Professional Documents
Culture Documents
PHILIPPINE
POLITICS AND
GOVERNANCE
WORKBOOK FOR SENIOR HIGH
SCHOOL
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PREFACE
The lessons were crafted and organized to develop the critical thinking of the
Grade 12 students, equip them with comprehensive understanding of Philippine
Politics and Governance and imbue them with the essential core values
envisioned by the DepEd and prepare them to become responsible and
productive members of the community, in particular and the country, in general.
It is expected that this worktext would stimulate the learner’s appetite for learning
vis a vis with the use of modern technology and other pedagogical media.
The authors are also indebted to the writers/authors of the books and articles
used and therefore express their sincerest appreciation and gratitude.
THE AUTHORS
TITLE PAGE 1
COPYRIGHT PAGE 2
PREFACE 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS 4
MODULE 3 –POWER
Lesson –Nature, Dimensions, Types and Consequences of Power 29
GLOSSARY 159
REFERENCES 162
Politics is the way in which we understand and order our social affairs, and
acquire greater control over the situation. (B. Pomton and P. Gill, Politics,
Introduction. (New York: Basil Blackwell, 1982, p.6.)
It is also the strategy for maintaining cooperation among people with different
needs and ideals in life, or for resolving the conflict within the group, whether this
is a family, a tribe, a village or a nation-state. (Amable G. Tuibeo, “Politics and
Governance: A Critical Introduction (Makati: Grandwater Publication, 1998),
p.1.
a. Politics is all about the way human beings are governed, which involves
order, power, and justice. It is not just an abstract study;
b. It involves the government’s day-to-day performance;
c. It does not affect only one individual, but is inextricably bound up with the
perpetual quest for what is fair or just in light of the interest of the entire
community;
d. Issue is more or less political based on the extent that the use of political
power affects the lives and well-being of private citizens; and
e. An issue becomes political when the government must render a decision,
which must always be for the common good of the community.
1. Politics _______________________________________________
2. Political Science________________________________________
3. Government___________________________________________
4. State_________________________________________________
5. Sovereignty____________________________________________
6. Nation________________________________________________
LEARNING CONTENT:
Political Science deals with the systematic study of political structures, political
processes and political behavior. A number of approaches and methods have
been suggested and used by thinkers and scholars of political science for the
scientific investigation of political phenomena and
for the arrival at systematic generalizations and theories.
Traditional Approach
Behavioral Approach
Characteristics of Behaviorism:
LESSON CHECK UP
LEARNING CONTENT:
GOVERNANCE
Governance has been defined to refer to structures and processes that are
designed to ensure accountability, transparency, responsiveness, rule of law,
stability, equity and inclusiveness, effectiveness and efficiency and broad-based
participation.
They are inextricably related to each other. For instance, without active
participation among the various actors in governance, there would be a
concomitant lack of responsiveness. Likewise, if decision-making is not
transparent, then inevitably there would be no participation, accountability, and
decisions are not consensus-oriented.
2. Rule of Law -Democracy is essentially the rule of law. It is through the law
that people express their will and exercise their sovereignty. That the government
is of law and not of men is an underlying democratic principle which puts no one,
however rich and powerful, above the law. Not even the government can
arbitrarily act in contravention of the law. Thus, good democratic governance is
fundamentally adherence to the rule of law. Rule of law demands that the people
and the civil society render habitual obedience to the law. It also demands that
the government acts within the limits of the powers and functions prescribed by
the law. The absence of rule of law is anarchy. Anarchy happens when people
act in utter disregard of law and when the government act whimsically or
arbitrarily beyond their powers. In more concrete terms, rule of law means “peace
and order,” “absence of corruption,” “impartial and effective justice system,”
“observance and protection of human rights,” and “clear, publicized, and stable
laws.” Rule of law also requires that laws are responsive to the needs of the
society. Archaic or irrelevant laws must be amended or repealed to cater to
modern demands.
6. Equity and Inclusiveness -Equity and inclusiveness means that all the
members of the society, especially the most vulnerable ones or the grassroots
level, must be taken into consideration in policy-making. Everyone has a stake in
the society and no one should feel alienated from it. Particularly, those who
belong to the grassroots level must not only be the subject of legislation but they
must be given the opportunity to participate in decision or policy making. Social
equity refers to a kind of justice that gives more opportunity to the less fortunate
members of the society. It is based on the principle that those who have less in
life should have more in law. Good governance demands that the actors must
give preferential attention to the plight of the poor. Laws must be geared towards
this end and the society must actively participate in the promotion of the same.
The Philippine Government has done extensive efforts in promoting equity and
inclusiveness. The current Constitution makes it as one of its state policies the
promotion of social justice. Pursuant to this, the Congress has enacted social
legislations like the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law which aims at freeing
the farmer tenants from the bondage of the soil. Also, representation in the
Congress, under the party list system, is constitutionally mandated to have
sectoral representation of the underprivileged. Gender and Development
From the information learned in the discussion of governance, the people, most
especially the citizens, will be aware of the need for good governance.
Consequently, such awareness should move them to action. For their continued
empowerment and sustainable development, they have to know how to fight for
their rights by knowing what to expect from Philippine governance. Thus, what
will follow is an exposition of the basic concepts of governance, the ideal type of
governance, and the status of the Philippines vis-à-vis the indicators of good
governance.
LESSON CHECK UP
LEARNING CONTENT:
MEANING OF IDEOLOGY
Ideological Analyses
There has been considerable analysis of different ideological patterns. This kind
of analysis has been described by some as meta-ideology – the study of the
structure, form, and manifestation of ideologies. Recent analysis tends to posit
The works of George Walford and Harold Walsby, done under the heading of
systematic ideology, are attempts to explore the relationships between ideology
and social systems. Charles Blattberg has offered an account which
distinguishes political ideologies from political philosophies.
David W. Minar describes six different ways in which the word “ideology” has
been used:
For Willard A. Mullins an ideology should be contrasted with the related (but
different) issues of utopia and historical myth. An ideology is composed of four
basic characteristics:
The German philosopher Christian Duncker called for a “critical reflection of the
ideology concept” (2006). In his work, he strove to bring the concept of ideology
into the foreground, as well as the closely connected concerns of epistemology
and history. In this work, the term ideology is defined in terms of a system of
presentations that explicitly or implicitly claim to absolute truth.
Though the word “ideology” is most often found in political discourse, there are
many different kinds of ideology: political, social, epistemological, ethical, etc.
LESSON CHECK UP
LEARNING CONTENT:
These political ideologies are, for the most part, mutually exclusive. So, a liberal
government does not usually practice socialism, nor does an absolute ruler follow
liberalism. The five major political ideologies have played a key role in world
history by shaping governments and political movements.
Anarchism
2. Absolutism
Absolutism emphasizes:
A strong sense of order: Everything should be carefully structured,
including society. Disorder and chaos are generally considered to be
dangerous.
A clear-cut law of nature (or law of God): This law must be obeyed.
According to this law, some people are inherently better than others.
LESSON CHECK UP
LEARNING CONTENT:
LIBERALISM
In the early modern age of the Western world (beginning roughly in the early
1500s and running for about 200 years), a number of changes occurred that led
to new ideologies: The European discovery of the Americas, the rise of
Protestantism, the beginnings of the free-market economy, and the early stages
of the scientific revolution fundamentally altered Europe. People began
developing different ways of thinking to take account of these changes.
Perhaps the most important of the new ideas is liberalism (also known as
classical liberalism). This type of liberalism, which began in England in the
1600s, differs from American liberalism. Classical liberalism developed when
such thinkers as John Locke (in his Second Treatise of Government in 1690)
rethought the relationship between the individual and society, as well theorized
about the rights and responsibilities of the individual. These ideas formed the
foundation for many political systems still operating today.
Liberalism emphasizes:
Individualism - The individual takes priority over society;
Freedom -Individuals have the right to make choices for themselves.
This freedom is not absolute, and some behaviors, such as murder, are
prohibited. Freedom of religion is a particularly important freedom to
come out of liberalism because so many governments at the time were
very closely tied to a particular religious creed;
Equality- No person is morally or politically superior to others.
Hierarchies are rejected;
Rationalism - Humans are capable of thinking logically and rationally.
Logic and reason help us solve problems;
Progress- Traditions should not be kept unless they have value. New
ideas are helpful because they can lead to progress in the sciences, the
economy, and society;
The free market - Liberalism and capitalism go hand in hand. Liberals
like the free market because it more easily creates wealth, as opposed to
traditional economies, which often have extensive regulations and limits
on which occupations people can hold.
Example: For centuries, Eastern Europe suffered greatly from authoritarian rule,
in which one person or a small group holds all the political power and oppresses
everybody else. As recently as 1989, open discussion of liberal ideas (such as
the free market) or publicly complaining that the communist governments did not
speak for the people could get a person arrested. The writer Vaclav Havel, for
example, was jailed by the Czechoslovakian government. But after the 1989 end
of the communist government in Czechoslovakia, Havel served as the newly
democratic government’s first president.
CONSERVATISM
Burke and other conservatives attacked liberalism for many reasons. They
argued that liberalism destroyed tradition. In its rush to overturn the old and bring
in the new, liberalism and capitalism ruthlessly attacked traditional institutions
and beliefs.
Conservatism emphasizes:
Stability - Stability is a precious thing, and change must be made
gradually in order to preserve it. Undermining stability is very dangerous
because societies can easily fall into chaos and violence. Classical
liberals frequently called for revolution, which opens the door to great
turbulence, according to the classical conservative view;
Concreteness - Liberalism is too abstract. It focuses on freedom and
equality, not on the concrete way people live every day;
For the most part, classical conservatism has faded. Most people who label
themselves conservatives are more like American conservatives than classical
ones. But there are still some classical conservatives. Many of them in Europe
have ties to old noble families, and some advocate monarchism. Classical
conservatives can also be found in other parts of the world.
LESSON CHECK UP
LEARNING CONTENT:
SOCIALISM
Early versions of socialism were put forward in Europe in the first part of the
nineteenth century (these versions are often dubbed “utopian socialism”), but
truly influential socialist theories did not emerge until industrialization expanded
in the mid-nineteenth century. Karl Marx is the best-known theorist of socialism.
Along with Friedrich Engels, Marx wrote The Communist Manifesto (1848) as a
call to revolution. Other prominent socialist-thinkers included Karl Kautsky,
Vladimir Lenin, and Antonio Gramsci.
Socialism emphasizes:
Collectivism -Human beings are social by nature, and society should
respect this. Individualism is poisonous;
Public ownership - Society, not individuals, should own the property;
Central economic planning - The government plans the economy;
there is no free market;
Economic equality - All citizens have roughly the same level of
prosperity.
Class Warfare
Communism Today
LESSON CHECK UP
1. Define power;
2. Recognize the nature, dimensions, types, and consequences of power;
3. Analyze the nature, dimensions, types, deployments, and consequences
of power; and
4. Assess how power is exercised in different situations
LEARNING CONTENT:
What is Power?
Power may be explained in different ways because its meaning is within the
context of human relations. We are encountered with many different explanations
in various disciplines. Even within a single social discipline, power is defined in
several different ways.
Some social scientists define it as the use of force whereas many others explain
it as the capacity to secure the desired goals through the use of force or threat of
use of force or even by exercising influence.
Based on these definitions we can say that power in the context of human
relations is the capacity and ability to secure a desired and intended effect or
gain through the use of force, influence and sanctions.
What is National Power then? “National Power is that combination of power and
capability of a state which the state uses for fulfilling its national interests and
goals” according to Padelford and Lincoln. To Hartman, it denotes the ability of a
nation to fulfil national goals, how much powerful or weak a particular nation in
securing them.
National Power is simply the ability or capability of a nation to secure the goals
and objectives of its national interests in relation with other nations. It involves
the capacity to use force or threat of use of force or influence over others for
securing the goals of national interest. In this way, we can define National Power
as “the ability to control the behaviour of other states in accordance with one’s
own will.” National Power is the currency of international relations.
National
National means pertaining to the nation making national power the power of a
nation. However, in the context of national power the term ‘nation’ does not mean
the same as in Political Science. In the context of national powers, nation stands
for the power of the group of decision makers and authorities who exercise
power on behalf of the nation. It is the power of the decision-makers who
formulate and implement the foreign policy of the nation and thereby attempt to
secure national goals.
National Power does not mean the power of the entire population of the state. It
is only a psychological link that makes the people regard the power of the
decision-makers as their own power.
Power:
Power and Force: Force means physical force, violence in the form of police
action, imprisonment, punishment or war. Power means a psychological
relationship of control which is backed by the use of force, or threat of use of
force. When physical force, war and other means involving the use of military
power or police power are actually used to secure certain objectives, power
stands replaced by force.
Power and Influence: Both involve the ability to produce an intended change or
effect in the behavior of others. However, the two are not the same. Power
involves a use of force or threat of use of force. Political Power or Legal Power is
backed by authority or sovereignty of the state.
National Power is the means to control the behavior of other states with a view to
accomplish certain ends. It is recognized as the currency with which a nation can
secure the desired values—peace, security, progress, development, status, and
more power. Nations use power to secure their interests in international relations.
This makes power a means in relations among nations.
National power is always relative to time and resources. The power of a nation
has to be analyzed both through an analysis of the capabilities and ability of the
nation as well as by a comparison of its national power with other nations..
This depends upon the changes in the power potential of other nations as well as
upon the various components of national power. The power of a nation is always
relative to the powers of other nations, particularly the power of its adversaries. In
1990, the collapse of the USSR and decline in the Russian power acted as a
source of increase in the US power in international relations.
Further, it must be noted that no two nations have or can have absolutely equal
power. There can be only a rough equality between two equally powerful super
powers or great powers or major powers. The power of a nation is always more
or less than the power of every other nation.
Moreover, the attempt to analyze the power of a nation must focus both on the
analysis of actual power as well as potential power of a nation. Actual power is
the power which is immediately available, whereas potential power is the power
that can be generated in situations of crisis and times of need. It refers to the
crisis- management ability as well as the possible availability of power in the
years to come.
Each nation seeks to use its power for securing its national interests in
international relations. It is this feature which makes international relations
National Power is the very basis of the foreign policy of a nation, and foreign
policy can be effective in securing the goals of national interest when there is
adequate national power. The ability of the statesmen and diplomats to act and
react with others is again determined by their respective national power
The three forms of national power are inseparable from each other. Without
economic power no nation can develop her military power, and without the latter
no nation can play an active role in international relations. Psychological power
can be enduringly and really effective only when it is backed by economic and
military power.
A. Military Power:
While evaluating military power of a nation we have to take into account the other
two forms (Economic Power and Psychological Power) of national power, the
elements of military power and the military power of other nations. USA is a
super power and is a formidable military power. Japan and Germany are big
economic powers but are not recognized even as great powers because they are
weak military powers. Russia, the successor state of former USSR is a nuclear
power but not a super power because of its economic weakness. China is a big
military power but is not recognized as a super power.
B. Economic Power:
Economic power is used by rich and developed nations to influence other states
by granting them economic aid and loans, and try to secure their interests in
international relations. It is used as a means to induce as well as to coerce a
desired change in the behavior of other states.
While evaluating the economic power of a nation one has to take into account
such factors as raw materials, natural resources, food stocks, industrial and
technological capacity, G.N.P., trade surplus, means of transport and
communication, GDP, GDP per capita etc. However, economic power of a nation
C. Psychological Power:
Psychological power means the power of opinion and image of the nation. The
role of propaganda and persuasive negotiations in international relations have
been used by the states for securing an intended change in the behavior of other
states.
The improvement in the means of communications, increased influence of mass
media, social media and public opinion on foreign policy, the emergence of open
and conference diplomacy, the popularity of alternative ideologies, the role of
NGOs and social movements, and the increased role of propaganda and
publicity in international relations, have all increased the role of this dimension of
National Power.
By the use of psychological and cultural means a nation always tries to influence
the people and leaders of other nations. The ability to influence others through
systematic publicity and educational and cultural relations constitutes the
psychological part of the national power of a nation.
The three forms of national power are inseparable. Without economic power no
nation can develop her military power, and without the latter no nation can play
an active role in international relations. Psychological power can be enduring and
really effective with economic and military power. Thus, psychological power is a
valuable and important part of national power. The nature and scope National
Power of nation can be evaluated only by evaluating all these three highly related
and interdependent dimensions of National Power.
Each nation uses its national power for securing its national interests, and goals
of foreign policy. It is used by the nation through four basic means Persuasion,
Rewards, Punishment and Force.
1. Persuasion:
Persuasion is widely used by diplomats and statesmen for securing the desired
and defined objectives of the foreign policy. But success in persuasion can be
achieved only when it is supplemented by other methods and when it is
supported by a strong national power and effective foreign policy.
2. Rewards:
3. Punishment:
Thus punishment can be used by a powerful nation for exercising its power over
other states. In actual practice the powerful nations use threat of punishment as
a method and refrain from actual imposition of punishment. The recourse to
The most effective punishment is the one which secures the desired objective of
a state without the actual infliction of punishment on other states. Threat of
punishment is a better method of exercise of national power than its actual
infliction.
By the use of military power or physical force, a powerful nation can compel a
desired behavior of another nation. As a method of exercising power, force is
related to punishment.
When punitive action is taken against another nation, it becomes a case of use of
force. However, when only threat of punitive action is given without the actual
use of physical violence against the other state, it becomes a case of exercise of
power through the use of punishment. As such the difference between force and
punishment is in the actual use of force versus the threat of use of force.
LESSON CHECK UP
LEARNING CONTENT:
STATE
A State is composed of four elements which must all be present for a State to
exist.
There are two aspects of sovereignty, (a) Internal sovereignty is the supreme
or absolute power of a state to enforce its will on the people within its
territory; and (b) External sovereignty refers to the independence of a state
from control by any other state.
Recognition: A community may have all the requisites for a state to exist. It
may already have its people, a territory, a government and sovereignty,
however, until it is recognized, it shall remain to be only a de facto state. It
has to be a member of the family of nations, that is, nations that recognize
each other. To become a member of this family or circle of nations the de
facto must be recognized. Recognition then refers to the act, made by the
family of nations that renders a state its international status.
1. Divine Right Theory – It holds that the origin of the state is of divine
creation and the ruler is ordained by God to govern the people
2. Necessity and Force Theory – It maintains that the state must have been
created as a product of the existence of the strong and the weak in society,
and as a result of their struggle against each other wherein those who are
strong are able to dominate and impose their will upon the weak.
4. Social Contract Theory – It asserts that the early states must have been
formed by deliberate and voluntary agreement among the people to form a
society and organize a government for their common good.
5. Instinctive Theory – It holds that the state is founded out of man’s natural
instinct for association.
6. Economic Theory – It believes that the state must have been founded to
take charge of man’s various needs that must be continuously and
consistently satisfied.
It is not known exactly which of the above theories is the correct one. History,
however, has shown that the elements of all the theories have played an
important part in the formation and development of states.
NATION
Nation should not be confused with state for they are not the same.
2. A state is not subject to external control while a nation may or may not be
independent of external control.
LESSON CHECK UP
MODULE 4
STATE, NATION, AND GLOBALIZATION
LESSON 2: GLOBALIZATION AS A CONTEXT OF RELATIONS AMONG
NATION-STATES
LEARNING CONTENT:
GLOBALIZATION
What Is Globalization?
But policy and technological developments of the past few decades have spurred
increases in cross-border trade, investment, and migration so large that many
observers believe the world has entered a qualitatively new phase in its
economic development. Since 1950, for example, the volume of world trade has
increased by 20 times, and from just 1997 to 1999 flows of foreign investment
nearly doubled, from $468 billion to $827 billion. Distinguishing this current wave
of globalization from earlier ones, author Thomas Friedman has said that today
globalization is “farther, faster, cheaper, and deeper.”
This current wave of globalization has been driven by policies that have opened
economies domestically and internationally. In the years since the Second World
War, and especially during the past two decades, many governments have
adopted free-market economic systems, vastly increasing their own productive
potential and creating myriad new opportunities for international trade and
investment. Governments also have negotiated dramatic reductions in barriers to
commerce and have established international agreements to promote trade in
goods, services, and investment. Taking advantage of new opportunities in
foreign markets, corporations have built foreign factories and established
production and marketing arrangements with foreign partners. A defining feature
of globalization, therefore, is an international industrial and financial business
structure.
The role of the nation-state in globalization is complex since there are many
varying definitions and shifting concepts on globalization. Even though defined in
many ways, globalization is generally recognized as the gradual or complete
disappearance of economic, social and cultural borders between nation-states.
Some scholars have theorized that nation-states, which are inherently divided by
physical and economic boundaries, will be less relevant in a globalized world.
The role of the nation-state in a global world is largely a regulatory one as the
chief factor in global interdependence. While the domestic role of the nation-state
remains largely unchanged, states that were previously isolated are now forced
to engage with one another to set international commerce policies. Through
various economic imbalances, these interactions may lead to diminished roles for
some states and exalted roles for others.
Sources:
http://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/022415/what-role-nationstate-
globalization.asp#ixzz4aC2YYLSw
MODULE 5
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF PHILIPPINE DEMOCRATIC POLITICS
LESSON1: THE EVOLUTION OF PHILIPPINE POLITICS, GOVERNMENT,
AND GOVERNANCE
LEARNING CONTENT:
The “barangay” were well-organized and independent villages, which were not
unlike the Greek city-states. The name originated from “balangay” meaning
sailboats, evident from the sailboats which brought our ancestors to the
Philippines. The barangays generally consisted of 30 to 100 families. Some were
quite large having a population of more than 2,000 already by the time of the
arrival of the Spaniards. Among them were Sugbu (Cebu), Bigan (Vigan), and
Maktan (Mactan). Maynilad (Manila) was approximately 4,000 already. These
The pre-colonial society was divided into three social classes namely: 1.
Maharlika (nobles) 2. Timawa (freemen) 3.Alipin (slaves). The nobles constituted
the barangay’s highest social class. To the Maharlika belonged the affluent
slave-owning families that included the Datu. The Timawa consisted the middle
class who composed the majority of the people of the barangay. The lowest class
was the Alipin which consisted two types: a. the “namamahay” who enjoyed
some rights like owning properties and b. the “saguiguilid”, who lived in their
master’s house and could be sold anytime.
The ancient Filipinos who lived in barangays were ruled by a chieftain called
datu, who were addressed either as Raja or Lakan. The datu exercised all
powers of government. He was the chief executive, the lawmaker, and the judge,
so much so that he became very powerful and influential. He obtained his
position either by inheritance, strength, bravery or wisdom. The Datu
promulgated laws with the help of the elders or advisers consisting of former
datus. Once a law was made, a town crier called Umalohokan, would go around
the village and announce to the people the new law. Violators were punished by
fines, swimming for long hours, exposure to ants, death or slavery.
Spanish Era
.
The Philippines was a crown colony ruled by Spain through Mexico from 1565
to1821, as such, Spain ruled the Philippines with the help of the Council of the
Indies, created in 1524, which was an overseas ministry governing the colonies
of Spain. The head of the council was the Viceroy of Mexico. Laws in the
Philippines were from Spain and consisted of royal decrees issued by the king.
The laws were compiled to become the colonial code entitled “Recopilacion de
las Leyes de Indias,” or the Laws of Indies.
Part of the Spanish rule was the institution of systems adopted by all the
colonies. Among these was the Polo, the forced labor rendered by Filipinos and
the falla, the exemption fee for forced labor. Another was the paying of the
tribute, or the tax called tributo, which was replaced by the cedula tax. Bandala
was also a system that oppressed the Filipinos wherein farm produce were sold
compulsory to the government.
Another outstanding governor was Jose Basco y Vargas (1778-1787) for his
agricultural contributions, and economic programs that made Philippines
financially independent from Mexico. He established the “Economic Society of
the Friends of the Country,” to help in the development of agriculture, and in
1782, established the tobacco monopoly. The most liberal minded governor
general was Carlos Ma. De la Torre (1869-1871). His liberal policies included the
abolition of press censorship and the encouragement of liberal discussions. He
encouraged movements calling for reforms and sympathized with the Filipinos
aspirations for freedom and change.
The Judicial powers of the government were exercised by the Royal Audencia
and the lower courts. The Royal Audencia was the supreme court that time. Its
president was the Governor General. The first was Santiago de Vera.
Spain instituted the centralized form of government. The barangays became part
of the unitary government. Philippines was divided into provinces of two types: 1)
Under the Patronato Real, in the case of Spain, the Church was placed under the
care of the royal government. The Diocese of Manila, with its bishop, was at the
top of the ecclesiastical hierarchy in the colony. The bishop was appointed by the
pope upon the recommendation of the king of Spain. The other early dioceses
established were Cebu, Nueva Caceres (Naga) and Nueva Segovia (Vigan), all
in 1595 the Diocese of Jaro (Iloilo) was created on May 27, 1865. The four
regular orders assigned to Christianize the natives, were the Augustinians, who
came with Legazpi, the Discalced Franciscans (1578), the Jesuits (1581), and
the Dominican friars (1587).
Part of the process on how Spain governed was through the “encomienda
system”, the first governmental system where lands were politically divided to
those given grants, a reward for persons who have rendered valuable services to
the king of Spain. Those who were given were called “encomenderos.” The grant
of encomienda, by the Spanish Crown was one that of a trusteeship. The first to
benefit were men of Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, the first Spanish Governor-
General, who colonized Cebu. The three classes of encomienda were the royal,
ecclesiastical and private. Those that were set aside for the king were “royal”;
those assigned to the religious order were: “ecclesiastical encomiendas”; and for
those who helped in the conquest and colonization were “private encomiendas”
or repartimientos.
The land belonged to the Spanish Crown but the encomendero received income
from the land, imposed the tribute and governed the people therein. He was
obliged by law to promote the welfare of his constituents, protect them from
enemies (bandits and pirates), assist the Church in evangelization, maintain
peace and order, promote education, and render humane treatment among his
subjects.
The imposition of the polo, the tribute and other Spanish policies, the delegation
of strong political powers to the friars referred to as “Frailocracy”, and all the
injustices, abuses and maladministration committed by the government officials
met resistance all throughout the islands at different periods during the
colonization. About a hundred revolts and other forms of resistance were
launched for freedom and justice. Some had momentary successes and were left
alone without intrusion, however, in the end, the colonizers still prevailed. Some
of the Filipino heroes who emerged during these periods were: Magalat
(Cagayan revolt of 1596); Francisco Sumoroy (Samar revolt of 1649); Tamblot
and Bankaw (Religious revolts in Bohol and Leyte); Dagohoy (85 years of
Boholano revolt, 1744-1829); Diego and Gabriela Silang (Ilocos revolt); Hermano
Pule (Tagalog religious revolt of 1840); and the many Muslim resistances which
extended throughout the entire period of colonization.
The Cavite Mutiny of 1872 against Gov. Gen. Izquerdo which led to the execution
of the three Filipino priests Gomez, Burgos and Zamora resulted to the loss of
Philippine representation to the Cortes. Its restoration was one of the grievances
of the Illustrados, the learned native middle class. The Illustrados started the
Propaganda to campaign for reforms in running the government and stayed on
for almost two decades without significant results.
Dr. Jose Rizal left the Propaganda in Europe and returned to the Philippines to
introduce change through his civic association La Liga Filipina. But then he was
arrested and put to exile where he will stay for 4 years. In Rizal’s absence the
Katipunan was founded and advocated complete Philippine independence,
thereby starting the Philippine Revolution in 1896 under the command of Andres
Bonifacio.
After Rizal’s exile, he was put to trial being implicated as primary leader of the
revolt, was executed of Jose on December 30, 1896. The revolution intensified.
The Katipunan in Cavite, the revolution stronghold, was split into the Magdiwang
and Magdalo factions. The Tejeros convention in 1897 was held for unity,
resulting to the dissolution of the Katipunan and the founding of the revolutionary
government. Emilio Aguinaldo was elected President while Bonifacio, who was
Right after Bonifacio’s death, the Spanish forces was strengthened. Aguinaldo
and his men retreated northward reaching Biak-na-Bato, Bulacan. The Spaniards
and the revolutionaries signed the Pact of Biak-na-Bato, that provided for
Aguinaldo's exile to Hong Kong, and amnesty and payment of indemnities by the
Spaniards to the revolutionaries. However, both sides violated the agreement,
and this gave an opportunity for the US admiral George Dewey to lead his
squadron to Manila Bay, defeating the Spanish navy. Aguinaldo returned from
exile, most of the Philippine revolutionists rallied to his cause, and negotiated
with the Americans, while the Americans in 1898 defeated the Spaniards in what
was called a mock battle in Manila, and took control of the city. Aguinaldo then
proclaimed the independence of the Philippines on June 12, 1898 in Cavite. The
Malolos Congress was convened in January 1899 in Barasoain Church.
The Americans bought the Philippines from Spain with Guam and Puerto Rico
through the Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898 with strong opposition from
Aguinaldo’s government and inaugurated the first Philippine Republic on January
23, 1899. The Americans have also built the U.S. Military Government to
strengthen their position. The Philippine–American War erupted in February 4,
1899 in a skirmish in Manila; the Filipinos lost the battle, and Aguinaldo again
began a northward retreat. After many battles, Aguinaldo was captured on April
1, 1901 at Palanan, Isabela, while the Americans had already started setting up a
civil government to replace the military one.
The Americans passed the Philippine Organic Act in 1902 to introduce a national
government; by 1907, an election to the Philippine Assembly was held. Led by
Sergio Osmeña, the assembly was held predominantly by the Nacionalista Party,
which advocated independence. The Americans controlled the Philippine
Commission, the upper house of the Philippine Legislature. Under the Jones Law
of 1916 the Philippine Assembly and Commission were later replaced by a
bicameral Congress. However, the Nacionalistas were split between camps Sen.
Osmeña and Senate President Manuel L. Quezon. Several independence
missions went to the US and the OsRox Mission led by Osmeña and House
Speaker Manuel Roxas resulted to the independence law Hare–Hawes–Cutting
Act. However, the Quezon rejected this and worked on another law, the Tydings–
McDuffie Law which was minimally different from the previous one. The law
Quezon and Osmeña reunited, and were elected as president and vice president
respectively in 1935. With independence in the near future, Quezon pushed for
constitutional amendments that would allow him to a second term, and the
restoration of a bicameral legislature. Both amendments were achieved as
Quezon, Osmeña and the Nacionalista Party as a whole won the elections in
1941.
The Japanese invasion of 1941 at the onset of World War II delayed the
independence, forced the Commonwealth government to go into exile, and
subjected the country to a puppet government. Initially, the Japanese created the
Executive Commission as the collaborating government for the occupied
Philippines, created KALIBAPI which became the only political party, and Jose P.
Laurel was declared president of the Second Philippine Republic. This nationalist
government espoused anti-American sentiment. In 1944, the Philippines was
liberated with the return of Gen. Douglas MacArthur and theAllied Forces.
Osmeña, who succeeded Quezon upon the latter's death, restored the
Commonwealth government.
The Nacionalistas were split anew in the 1946 presidential election, with Manuel
Roxas setting up the Liberal Party. Roxas defeated Osmeña, and became the
last president of the Commonwealth. The Americans granted the Filipinos
independence on July 4, 1946 and the 3 rd Republic was inaugurated with Roxas
as its first president. Roxas died in 1948 and Vice President Elpidio Quirino
succeeded. The presidential election was held in 1949 with Quirino of Liberal
Party defeating Jose P. Laurel. Quirino's Liberal government was widely seen as
corrupt and untrustworthy, and was easily beaten by his charismatic Defense
secretary Ramon Magsaysay in the 1953 election. Magsaysay, who achieved the
surrender of the HUKBALAHAP rebels, would not complete his term, dying in a
plane crash in Cebu. Vice President Carlos P. Garcia succeeded him, won the
1957 election, and implemented a "Filipino First" policy and an austerity program.
Garcia was defeated by his Vice President, Diosdado Macapagal of the Liberal
Party in 1961. Macapagal initiated a return to a system of free enterprise not
seen since the Quirino administration. Macapagal's policies faced a stiff
opposition in Congress, where the Nacionalistas held the majority. Macapagal
was defeated in 1965 by Senate President Ferdinand Marcos.
Marcos' infrastructure projects, economic and anti-crime policies had him re-
elected in 1969 with the election tainted by violence and overspending. However,
significant protests, such as the First Quarter Storm, the communist and Moro
insurgencies, and civil unrest, heightened. This made Marcos in 1972 declare
martial law and suspend the constitution. A new constitution calling for a semi-
presidential government was approved in 1973, but Marcos still ruled by decree
until 1978, when the Interim Batasang Pambansa was established. However, the
opposition, who were mostly either political detainees like Sen. Ninoy Aquino or
exiles, boycotted the election, and Marcos still allowed martial law to continue.
Marcos ended martial law in 1981, but opposition groups still boycotted the 1981
presidential election, which Marcos easily won.
Exiled opposition leader Benigno Aquino, Jr. was slain upon his return in August
21, 1983. By this time, the government was marred by alleged rampant
corruption and allegations of human rights violations. The opposition participated
in the 1984 parliamentary election and won several seats, but not enough to
topple Marcos' KBL. To counter growing opposition and the allegations that he
has lost the confidence of the people, Marcos called a snap election in 1986. The
opposition nominated Aquino's widow Corazon as their candidate. Marcos was
declared the winner in the midst of numerous incidents of massive cheating. The
opposition refused to accept the result claiming that the election was rigged by
COMELEC.
Aquino called for civil disobedience from the people to pressure Marcos to step
down. Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile with Gen. Fidel Ramos made a coup
attempt but failed. Civilians by millions went out and protected the soldiers. The
People Power Revolution ousted Marcos from power, ended dictatorship and
restored democracy, and installed Aquino as president. Aquino governed in 1987
when a new constitution restoring the presidential system was approved.
Aquino's government was mired by coup attempts, high inflation and natural
calamities, but introduced land reform and market liberalization. Aquino's
administration also saw the pull-out of the U.S. bases.
Estrada expanded the land reform program and the death penalty, and refused to
sign contracts with sovereign guarantees on public projects. Like Ramos,
Estrada also wanted to amend the constitution but was also countered by
Aquino, the Catholic Church and many other sectors. The administration
launched an "all-out war" against the Moro Islamic Liberation Front and took over
Camp Abubakar, the main rebel encampment. However, the administration was
caught up in allegations of cronyism and corruption; the Jueteng scandal had him
impeached by the House of Representatives. In the impeachment trial, Estrada
was defended by his allies in the Senate which triggered massive protests
resulting to the 2001 EDSA Revolution, as the AFP and his Cabinet withdrew
their support to Estrada and transferred their allegiance to Vice President Arroyo
who was sworn in as Acting President when Estrada left Malacañang.
In the 2010 election, Benigno Aquino III, son of former president Aquino,
overtook the second time aspirant Joseph Estrada and Manny Villar in the polls.
Under Pnoy Aquino the anti-corruption drive was effective, the economy grew
as he maintained high popularity. However, with natural calamities, and scams
LESSON CHECK UP
MODULE 5
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF PHILIPPINE DEMOCRATIC POLITICS
LESSON 2: THE ROLES OF DIFFERENT POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS
LEARNING CONTENT:
Legislative power means the authority under the constitution to make laws and
to alter or repeal them. Bill in Legislation refers to a proposed law presented by a
member or committee to a legislative body for its approval by the majority and
enactment. After it has gone through both houses and received the constitutional
sanction of the president, where such approbation is requisite, it becomes a law.
Each bill needs the consent of both houses in order to be submitted to the
president for his signature. Congress' decisions are mostly via majority vote,
except for voting on constitutional amendments and other matters. Each house
has its own inherent power, with the Senate given the power to vote on treaties,
while the House of Representatives legislate money bills like appropriations and
revenues. The constitution provides Congress with impeachment powers, with
the House of Representatives having the power to create and approve the
Articles of Impeachment and the Senate having the power to put to trial the
official for impeachment.
The president is also the commander in chief of the Armed Forces of the
Philippines, thereby ensuring civilian supremacy over the military. The president
is given military powers that includes the suspension of the privilege the writ of
habeas corpus or the proclamation of martial law either within a specific area or
the entire land. However, once exercised, Congress is able to prolong or end it.
The president also proposes a national budget, in which Congress may adopt in
full, with amendments, or a complete revision altogether. With the prior
concurrence with the Monetary Board, the president may contract or guarantee
foreign loans in behalf of the republic. The pardoning power is also given to the
President, but in cases amnesty should be granted a majority of the members of
Congress must concur. Annually, on the 4th Monday of July, when the Congress
convenes, the President shall deliver his State of the Nation Address.
The branch of government that is endowed with the authority to interpret and app
ly the law, adjudicate legal disputes, andotherwise administer justice is the
Judiciary.
The judiciary is composed of the Supreme Court and other lower courts. The
Supreme Court is the court of last resort, and decides on constitutionality of laws
and state matters through review. The president selects justices and judges from
nominees given by the Judicial and Bar Council. The Court of Appeals is the
second highest appellate court, the Court of Tax Appeals rules on tax matters,
and the Sandiganbayan is a special court to put to trial graft cases of government
officials and employees. The Regional Trial Courts (RTC) are the main trial
courts. The Regional Trial Courts are based on judicial regions, which almost
correspond to the administrative regions. Each RTC has at least one branch in
each province and handles most of the criminal and civil cases; several branches
of an RTC may be designated as family courts and environmental courts.
Metropolitan Trial Courts try lesser offenses.
Elections above the barangay level are held every three years since 1992 on the
second Monday of May, all positions are disputed except for president and vice
president; presidential and vice presidential elections are held every six years
since 1992. Single-winner elections are done via the plurality voting system: the
candidate with the highest number of votes is elected. Multiple-winner elections,
except for representatives elected the party-list system, are done via plurality-at-
The Philippines is divided into provinces, which are grouped into several regions.
The constitution mandates that local governments must have local autonomy.
The smallest local government unit, the barangay or village, is descended from
the balangay of the Maragtas legend, where the first Austronesian people
reached the Philippines via the boat. The prehistoric barangays were headed by
datus. Currently, barangays are grouped into municipalities or cities, while
municipalities and cities may be further grouped into provinces. Each barangay,
municipality or city, and province is headed by a barangay chairman, mayor, or
governor, respectively, with its legislatures being the Sangguniang Barangay
(village council), Sangguniang Bayan (municipal council) or Sangguniang
Panlungsod (city council), and the Sangguniang Panlalawigan (provincial board).
Regions are the highest administrative divisions but do not have powers
possessed under them; however, autonomous regions are given wider powers
than other local government units. While the constitution allows autonomous
regions in the Cordilleras and in Muslim Mindanao, only the Autonomous Region
in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) exists, with the proposed autonomous region in
Cordillera being defeated after two plebiscites. The ARMM has a regional
governor and a regional assembly.
While local government units have autonomy, most of their budget is derived
from the Internal Revenue Allotment, a disbursement from the national
government which is ultimately derived from taxes. This makes most local
government units ultimately dependent on the national government, unless they
have other sources of income, such as property taxes. Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Philippines
MODULE 6
THE EXECUTIVE
LESSON 1: THE ROLE OF THE PHILIPPINE PRESIDENT IN RELATION TO
HIS/HER POWERS
LEARNING CONTENT:
Executive Power
Article VII, Section 1, of the 1987 Constitution vests executive power on the
President of the Philippines. The President is the Head of State and Head of
Government, and functions as the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of
the Philippines. As chief executive, the President exercises control over all the
executive departments, bureaus, and offices.
There have been 16 Presidents of the Philippines from the establishment of the
office on March 22, 1897 during the Tejeros Convention when the Revolutionary
Government was established.
The Office of the President of the Philippines was abolished after the capture of
Aguinaldo, and ceased to exist until the inauguration of the Philippine
Commonwealth in 1935. In 1901, the Executive Power shifted to the American
Civil Governor and Governor General from 1904 to 1935.
When World War II forced the Philippine Commonwealth into exile, a different
government would be installed in the Philippines, which would later to be known
as the Second Republic of the Philippines.
6. ElpidioQuirino (1948-1953)
President Quirino succeeded as President after the untimely death of Roxas. He
won in the 1935 Presidential Elections. The Quirino administration was known
for infrastructures but was marred with allegations of corruption and failure to
resolve the insurgency conflict.
Besides the constitution, the powers of the President of the Philippines are
specifically outlined in Executive Order No. 292, s. 1987, otherwise known as
the Administrative Code of 1987. The following powers are:
The President of the Philippines has the mandate of control over all the
executive departments, bureaus, and offices. This includes restructuring,
reconfiguring, and appointments of their respective officials. The Administrative
Code also provides for the President to be responsible for the abovementioned
offices’ strict implementation of laws.
The President of the Philippines has the power to give executive issuances,
which are means to streamline the policy and programs of an administration.
There are six issuances that the President may issue. They are the following as
defined in the Administrative Code of 1987:
.
a. Executive orders — Acts of the President providing for rules of a general
or permanent character in implementation or execution of constitutional or
statutory powers shall be promulgated in executive orders.
The President of the Philippines has certain powers over non-Filipinos in the
Philippines. The powers he may exercise over foreigners in the country are as
follows:
The President of the Philippines has the authority to exercise the power of
eminent domain. The power of eminent domains means the state has the power
to seize or authorize the seizure of private property for public use with just
compensation. There are two constitutional provisions, however, that limit the
exercise of such power: Article III, Section 9 (1) of the Constitution provides that
no person shall be deprived of his/her life, liberty, or property without due
process of law. Furthermore, Article III, Section 9 (2), provides that private
property shall not be taken for public use without just compensation.
Once the aforementioned conditions are met, the President may exercise the
power of eminent domain which are as follows:
(1) The president shall have the power to reserve for settlement or public use,
and for specific public purposes, any of the lands of the public domain, the use
of which is not otherwise directed by law. The reserved land shall thereafter
remain subject to the specific public purpose indicated until otherwise provided
by law or proclamation.
d. Power over ill-gotten wealth — The President shall direct the solicitor
general to institute proceedings to recover properties unlawfully acquired
by public officials or employees, from them or from their nominees or
transferees.
Within the period fixed in, or any extension thereof authorized by, the
constitution, the President shall have the authority to recover ill-gotten
properties amassed by the leaders and supporters of the previous regime, and
protect the interest of the people through orders of sequestration or freezing of
assets or accounts.
5. Power of Appointment
7. Military Powers
8. Other Powers
Line of Succession
The constitution provides for a line of succession in the event that the elected
President of the Philippines is not able to discharge the duties of his office due
to death, disability, or resignation. The following is the line of succession:
Contrary to popular belief, the constitution doesnot include the Chief Justice of
the Supreme Court in the President’s line of succession.
The Congress of the Philippines is mandated enact a law calling for a special
election three days after the vacancy in the Office of the President and Vice
President. The special election should occur 40-60 days after the enactment of
the law.
Qualifications
The qualifications for aspirants to the Office of the Vice President are outlined in
Article VII, Section 3. According to the constitution, the qualifications for the
President are the same for the Vice President.
History
The Vice President of the Philippines is elected via a direct vote of the people
for a term of six years, with a possibility of re-election. According to the
constitution, the vice president may take on a cabinet portfolio in concurrent
capacity, if the President chooses.
The first constitution of the Philippines, the Malolos Constitution, did not provide
for a Vice President of the Philippines. It only had provisions for a president and
a prime minister. The first legal basis for the existence of the office came in
1935 upon the inauguration of the Commonwealth government.
There have been 12 people who have held the Office of the Vice President from
its establishment in 1935. Vice President Sergio Osmeña is the inaugural holder
of the position, and served until 1944. He first took his oath after the 1935
elections under the Philippine Commonwealth, and once again, after being re-
elected again in 1941, before the Philippine government went into exile. His
third oath taking happened in the United States when the terms the officials of
the Philippine government-in-exile expired and were extended.
The Philippines’ second vice president was elected in 1946 under the
Commonwealth of the Philippines. Vice President Elpidio Quirino was elected
under the Commonwealth government, but transitioned into the Third Republic
on July 4, 1946. Quirino was followed by Fernando Lopez, Carlos P. Garcia,
and Emmanuel Pelaez. Fernando Lopez would once again be elected in 1965
The original 1973 Constitution did not provide for a vice president of the
Philippines. The position remained abolished until constitutional amendments
were made in 1978. The position was filled in 1986 by Arturo Tolentino, the
running mate of President Ferdinand Marcos during the 1986 Snap Elections.
On February 15, 1986, the Batasang Pambansa certified the COMELEC results,
proclaiming the Marcos-Tolentino ticket as winners of the election. Arturo
Tolentino took his oath as Vice President on February 16, 1986; his term lasted
days before the EDSA Revolution installed new leadership.
When the 1987 Constitution was ratified, the position of Vice President of the
Philippines would remain with Salvador Laurel Jr. as its inaugural holder. Since
the institution of the 1987 Constitution, the Fifth Republic has had six vice
presidents with five being elected (Laurel, Joseph Ejercito Estrada, Gloria
Macapagal-Arroyo, Noli De Castro, and Jejomar Binay), and one being
appointed and confirmed by Congress (Teofisto Guingona Jr.).
Line of Succession
Should there be a vacancy of the Office of the Vice President; the President of
the Philippines is required by the constitution to nominate a successorfrom
Congress with the concurrence of the majority of both Houses.
Cabinet Secretaries
The number of cabinet secretaries varies from time to time depending on the
need of an administration. According to the Administrative Code of 1987, the
President of the Philippines may create or dissolve any department as he sees
fit.
According to the Article 7, Section 16, the President may appoint anyone to
executive departments with the consent of the Commission on Appointments.
Names of individuals nominated to cabinet posts are submitted to the
Commission on Appointments for their consideration.
An individual may not assume his post in a given department unless confirmed
by the Commission on Appointments. However, the constitution provides for
individuals becoming cabinet secretaries in an acting capacity before they are
confirmed. According to Article VII, Section 16 of the constitution, the president
may appoint anyone to cabinet posts even if Congress is in recess. These
appointments are valid until the Commission on Appointments disapproves
them, or at the end of the next session of Congress.
As stated above, a cabinet secretary is the alter ego of the President in their
respective departments. Thus, cabinet secretaries possess the power to issue
directives relative to their departments, such as department orders. These
orders only apply to offices under a specific department under the cabinet
secretary’s jurisdiction. Cabinet secretaries also act as advisors to the President
of the Philippines for their areas. Source: www.gov.ph/about/gov/exec/
MODULE 7
THE LEGISLATIVE
LESSON 1: THE ROLE AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE PHILIPPINE
SENATE AND THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
1. Discuss the roles and responsibilities of the Philippine Senate and the
House of Representatives;
2. Assess the performance of the Philippine Congress;
3. Appraise the impact of Congress’s performance on Philippine
development; and
4. Articulate a position or advocacy to a Philippine legislator through a
formal correspondence
LEARNING CONTENT:
THE LEGISLASTIVE
The sectoral congressmen represent the minority sectors of the population. This
enables these minority groups to be represented in the Congress, when they
would otherwise not be represented properly through district representation.
Also known as party-list representatives, sectoral congressmen represent labor
unions, rights groups, and other organizations.
Legislative Power: The authority under the constitution to make laws and to
alter or repeal them.
Section 4. The term of office of the Senators shall be six years and shall
commence, unless otherwise provided by law, at noon on the 30th day of June
next following their election.
No Senator shall serve for more than two consecutive terms. Voluntary
renunciation of the office for any length of time shall not be considered as an
interruption in the continuity of his service for the full term for which he was
elected.
[2] The party-list representatives shall constitute 20% of the total number of
representatives including those under the party-list. For three (3) consecutive
terms after the ratification of this Constitution, ½ of the seats allocated to party-
list representatives shall be filled, as provided by law, by selection or election
from the labor, peasant, urban poor, indigenous cultural communities, women
youth, and such other sectors, as may be provided by law, except the religious
sector.
[4] Within 3 years following the return of every census, the Congress shall
make a reapportionment of legislative districts based on standards provided in
this section
Section 12. All members of the Senate and the House of Representatives shall,
upon assumption of office, make a full disclosure of their financial and business
interests. They shall notify the House concerned of a potential conflict of interest
that may arise from the filing of a proposed legislation of which they are authors.
POWERS of CONGRESS
A. General Legislative
It consists of the enactment of laws intended as a rule of conduct to govern the
relation between individuals (i.e., civil laws, commercial laws, etc.) or between
individuals and the state (i.e., criminal law, political law, etc.)
E. Executive Powers
F. Supervisory Powers
The Congress of the Philippines exercises considerable control and supervision
over the administrative branch - e.g.:
G. Electoral Powers
Considered as electoral power of the Congress of the Philippines is the
Congress’ power to:
H. Judicial Powers
Constitutionally, each house has judicial powers:
I. Miscellaneous Powers
The other powers of Congress mandated by the Constitution are as follows:
LAWMAKING PROCESS
a. count by tellers
b. division of the House
c. nominal voting
Third Reading
a. The amendments, if any, are engrossed and printed copies of
the bill are reproduced for Third Reading.
b. The engrossed bill is included in the Calendar of Bills for
Third Reading and copies of the same are distributed to all the
Members three days before its Third Reading.
c. On Third Reading, the Secretary General reads only the
number and title of the bill.
d. A roll call or nominal voting is called and a Member, if he
desires, is given three minutes to explain his vote. No amendment on
the bill is allowed at this stage.
The bill is approved by an affirmative vote of a majority of the
Members present.
If the bill is disapproved, the same is transmitted to the Archives.
Transmittal of the Approved Bill to the Senate
The approved bill is transmitted to the Senate for its concurrence.
Senate Action on Approved Bill of the House
A. EXPLAIN
MODULE 8
THE JUDICIARY
LESSON 1: THE ROLE AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE PHILIPPINE
JUDICIARY
LEARNING CONTENT:
THE JUDICIARY
Judicial power rests with the Supreme Court and the lower courts, as
established by law (Art. VIII, Sec. 1 of the 1987 Constitution). Its duty is to settle
actual controversies involving rights which are legally demandable and
enforceable (Art. VIII, Sec.1 (2)).
The Rules of Court of the Philippines, as amended and the rules and regulations
issued by the Supreme Court, define the rules and procedures of the judiciary.
These rules and regulations are in the form of administrative matters,
administrative orders, circulars, memorandum circulars, memorandum orders,
and OCA circulars. The Supreme Court disseminates these rules and
regulations to all courts, publishes important ones in newspapers of general
circulation, prints them in book or pamphlet form, and uploads them to the
Supreme Court website and the Supreme Court E-Library website.
On June 21, 1988, the Supreme Court promulgated the Code of Professional
Responsibility for the legal profession. The draft was prepared by the
Committee on Responsibility, Discipline and Disbarment of the Integrated Bar of
the Philippines.
By virtue of Article VIII, Section 8, appointments to the judiciary are made by the
President of the Philippines based on a list submitted by the Judicial and Bar
Council which is under the supervision of the Supreme Court. Its principal
function is to screen prospective appointees to any judicial post. It is composed
of the chief justice as ex-officio chairman, the Secretary of Justice and
representatives of Congress as ex-officio members, and a representative of the
Integrated Bar, a professor of law, a retired member of the Supreme Court and
a representative of the private sector as members.
The Philippine Judicial Academy (PHILJA) is the “training school for justices,
judge, court personnel, lawyers and aspirants to judicial posts.” It was originally
created by the Supreme Court on March 16, 1996 by virtue of Administrative
Order No. 35-96, and was institutionalized on February 26, 1998 by virtue of
Republic Act No. 8557. No appointee to the bench may commence the
discharge his adjudicative function without completing the prescribed court
training in the academy. Its organizational structure and administrative setup are
Katarungang Pambarangay
A. Royal Audencia
In 1899, when the Malolos Constitution was ratified, it provided for a Supreme
Court of Justice. President Aguinaldo proposed the appointment of Apolinario
Mabini as Chief Justice, but the appointment and the convening of the Supreme
Court of Justice never materialized because of the Philippine-American War.
With the establishment of civil government, Act No. 136 of the Philippine
Commission abolished the audencia and established the present Supreme
Court on June 11, 1901, with Cayetano Arellano as the first chief justice
together with associate justices—the majority of whom were Americans.
With the ratification of the 1935 Constitution, the membership was increased to
11 with two divisions of five members each. The Supreme Court was Filipinized
upon the inauguration of the Commonwealth of the Philippines on November 15,
1935. The composition of the court was reduced by virtue of Commonwealth Act
No. 3. It provided for a Supreme Court, headed by a chief justice with six
associate justices.
During World War II, the National Assembly passed legislation granting
emergency powers to President Manuel L. Quezon; Chief Justice Jose Abad
Santos was made concurrent Secretary of Justice and acting President of the
Philippines in unoccupied areas. After his capture and execution at the hands of
the Japanese, the Commonwealth government-in-exile had no system of courts.
G. Martial Law
The Supreme Court was retained during the martial law years under rules
similar to the 1935 Constitution, but with the exception few key factors, e.g.:
The 1973 Constitution further increased the membership of the Supreme Court
to 15, with two divisions;
The process by which a chief justice and associate justices are appointed was
changed under to grant the president (Ferdinand Marcos during this time) the
sole authority to appoint members of the Supreme Court. There were five chief
justices that were appointed under this provision.
The Supreme Court has adopted and promulgated the Rules of Court for the
protection and enforcement of constitutional rights, pleadings and practice and
procedure in all courts, and the admission in the practice of law. Amendments
are promulgated through the Committee on Revision of Rules. The Court also
issues administrative rules and regulations in the form of court issuances posted
on the Supreme Court E-Library website.
There were six chief justices appointed by the President of the United States. In
1935, upon the inauguration of the Commonwealth of the Philippines, the power
to appoint the chief justice was transferred to the President of the Philippines.
According to the 1935 Constitution, the President of the Philippines shall make
appointments with concurrence of the National Assembly. There have been six
Chief Justices who were appointed under the 1935 Constitution. The only chief
justice that was not appointed by a president was Chief Justice Jose Yulo, who
was in office during the Japanese occupation, from 1942 until the liberation of
the Philippines in 1945. During this time, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court
was appointed by the Philippine Executive Committee headed by Jorge B.
Vargas.
The 1943 Constitution provided for the members of the Supreme Court and the
chief justice to be appointed by the president with the concurrence of his
cabinet. Upon the declaration of martial law and the subsequent establishment
of the 1973 Constitution, the process of selection of the Chief Justice of the
Philippines was changed. The power of Congress to veto an appointment by the
After the revolution of 1986, a new constitution was enacted and a new process
of selecting a chief magistrate was created. Former chief justice and 1986
Constitutional Commission delegate Roberto V. Concepcion introduced the
concept of the Judicial and Bar Council. The aim of the Council is to de-politicize
the judiciary by lessening the appointing power of the president. To read more
about the appointment of chief justices, members of the judiciary, and the Office
of the Ombudsman, please click here.
To date, there have been nine chief justices appointed under the conditions of
the 1986 Constitution.
Chief justices listed according to appointing President of the Philippines. Of the
15 Presidents of the Philippines, only eight have been able to appoint an
individual to the highest judicial post in the land. The following is the list of
presidents who appointed chief Justices and their appointees.
Of the list of chief justices, there are a few individuals that stand out for having
gone above and beyond their duty and tenure as chief justice.
3. Jose Abad Santos: As a wartime chief justice, Abad Santos took on two
different roles; he was the chief justice and concurrently the Secretary of
Justice. When President Quezon left the Philippines to evade capture by the
Japanese, Abad Santos chose to stay in the country as a caretaker of the
government. On May 2, 1942, the Japanese military caught Abad Santos in
Cebu and invited him to become one of the members of their puppet
government. Abad Santos refused to collaborate. He died at the hands of
the Japanese on May 2, 1942. His last words to his son were, “Do not cry,
Pepito, show to these people that you are brave. It is an honor to die for
one’s country. Not everybody has that chance.”
4. Claudio Teehankee: Claudio Teehankee was known for his firm anti-martial
law stance during his tenure in the Supreme Court. Teehankee resisted
multiple attempts by the Marcos administration to garner absolute power by
issuing questionable decrees. In 1973, he was part of the bloc that
dissented from the implementation of the 1973 Constitution. In 1980, he
dissented from the proposed judicial reorganization act of President Marcos.
In 1986, after the EDSA Revolution, he administered the Oath of Office of
President Corazon C. Aquino in Club Filipino. He was appointed Chief
Justice of the Supreme Court in 1986 by President Corazon C. Aquino
Court of Appeals
The Court of Appeals is the second highest tribunal in the country, which was
established on February 1, 1936 by virtue of Commonwealth Act No. 3. The
current form of the Court of Appeals was constituted through Batas Pambansa
Blg. 129, as amended by Executive Order No. 33, s. 1986, Republic Act No.
7902, and Republic Act No. 8246.
The Court of Appeals shall also have the power to try cases and conduct
hearings, receive evidence and perform acts necessary to resolve factual issues
raised in cases falling within its original and appellate jurisdiction, including the
power to grant and conduct new trials or proceedings.
The current presiding justice of the Court of Appeals is Andres Reyes Jr., who is
set to retire on May 11, 2020.
Sandiganbayan
To attain the highest norms of official conduct among officials and employees in
the government, the creation of a special graft court to be known as the
Sandiganbayan was provided for in Article XIII, Section 5 of the 1973
Constitution. This court was formally established through Presidential Decree
No. 1606, which was signed into law on December 10, 1978.
Through Article XI (Accountability of Public Officers), Section 4 of the 1987
Constitution, the Sandiganbayan was carried over to the post-EDSA Revolution
republic. The current form of the Sandiganbayan was constituted through PD
1606, s. 1978, as amended by Republic Act No. 7975 and Republic Act No.
8245.
The Sandiganbayan has jurisdiction over violations of Republic Act No. 3019 or
the Anti-Graft and Corrupt Practices Act, as amended, and Chapter II, Section
2, Title VII, Book II of the Revised Penal Code, where the accused are officials
occupying the positions in the government whether in a permanent, acting or
interim capacity, at the time of the commission of the offense:
LEARNING CONTENT:
Book I – basic principles governing the attributes of local government units and
the exercise of powers; intergovernmental relations as well as relations with
people’s and nongovernmental organizations; the qualifications and election of
elective officials and the process for disciplinary action and recall; the creation
and composition of local school boards, local health boards, local development
councils and local peace and order councils;
Book II – local taxation and fiscal matters (which include the imposition of local
business taxes as well as real property taxes);
Book III – the creation, organization, and powers of local government units and
the officials for each local government unit; and
The Code replaced Batas Pambansa Blg. 337, which is the old local government
code.
Decentralization
Components of Decentralization:
1.Political Decentralization
2.Fiscal Decentralization
3.Institutional Decentralization
2. Programs and projects on primary health care, maternal and child care,
and communicable and non-communicable disease control services;
3. Health services which access to secondary and tertiary health services;
4. Purchase of medicines, medical supplies, and equipment needed to carry
out the services;
5. Social welfare services which include programs and projects on child
and youth welfare, family and community welfare, women’s welfare,
welfare of the elderly and disabled persons;
On Environmental Management:
1. Solid waste disposal system;
2. Services or facilities related to general hygiene and sanitation;
3. Implementation of community-based forestry projects which include
integrated social forestry programs and similar projects;
4. Management and control of communal forests;
On Agriculture:
On Infrastructure:
On Tourism:
Section 76 of LGC of 1991, granted the local government units the power to
develop their own organizational structure staffing pattern and appoint officials
wholly paid by the local governments;
Every local government unit shall design and implement its own
organizational structure and staffing pattern taking into consideration
its service requirements and financial capability, subject to the minimum
standards and guidelines prescribed by the Civil Service Commission.
b. It increased the share of the local government units in the share in the internal
revenue taxes as well as taxes in the utilization and development of national
wealth; Article X, Section 6 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution Local government
units shall have a just share, as determined by law, in the national taxes which
shall be automatically released to them.
Provided, further, that the share of each Barangay with a population of not less
than one hundred (100) inhabitants shall not be less than Eighty
thousand pesos (P=80,000.00) per annum chargeable against the
twenty percent (20%) share of the Barangay from the internal revenue allotment,
and the balance to be allocated on the basis of the following formula:
a. On the first year of the effectivity of this Code: 1. Population - Forty
percent (40%); and 2. Equal Sharing - Sixty percent (60%);
b. On the second year: 1. Population - Fifty percent (50%); and 2. Equal
Sharing - Fifty percent (50%);
c. On the third year and thereafter: 1. Population - Sixty percent (60%); and
2. Equal Sharing - Forty percent (40%)
Provided, finally, that the fiscal requirements of barangays created by
local government units after the effectivity of this Code shall
be the responsibility of the local government unit concerned.
Sources of Revenue
1. National Government
2. Internal Revenue Allotment
3. Share from taxes, fees and charges collected from the development and
utilization of national wealth
Other Sources
1. Sales/Lease of Assets
2. Credits
3. BOT-BT Scheme Legal B as is Section 18, Power to Generate and
Apply Resources.
a. The inadequacy of the internal revenue shares of the local government units to
meet the budgetary requirements of the devolved function, programs and projects
b. The continued lack of budgetary support from the national government for the
full implementation of devolved tertiary health services
c. The interference of national government in personnel and fiscal management of
eth local government units
d. The need to further broaden the tax base of the local government
units
e. The need to devolve more power functions and programs.
Source: www.gov.ph/about/gov/lgu/
MODULE 10
ELECTIONS AND POLITICAL PARTIES
LESSON 1: THE NATURE OF ELECTIONS AND POLITICAL PARTIES IN THE
CONTEXT OF THE PHILIPPINES
LEARNING CONTENT:
Political parties and elections play an important role in the analysis of politics in
developing countries, particularly in the analysis of democratization, and
specifically the consolidation of democratic political regimes.
To elect means "to choose or make a decision", and so sometimes other forms of
ballot such as referendums are referred to as elections, especially in the United
States.(Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Election)
This party joined with 11 other opposition parties in 1982 to form a coalition
known as the United Nationalist Democratic Organization (UNIDO). Following
Aquino's murder, some 50 opposition groups, including the members of the
UNIDO coalition, agreed to coordinate their anti-Marcos efforts. This coalition of
opposition parties enabled Corazon Aquino to campaign against Marcos in 1986.
In September 1986 the revolutionary left formed a legal political party to contest
congressional elections. The Partido ng Bayan (Party of the Nation) allied with
other left-leaning groups in an Alliance for New Politics. This unsuccessful
attempt for electoral representation resulted in a return to guerrilla warfare on the
part of the Communists.
After assuming the presidency, Aquino formally organized the People's Power
Movement (Lakas Ng Bayan), the successor to her late husband's party. In the
congressional elections of May 1987, Aquino's popularity gave her party a sweep
in the polls, making it the major party in the country. Marcos's KBL was reduced
to a minor party.
A new opposition party, the Filipino Party (Partido Pilipino), organized in 1991 as
a vehicle for Aquino's estranged cousin Eduardo "Danding" Cojuangco's
presidential campaign. He ran third in the election, taking 18.1% of the vote,
behind Miriam Defensor Santiago with 19.8% of the vote. On 30 June 1992 Fidel
Ramos succeeded Corazon Aquino as president of the Philippines with a plurality
of 23.6%. In September 1992 Ramos signed the Anti-Subversion Law signaling a
peaceful resolution to more than 20 years of Communist insurgency, with the
repeal of the anti-subversion legislation in place since 1957.
The Philippine presidential and vice presidential elections of 2016 was held on
Monday, May 9, 2016, as part of the 2016 general election. This was the 16 th
Presidential election in the Philippines since 1935 and the 6 th Presidential
election since 1986. Congress had met in late May to canvass the results, issued
The plurality voting system is used to determine the winner - the candidate
with the highest number of votes, whether or not one has a majority, wins the
presidency. The vice presidential election is a separate election, is held on the
same rules, and voters may split their ticket. Both winners will serve six-year
terms commencing on the noon of June 30, 2016 and ending on the same day
six years later. Congress, Senate and local elections are held in the years of
presidential elections and three years before and after them.
According to the 1987 Constitution of the Philippines, the election is held every
six years after 1992, on the second Monday of May. The incumbent president is
term limited. The incumbent vice president may run for two consecutive terms.
The Philippines has universal direct suffrage at age 18 and older to elect the
president, vice president (who runs independently), and most of the seats in the
bicameral legislature, consisting of the House of Representatives and the
Senate; a minority of House members known as sectoral representatives are
appointed by the president. Elections are held not just for national leadership but
also for representation at the provincial and local levels. In the last elections in
May 2004, some 74 percent of eligible voters participated, but the process was
marred by violence and numerous irregularities, which the political opposition
continues to protest, even calling for the president’s impeachment. (Source:
Library of Congress)
Until 1972 Philippine elections were comparable to those in United States cities
during early industrialization: flawed, perhaps, by instances of vote-buying, ballot-
box stuffing, or miscounts, but generally transmitting the will of the people. A
certain amount of election-related violence was considered normal. Marcos
overturned this system with innovations such as asking voters to indicate by a
show of hands if they wanted him to remain in office. In the snap election of
1986, Marcos supporters tried every trick they knew but lost anyway. The
heroism of the democratic forces at that time inspired many Filipinos. (Source:
Library of Congress)
The first congressional elections under the 1987 constitution were held on May
11, 1987. Political parties had not really coalesced. Seventy-nine separate
parties registered with the Commission on Elections, and voters had a wide
range of candidates to choose from: 84 candidates ran for 24 Senate seats, and
1,899 candidates ran for 200 House seats. The elections were considered
relatively clean, even though the secretary of local government ordered all
governors and mayors to campaign for Aquino-endorsed candidates. There were
sixty-three election related killings. Some of these deaths were attributable to
small-town family vendettas, whereas others may have had ideological motives.
The armed forces charged that communists used strong-arm tactics in areas they
controlled, and the communists in turn claimed that nineteen of their election
workers had been murdered. Election results showed a virtual clean sweep for
candidates endorsed by Aquino. *
Before elections in May 2010, Blaine Harden wrote in the Washington Post:
“Elections in the Philippines are personality-driven, a kind of national soap opera
in which distinctions between infamy and celebrity tend to blur over time. In the
chaotic run-up to national elections on May 10, about 85,000 candidates are
clamoring after 17,000 positions, from town council member to president. Political
violence has claimed at least 80 lives, including 57 in one incident. And families
that have long called the shots in the Philippines are angling for advantage.
(Source: Blaine Harden, Washington Post, April 22, 2010)
Campaigns in the Philippines have been called charades and compared to con
games. They are generally long on impossible-to-fulfill promises and
entertainment and short on policy statements, positions on issues and
substantive debate. There are rules that limit campaign spending, advertising
and television air time but these rules are often broken. The campaign period for
presidential and legislative elections is theoretically about 60 days but is often
much longer than that in reality.
Describing the scene six months before presidential in 2004, Ellen Nakashima
wrote in the Washington Post, “In just one week in the Philippine capital, a former
air transportation official was shot dead in a control tower at the international
airport, lawmakers clashed over whether to impeach the nation's top judge and
police dispersed thousands of protesters with tear gas and water cannons. And
that, many Filipinos fear, was just another typical week as the May 2004
presidential election season opens and opposition forces sense that President
Gloria Macapagal Arroyo is vulnerable. (Source: Ellen Nakashima,
Washington Post, November 23, 2003)
Philippine elections are often marred by violence, fraud and irregularities. Polling
stations run out of ballots; ballot boxes go missing; names of legitimate voters
aren’t not on voting lists; dead people remain on lists that have not been
updated; stations run out of ink that keeps voters from voting twice. There have
also been allegations that computers have been manipulated to change results.
Carlos H. Conde wrote in the New York Times, “Here, politicians have no qualms
about using what critics call "guns, gold and goons." Votes are still being counted
by hand, while vote-counters are appointed by politicians who are also
candidates. Vote-buying is said to be rampant - a charge frequently leveled by
defeated candidates - and it is widely reported that many ordinary voters have
come to expect bribes from politicians. The padding and shaving of votes - the
practice of which Arroyo is now accused - is also apparently prevalent. (Source:
Carlos H. Conde, New York Times, July 1, 2005)
The electoral infrastructure “is the Commission on Elections, which had been a
credible institution until Marcos politicized it and used it to lend legitimacy to his
regime. Among other things, he packed it with his own appointees. When Marcos
was ousted in 1986, his successor, Corazon Aquino, wanted to rebuild and
strengthen the democratic institutions that Marcos destroyed, among them the
commission. She appointed people with acknowledged credibility to run these
institutions.
“In 1993, Monsod modernized the commission, overseeing the drafting of a new
election code and improving its systems, most especially procedures for the
counting of votes. More than a decade later and after spending close to 2 billion
pesos, or about $36 million, on equipment and projects that never got off the
ground, the commission still uses hand-counted votes and final results are not
known until weeks after an election. Under the present setup, fraud apparently
remains prevalent.
In the mid-2000s there was a trend to contest elections in the courts. One the
eve of the 2004 election more than half a dozen disqualification cases were
heard in the courts. They involved allegations of excessive campaign spending,
breaking limits on political advertising, vote-buying and illegal use of tax payer
money for elections. (Text Sources: New York Times, Washington Post, Los
Angeles Times, Times of London, Lonely Planet Guides, Library of
Congress, Philippines Department of Tourism, Compton’s Encyclopedia,
The Guardian, National Geographic, Smithsonian magazine, The New
Yorker, Time, Newsweek, Reuters, AP, AFP, Wall Street Journal, The
Atlantic Monthly, The Economist, Foreign Policy, Wikipedia, BBC, CNN,
and various books, websites and other publications.)
Source:http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-
Oceania/Philippines-POLITICAL-PARTIES.html#ixzz4Zo0kfP1f
MODULE II
CIVIL SOCIETY AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS
LESSON 1: POLITICAL PARTICIPATION OUTSIDE FORMAL INSTITUTIONS
LEARNING CONTENT:
Think about the country that you live in - what does it take to make that country
operate smoothly? The government takes care of law and order and businesses
offer goods and services in exchange for money, which both help to keep a
society moving. But what about other groups, like churches or the PTA, how do
they contribute to your society? These other groups actually play a very big part
in how your country operates, and they fall into a category known as civil society.
Civil society is sometimes referred to as the civil sector, a term that is used to
differentiate it from other sectors that comprise a functioning society. For
example, the United States is made up of three sectors: the public sector, which
is the government and its branches; the private sector, which includes
businesses and corporations; and the civil sector, which includes the
organizations that act in the public's interest but are not motivated by profit or
government.
Civil Society works for discharging several economic, social, cultural, moral and
other responsibilities which fall in the domain of private activities. It is not a part
of government and yet it serves the purpose of securing the rights, general
welfare and development of all the people of the state.
In our country the Civil Society has been becoming more and more aware, alert
and active. The continuous presence and successful working of Indian liberal
democratic political system, the spread of literacy, the freedom of mass media,
the existence of a very broad based decentralized local self-government system,
the presence of a direct, homogeneous and democratic process of Political
Socialization and people's full commitment to liberal democracy have been
together helping the Civil Society to become increasingly active and strong.
The Right to Information and the implementation of the Right to Information Act
has given an additional strength to the Civil Society. It now uses this Act for
securing its objectives; It has now come to be a powerful actor in the process of
Indian democratic polity, economy and society. Anna Hazare's anti-corruption
movement and the movement for the creation of a strong Lokpal as the watchdog
against corruption have shown the increasing strength and role Civil Society in
our country.
Civil Society is needed even in an authoritarian system because it can help the
process of overthrow of the authoritarian regime and replace it with a democratic
system. The Civil Society, particularly the Bar Association of Pakistan, played a
key role in 2008 to compel General Parvez Musharraf to accept the demand for
holding democratic and free elections for constituting a democratic government
capable of developing Pakistan as a democratic state and society.
Since March 2008, Pakistan has been living with a democratic government and
this development has been helping the Civil Society in Pakistan to become better
In February 2011 several states of Africa, particularly Tunisia, Egypt, Yemen and
some others have experienced the increasing strengths of their civil societies.
Strong opposition to authoritarian and dictatorial regimes was demonstrated by
the civil society in Egypt.
The civil society of Tunisia successfully secured its objective of overthrowing the
forces of authoritarianism in their country and on 11th February 2011, the
Egyptian Civil Society also successfully secured its objective of eliminating the
authoritarian regime of Hosni Mubarak in their country. It is expected that it will
now ensure the installation of a democratic regime in the country.
In fact, the civil society of each state has been trying to become more active and
assertive in its society, polity and economy. It is indeed a very healthy
development which is destined to give more strength to the movements for the
restoration of democratic regimes in all authoritarian states of the world.
The current drive for the protection of Human Rights of all the people living in all
parts of the globe and the environment protection movements will get more and
more support and efforts from the civil society of each member of the
international community.
Source: www.preservearticles.com/.../civil-society-meaning-features-and-
role-of-civil-society
Social Movements
Concept of Social Movements: Social movements are a type of group action.
They are large, sometimes informal, groupings of individuals or organizations
which focus on specific political or social issues. In other words, they carry out,
resist, or undo a social change.
a. It is an effort by a group
b. Its aim is to bring or resist a change in society
c. It may be organized or unorganized
Social movements do not just happen. It is social unrest which gives rise to a
social movement.
1. Cultural Drifts:
The society is undergoing constant changes. The values and behaviour are
changing in all civilized societies. In the course of cultural drift most of the people
develop new ideas. To get these ideas operative in society they organise a
movement. The development of a democratic society, the emancipation of
women, the spread of mass education, the removal of untouchability, equality of
opportunity for both the sexes, growth of secularism are the examples of cultural
drift.
2. Social Disorganization:
3. Social Injustice:
When a group of people feel that injustice has been done to it they become
frustrated and alienated. Such feeling of injustice provides fertile soil for social
movements. The feeling of social injustice is not limited to the miserable poor.
Any group, at any status level may come to feel itself the victim of social injustice.
A wealthy class may feel a sense of injustice when faced with urban property
Thus, social movements arise wherever social conditions are favorable. It may
be noted that in a stable, well integrated society there are few social movements.
In such a society there are very few social tensions or alienated groups.
a. Mobile and have little chance to become integrated into the life of the
community
b. Not fully accepted and integrated into the group and are termed marginal
c. Isolated from the community
d. Threatened by economic insecurity and loss of social status
e. Free from family responsibilities or are estranged from their families
f. Maladjusted.
Thus, the people who are homeless and misfits of society become the supporters
of mass movements. It may also be noted that some people join the social
movements for reasons unrelated to the movement’s objectives. Some may join
it first to fill their leisure Ume, or they may be personally attracted to some of its
members.
The Sequence Pattern of Social Movements:
1. Migratory Movement:
Migratory movement takes place when a large number of people leave one
country and settle at some other place. The reason for mass migration may be
discontent with present circumstances or the allurement of a bright future. Mere
migration of people does not mean migratory movement.
2. Expressive Movement:
When people are faced with a social system from which they cannot flee and
which they feel powerless to change, the result is an expressive social
movement. In an expressive social movement the individual comes to terms with
an unpleasant external reality by modifying his reactions to that reality. He
somehow makes life bearable. He tries to ignore the miserable present and fixes
his gaze upon a glorious future. The Hippie movement is an expressive social
movement.
3. Utopian Movement:
4. Reform Movement:
The reform movement is an attempt to modify some parts of the society without
completely transforming it. Reform movements can operate only in a democratic
society where people have freedom to criticize the existing institutions and may
secure changes. The movements to abolish untouchability, dowry system,
preserve wild life, control population growth are reform movements. The total
revolution movement led by J. P. Narayan was a reform movement. The
movement led by J. P. Narayan was a reform movement.
5. Revolutionary Movement:
The revolutionary movement seeks to overthrow the existing social system and
replace it with a greatly different one. The reform movement wants to correct
some imperfections in the existing social system but a revolutionary movement
wants to root out the system itself. Revolutionary movement’s flourish where
reform is blocked so that revolution remains the people’s only alternative to their
present misery. The communist movements in Soviet Russia and China were
revolutionary movements.
6. Resistance Movements:
Religion is a big emotive issue which can flare up in a revolution. Among the
social issues the most important is the feeling by a particular group or race that it
is not getting its just share in the political set up of the country and that the only
alternative is to achieve autonomy or to be separated from the state to which it is
coercively bound.
Role of Leadership:
Many a movement fails due to lack of leadership. The leader is the spokesman of
the group. He is the coordinator and the important participator in the decisions as
to the goals and methods. He is an example to others. He enjoys great authority
and power. He also enjoys great prestige. He excels others in personal qualities.
The leader has great responsibilities. He is expected to fulfill them.
He is expected to keep his word, to stick by the members and to uphold the
group norms and values. If he does not live up to the level expected, he suffers a
loss of prestige and even of position in the group. He can be thrown out of
leadership. If he betrays the confidence reposed in him by the supporters, he
may even be killed. Thus, the leader plays a crucial role in a social movement.
The success or failure of the movement depends largely on him.
a. goal achievement
b. strengthening of the social movement
The leader has the basic responsibility for seeing that the social movement
achieves its goals. The followers follow the leader because they recognize that
he can lead them to the goal. The leader should select his technique with great
forethought. It should be “reality-oriented.” The leader should know that in case
of failure of the movement he may have to suffer rebuffs, loss of status and
blame. He should, therefore, be very cautious in assuming the leadership, and
having assumed should be careful in handling it successfully. A leader can
channelize the mass enthusiasm into constructive social reforms or he can
eventually destroy the social system. (Source: www.sociologydiscussion.com
› Social Movements)
Social movements and civil society have structures like organizations a well
identified leadership and ideology. Civil society initiatives and social movements
are social processes which undergo several stages of progression from
mobilization to intensive collective action.
Social movements and civil societies pledge for change in the established order
of society. However, some of them also work to resist change in society. They
both occupy civil space in society. The creation of new collective identity is an
essential part of both social movements and civil society. They are based on
identified ideological choices.
They are initiated by enterprising people for the maximization of specific
interests. Here both processes can be taken over by the state. Social movements
are broader categories or agencies. At times it even looks for radical change by
attacking the existing structure of the society. Civil society looks for gradual
change within the existing arrangement. Civil society at times asks political
questions and political solutions through developmental activities. (Source:
http://www.sociologyguide.com/civil-society/common-features.php)
Political participation is any activity that shapes, affects, or involves the political
sphere. Political participation ranges from voting to attending a rally to committing
an act of terrorism to sending a letter to a representative. Broadly speaking, there
are three types of participation:
Most democratic citizens feel that some level of political participation, particularly
conventional participation, is admirable and acceptable. But political participation
can be hard: One must find time, and perhaps money, in order to participate. So
why do people do it? People participate in politics out of a sense of the following:
Nonparticipation
In some countries, large parts of the population do not participate in politics at all.
In the United States, for example, only about half of all eligible people vote in
presidential elections.
ARRANGE THE JUMBLED LETTERS TO FORM HIDDEN WORD USING THE GIVEN CLUE.
Jumbled Letters Clue Hidden Word
1. SOMEONEHUGO talk the same language ______________________
2. ITROPICANATIP joining with others ______________________
3. ABOLITIONZIM move people to perform ______________________
4. MONTENTCENT state of satisfaction ______________________
5. TRAINOURVELOY radical change ______________________
6. ULTIMATEMAILERS alliance of countries ______________________
7. NOHOPENMEN an observable fact or event ______________________
8. GECOILLOIDA concerned with ideas ______________________
9. SCARENITES refusal to accept or submit ______________________
10. ASIATICOILZON adapting behavior to norms ______________________
MODULE 12
CITIZENSHIP
LESSON 1: THE TRADITIONAL AND MODERN VIEWS OF CITIZENSHIP, i.e.,
THE STATE-CENTRIC vs PARTICIPATORY NOTIONS OF CITIZENSHIP
LEARNING CONTENT:
Citizenship-in-practice
Since the state is organized and the government is established for the welfare of
the citizen, it becomes essential that we should know the meaning of the term
“citizen”. The term ‘citizen’ can be understood in a narrow or in a broad sense. In
a narrow sense, it means the resident of a city or one who enjoys the privilege of
living m a city. While in a broad sense citizen means a person who resides within
the territorial limits of the state.
As a matter of fact, the concept of citizenship goes back to the ancient city-
states where the population was divided into two classes —the citizens and the
slaves. The citizens enjoyed both civil and political rights. They directly or
indirectly participate in all the functions of the civil and political life of the state.
Whereas the slaves enjoyed none of such rights and suffered from all kinds o
political and economic disabilities. In this way in ancient Greece the term ‘citizen’
was used in its narrow sense. Only those who enjoyed the civil and political rights
and who participated in the functions of the civil and political life of people were
regarded as citizens.
Since every individual of the total population privileged to enjoy these rights, the
number of the slaves was far in excess of citizens. The number of the citizens
comprised 20,000 of the total population and the rest were regarded as slaves
who did not enjoy any such rights.
Only the Patricians participated in the functions of the civil and political life of the
state. The rest of the population was not privileged to enjoy any of such rights.
Much similar process was adopted in the medieval age. But in modern times, the
dawn of democracy has turned the tables in most of the states. In such states
every adult enjoys the right to vote. This process is being adopted in India.
Canada, Sri Lanka, Japan, Belgium, Holland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark,
England, Lanka, Australia, United States of America, etc. Even in the communist
countries almost all the adults are enjoying the right to vote.
The Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Poland, Czechoslovakia, etc., are some
of the states where the policy of adult suffrage has been adopted. In Switzerland,
women are not privileged to enjoy the right to vote. In Pakistan and in many
backward Afro-Asian countries citizens are not privileged to enjoy a number of
civil and political rights. It is hoped that in due course of time people will enjoy all
the rights in these countries also. The U.N. is trying its best in this respect.
According to Aristotle, citizen is he “who has the power to take part in the
deliberative or judicial administration of any state is said by us to be a citizen of
that state”. Vattal has defined citizens as, “the members of a civil society bound
to this society by certain duties, subject to its authority and equal participants in
its advantages”. “Citizenship”, according to Laski, “is the contribution of one’s
instructed judgment to the public good”.
They are no more the citizens of India. But it depends on the government of the
respective states to grant these residents the citizenship of their country or not.
Temporary aliens are those people who visit foreign countries in order to serve
their purposes and when their purposes are served, they go back to their native
land.
Every country has some friends and some enemies. Friendly countries are called
foreign friends and enemy countries, foreign enemies. For example, during the
Second World War, France, U.S.S.R., America, Canada, Australia, etc., were
foreign friends to England; and Germany, Japan and Italy were foreign enemies
to England.
Previously, we did not have good relations with Pakistan and the result was Indo-
Pak conflicts in 1965. But Tashkent Summit held in January, 1966 resulted in an
agreement between Mr. Lal Bahadur Shastri, the then Prime Minister of India,
and President Ayub Khan of Pakistan.
The agreement could remain effective only for a bit longer. The relations between
the two countries were once again strained and the result was the second Indo-
Pakistan conflict in December, 1971. But historic Simla Summit held in July, 1972
resulted in an agreement between Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and President
Bhutto. In spite of that Pakistan continued hostile attitude towards India.
Citizens are of two types: natural born and naturalized. Natural born citizens
are those who are the citizens of a state by virtue of their birth or blood relations.
Naturalized citizens are those foreigners who are granted the citizenship of the
country on the fulfillment of some conditions laid down by the respective country.
A person who desires to be the citizen of a foreign country has to give up the
citizenship of his native country. No persons can be the citizen of more than one
country at the same time. Any person can acquire the citizenship of a foreign
country after having fulfilled the condition laid down by that country for this
purpose.
1. Social sentiment
2.Good health and sound physique
3.Sentiment of world citizenship
4.Moderate thinking and self-control
5.Unselfishness and helpful attitude to others
6.Patriotism and the elimination of a sense of untouchability
7.The proper use of adult suffrage
Hindrances of Good Citizenship:
1. Selfishness
2. Favoritism and Nepotism
3. Indifferences
4. Feeling of regionalism
5. Idleness
6. Illiteracy
7. Poverty
8. Capitalism
9. Feeling of Untouchability
10. Provincialism, Communalism and aggressive nationalism
A good citizenship can be established only after eliminating the hindrances
mentioned above. So every state is adopting measures to eliminate these evils.
Ideals citizenship can lead to the progress of the country and to the security of
world-peace.
Each country has its own policies, regulations and criteria as to who is entitled to
its citizenship. A person can be recognized or granted citizenship on a number of
bases. Usually citizenship based on the place of birth is automatic; in other cases
an application may be required.
If one or both of a person's parents are citizens of a given state, then the person
may have the right to be a citizen of that state as well. Formerly this might only
have applied through the paternal line, but sex equality became common since
the late twentieth century. Citizenship is granted based on ancestry or ethnicity,
and is related to the concept of a nation state common in China. Where jus
sanguinis holds, a person born outside a country, one or both of whose parents
are citizens of the country, is also a citizen. States normally limit the right to
citizenship by descent to a certain number of generations born outside the state.
This form of citizenship is not common in civil law countries.
Some people are automatically citizens of the state in which they are born. This
form of citizenship originated in England where those who were born within the
realm were subjects of the monarch (a concept pre-dating citizenship), and is
common in common law countries. In many cases both jus solis and jus
sanguinis hold; citizenship either by place or parentage (or of course both).
The Traditional and Modern Views of Citizenship, i.e., the State-Centric vs.
Participatory Notions of Citizenship
Many thinkers point to the concept of citizenship beginning in the early city-states
of ancient Greece, although others see it as primarily a modern phenomenon
dating back only a few hundred years and, for mankind, that the concept of
citizenship arose with the first laws. Polis meant both the political assembly of the
city-state as well as the entire society. Citizenship has generally been identified
as a western phenomenon. There is a general view that citizenship in ancient
times was a simpler relation than modern forms of citizenship, although this view
has come under scrutiny. The relation of citizenship has not been a fixed or static
relation, but constantly changed within each society, and that according to one
view, citizenship might "really have worked" only at select periods during certain
times, such as when the Athenian politician Solon made reforms in the early
Athenian state.
Historian Geoffrey Hosking in his 2005 Modern Scholar lecture course suggested
that citizenship in ancient Greece arose from an appreciation for the importance
of freedom. Hosking explained: It can be argued that this growth of slavery was
what made Greeks particularly conscious of the value of freedom. After all, any
Greek farmer might fall into debt and therefore might become a slave, at almost
any time. When the Greeks fought together, they fought in order to avoid being
enslaved by warfare, to avoid being defeated by those who might take them into
slavery. And they also arranged their political institutions so as to remain free
men.
Geoffrey Hosking suggests that fear of being enslaved was a central motivating
force for the development of the Greek sense of citizenship. Sculpture: a Greek
woman being served by a slave-child. Slavery permitted slaveowners to have
substantial free time, and enabled participation in public life. Polis citizenship was
marked by exclusivity. Inequality of status was widespread; citizens had a higher
status than non-citizens, such as women, slaves or barbarians. The first form of
citizenship was based on the way people lived in the ancient Greek times, in
small-scale organic communities of the polis. Citizenship was not seen as a
separate activity from the private life of the individual person, in the sense that
there was not a distinction between public and private life.
The obligations of citizenship were deeply connected into one's everyday life in
the polis. These small-scale organic communities were generally seen as a new
development in world history, in contrast to the established ancient civilizations of
Egypt or Persia, or the hunter-gatherer bands elsewhere. From the viewpoint of
Roman ideas
Middle Ages
During the European Middle Ages, citizenship was usually associated with cities
and towns, and applied mainly to middle class folk. Titles such as burgher, grand
burgher (German Großbürger) and bourgeoisie denoted political affiliation and
identity in relation to a particular locality, as well as membership in a mercantile
or trading class; thus, individuals of respectable means and socioeconomic
status were interchangeable with citizens.
During this era, members of the nobility had a range of privileges above
commoners (see aristocracy), though political upheavals and reforms, beginning
most prominently with the French Revolution, abolished privileges and created
an egalitarian concept of citizenship.
Renaissance
The modern idea of citizenship still respects the idea of political participation, but
it is usually done through "elaborate systems of political representation at a
Modern citizenship has often been looked at as two competing underlying ideas:
Many citizens do not participate in our government. They don't vote or participate
in most of the other ways you have just discussed. However, some people
believe that citizens have a responsibility to participate.
Imagine that you have hired a company to repair your bicycle. Before you hired
them, you would want to be sure they could repair bicycles. Then you would want
to make sure that they did what you had hired them to do. Suppose the company
did a good job. Then you would not worry about checking on them if your sister's
bicycle needed repairs a few weeks later.
Suppose the company did a bad job on your bicycle. Then you might want to
replace them or watch them even more closely when your sister's bicycle needed
work. The same is true with the government. We should be sure the people we
"hire" (elect) can do the job we are hiring them for. Once they get the job, we
should keep an eye on them to make sure they are doing that job. If they do a
good job, we may not watch them as closely. If they do a bad job, we may watch
them very closely and may even decide to replace them.
[From We the People: The Citizen & the Constitution, second edition (1998),
STUDENT BOOK]
HERE IS A LIST OF DIFFERENT COUNTRIES; CAN YOU GIVE THE NAME OF ITS CITIZEN?
1 FRANCE
2 PHILIPPINES
3 DENMARK
4 IRELAND
5 JAPAN
6 GREAT BRITAIN
7 QATAR
8 CYPRUS
9 CZECH REPUBLIC
10 GREECE
11 IRAQ
12 SPAIN
MODULE 13
INTEGRATION
LESSON: HOW THE CONCEPTS/IDEAS LEARNED IN CLASS CAN BE
UTILIZED IN ACTUAL EXPERIENCES
LEARNING CONTENT:
Guide Questions:
Guide Questions:
1. Give the five (5) major political ideologies discussed in this Unit. Explain
them briefly.
2. Who are the advocates of Absolutism? Explain their respective
advocacies.
3. Discuss the different beliefs or its emphasis in Conservatism.
4. Explain the evolution of Socialism.
5. What are the two most prominent evolutions of socialism? Briefly explain
them.
Your class should be divided into small groups. Each group should visit a
particular Barangay and interview a Punong Barangay regarding the following
devolution of basic services on 1. Health and Services; 2. Environment
Management; 3. Agricultural (if applicable); 4. Infrastructure and 5. Tourism (if
applicable).
Guide Questions:
1. Assuming honest elections are still possible; do you honestly believe the
government wants us to have clean and honest elections? Will it exert the
necessary effort to bring that about?
2. Assuming they are honest, do you think elections alone can change anything
in our society, or at least in the government? If no, what do you think should be
done? And what should be your role in it?
3. Assuming the elections are rigged, will you accept the results? If no, what will
you do, and what do you think should be done? Will you call upon the military to
get involved and defend the integrity of our political institutions?
4. Among the “presidentiables,” during the 2016 Presidential election, have you
heard or seen anything that leads you to believe things will change if anyone of
them is elected? How do you regard now the present Duterte administration?
5. Do you think anyone of them wants to do something concrete and lasting for
the nation, or do you feel they simply want to become President for their own
reasons?
Civil society organizations (CSOs) can provide both immediate relief and longer-
term transformative change – by defending collective interests and increasing
accountability; providing solidarity mechanisms and promoting participation;
influencing decision making; directly engaging in service delivery; and
challenging prejudice. In this way, excluded groups can be effective drivers of
their own change by forming or participating in organizations that represent group
interests. CSOs also play an important role in conducting research to raise the
profile of excluded groups.
Your class should be divided into small groups. Each group should make a Role
Playing illustrating the concepts of the important role of Civil society
organizations (CSOs) as well as the Social Movements in our society.
Guide Questions:
2. List three ways of participating in government. For each, tell why it would be
an effective way of protecting your basic rights.
4. If you do not think the government is protecting your basic rights, should you
still be required to obey its laws? Explain your answer.
6. Should a good citizen be concerned with improving the lives of those less
fortunate? Why or why not?
Problem Solving
Examining Participation
The main purpose of government was to protect people's basic rights. Almost all
citizens have the right to participate in governing our nation.
Your class should be divided into small groups. Each group should read the list
of ways citizens can participate. Then each group should answer the following
questions and share its responses with the class.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of each form of participation that is
listed?
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES
UNIT 5 /LESSON 1
NAME: DATE: SCORE:
GRADE/SECTION: TEACHER:
ACTIVITY 1
Compare and Contrast Spanish Period from the American Period
Foreign Masters Spaniards Americans
Educational System
Social System
Economic System
ACTIVITY 2
ASSESSMENT OF FORMER PHILIPPINE PRESIDENTS
PHILIPPINE
RANK GREATEST ACCOMPLISHMENTS
PRESIDENT
UNIT 5 /LESSON 2
NAME: DATE: SCORE:
GRADE/SECTION: TEACHER:
ACTIVITY 1
PERFORMANCE OF THE THREE EQUAL BRANCHES OF THE
GOVERNMENT
A=Outstanding; B=Very Satisfactory; C=Good; D=Poor
CRITERIA EXECUTIVE LEGISLATIVE JUDICIARY
Efficiency
Responsiveness
Rule of Law
ACTIVITY 2
What are Local Government Units? What Are Their Significant Roles or
Functions?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
UNIT 6 /LESSON 1
NAME: DATE: SCORE:
GRADE/SECTION: TEACHER:
ACTIVITY 1
POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT
POWERS DEFINITION
UNIT 7 /LESSON 1
NAME: DATE: SCORE:
GRADE/SECTION: TEACHER:
ACTIVITY 1
THE PHILIPPINE LEGISLATURE
Chambers Qualifications Head
UNIT 7 /LESSON 2
NAME: DATE: SCORE:
GRADE/SECTION: TEACHER:
ACTIVITY 1
Steps in the Passage of a Law
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
ACTIVITY 2
Enumerate the Powers of Congress
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
UNIT 8 /LESSON 1
NAME: DATE: SCORE:
GRADE/SECTION: TEACHER:
ACTIVITY 1
PRESENT JUSTICES OF THE SUPREME COURT
ACTIVITY 1
Match the President and the Chief Justice
Answer President Chief Justice
1. Corazon C. Aquino a. Lourdes Sereno
2. Joseph E. Estrada b. Enrique Fernando
3. ElpidioQuirino c. Renato Corona
4. Sergio Osmena d. Claudio Teehankee
5. Manuel L. Quezon e. Manuel Moran
6. Benigno S. Aquino III f.ApolinarioMabini
7. Carlos P. Garcia g. Jose Abad Santos
8. Emilio Aguinaldo h. Ricardo Paras
9. Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo i. Cesar Bengson
ACTIVITY 2
Define the following Terms
No. Term Definition
1 Quo warranto
2 Mandamus
3 Certiorari
Habeas
4
corpus
5 En banc
UNIT 9 /LESSON 1
NAME: DATE: SCORE:
GRADE/SECTION: TEACHER:
ACTIVITY 1
Levels of Local Government in the Philippines
LGU Chief Executive Council
1.
2.
3.
4.
ACTIVITY 2
Sources of Revenues for Local Government
1 8
2 9
ACTIVITY 3
Composition of Metropolitan Manila (NCR)
1 6 11
2 7 12
3 8 13
4 9 14
5 10 15
UNIT 10 /LESSON 1
NAME: DATE: SCORE:
GRADE/SECTION: TEACHER:
ACTIVITY 1
Political Parties in the Philippines
Political Party
No. Founder
(Acronym-Meaning)
1.
ACTIVITY 1
READ AND MEMORIZE
ARTICLE V, SUFFRAGE, 1987 Philippine Constitution
Section 1: Suffrage may be exercised by all citizens of the Philippines not
otherwise disqualified by law, who are at least eighteen years of age, and
who shall have resided in the Philippines for at least one year, and in the
place wherein they propose to vote, for at least six months immediately
preceding the election. No literacy, property, or other substantive
requirement shall be imposed on the exercise of suffrage.
Section 2: The Congress shall provide a system for securing the secrecy
and sanctity of the ballot as well as a system for absentee voting by
qualified Filipinos abroad.
UNIT 11 /LESSON 1
NAME: DATE: SCORE:
GRADE/SECTION: TEACHER:
ACTIVITY 1
Roles of Civil Society and Social Movements
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
ACTIVITY 2
UNIT 12 /LESSON
NAME: DATE: SCORE:
GRADE/SECTION: TEACHER:
ACTIVITY 1
Definition of Terms
Citizen
Citizenship
Natural-born
Citizen
Naturalization
Jus soli
Jus sanguinis
ACTIVITY 2
Rights and Duties of Citizens
UNIT 13 /LESSON 1
NAME: DATE: SCORE:
GRADE/SECTION: TEACHER:
ACTIVITY 1
MOST SIGNIFICANT LEARNINGS IN THE COURSE, PER UNIT
UNIT UNIT TITLE MOST SIGNIFICANT LEARNING
Naturalized citizens: Those foreigners who are granted the citizenship of the
country on the fulfillment of some conditions laid down by the respective country.
Banks, J. A., and C. A. McGee Banks, eds. 2005. Multicultural education: Issues
and perspectives, 5th ed. New York: Wiley.
Heywood, Andrew., 2013. Politics 4th ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Leicht, Kevin T., and J. Craig Jenkins, eds.2010. Handbook of Politics: State and
Society in Global Perspective. New York: Springer, 218.
Migdal, Joel S., 1998. Strong Societies and Weak States: State - Society
Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World. Princeton University
Press, 10-41.
Moten, A., and S. Islam., 2006. Introduction to Political Science, 2nd ed.
Malaysia: Thomson
Nagelsen, Susan, and Charles Huckelbury.,2016"The Death Penalty and Human
Dignity: An Existential Fallacy", Laws
Ncho, Claudette D., and Susan C.D. Wright 2013.,"Health maintenance and low
socio-economic status: A family perspective", Curationis
Scholte, Jan Aart., 2001. "The Globalization of World Politics", in John Baylis and
Steve Smith, eds., The Globalization of World Politics: An
Introduction to International Relations, 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 13-32.
WEBSITES
http://chestofbooks.com/finance/Albert-S-Bolles/Practical-Banking/Chapter-I-
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http://www.apps21.co.uk
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http://www.attac.org
http://www.backdoorsurvival.com
http://www.balinkbayan.cfo.gov.ph
http://www.bbc.co.uk