in a gas, are tightly pressed together when
heated, but Their active energy (in the form of weak, rapid vibrations) drives neighbouring iotas
or particles apart. All things considering, this equates to a greater body size for the whole body.
There is no preferred heading for most compounds in standard conditions, and a rise in
temperature will extend the Strong’s scale by a particular portion in each calculation. (Garcia-
Sanchez, et al, 2021).

Straight Warm Extension—Thermal Development IN ONE Measurement. The long L

modification applies to the length L. The condition L = LT summarises the dependency of warm
extension on temperature, material, and volume, where L is the adjustment long L, T is the
temperature modification, and is the coefficient of straight growth, which varies with
temperature.
Since a kelvin and a degree Celsius are similar in dimension, both and T can be expressed in
kelvins or degrees Celsius. The condition L = LT is exact for small temperature changes and can
be used for major temperature changes if a regular approximation of is used (Xiang, Y, and et al,
2020).

How Do Rail Lines Manage Thermal Extension?

With the advancement of nonstop welded rail (CWR), rail networks all over the world have had
to adapt to warm growth, also known as rail pushing. To put it another way, rails contract at low
temperatures and face tractable pressure, while they expand and pack under pressure at high
temperatures. This can create thermal wrinkles, which can throw the track out of whack and lead
to crashes if preventive measures are not taken.

What are the approaches used by rail lines to deal with thermal expansion? Thermal extension is
handled by rail lines by boiling the rail prior to installation. As a result, the rail is heated to its
rail neutral temperature, heated, and cooled as the rail is laid. In addition, numerous
advancements using wayside gadgets are used to identify rail flaws. (Hwang, and et al, 2018) .

How Selection meets the criteria

The Thermal expansion in railways track is one of the thermal change properties, and its has
been widely seen and observed all-round the globe and is found as on of the biggest thermal
change example without any doubt. So, selecting this application as one of the examples and key
factor for thermal properties meets the criteria, fully.

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