Chemistry 2017 New Syllabus Grade 12 13 Tamil Medium Alevelapi. Com PDF

fy;tpg; nghJj; juhjug;gj;jpuk;
(cau;juk;)
,urhadtpay;
ghlj;jpl;lk;
(2017k;Mz;bypUe;J eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gLtjw;fhdJ)
tpQ;Qhd gPlk;
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;
,yq;if
mwpKfk;
,g;ghlj;jpl;lk;> ,urhad mwpit cau;fy;tpapy; ngWk; Nehf;fk; nfhz;ltu;fSf;Fk; f.ngh.j. (c/j) ,y; ngwg;gl;l ,urhad
mwpit NtWJiwfspy; gad;gLj;jp nfhs;SKfkhfTk; cupa Kiwapy; tbtikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
,g;ghlj;jpl;lk; nfhz;Ls;s 14 myFfSk; fw;gpj;jypd;NghJ gpd;gw;Wtjw;Fg; nghUj;jkhd njhlu;tupirapy; (fl;lhakhdjd;W)

Kd;itf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. xt;nthU myFk; Nju;r;rpfspd; mbg;gilapy; xOq;fhf;fg;gl;Lg; ghl cs;slf;fk; Kd;itf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
xt;nthU cgmyfpd; KbtpYk; rupntOj;Jf;fshy; (italics) Fwpg;gplg;gl;Ls;s gupNrhjidfs; ghlj;jpl;lj;jpd; Kf;fpa

Mf;ff;$WfshFk;. ,it nfhs;iffSf;Fk; gupNrhjidffSf;Fkpilapyhd njhlu;ig tpsf;Ffpd;wd. ,g;ghlj;jpl;lk; 2017k;
Mz;bypUe;J eilKiwg;gLj;jg;glTs;sJ
Gjpa ghlj;j pl;l j; j pYs;s khw; w q;f s;
gpd;tUk; khw;wq;fs; Gjpaghlj;jpl;lj;jpy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;lit. ,it 2017 Mk; Mz;bypUe;J eilKiwf;F tUk;.
• myF 01 topKiw cs;slf;fk; kPs xOq;fhf;fg;gl;Ls;sJld;  fjpu;g;Gfspd; tpupthd ,ay;Gfs;ePf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
• myF 02,d; ghl cs;slf;fk; njhlu;ghd vy;iyfs; Fwpg;gplg;gl;L kPs;xOq;fhf;fg;gl;Ls;sJld;> Nju;e;njLf;fg;gl;l

%yf;$WfspdJk;> mad;fspdJk; gupTf; fl;likg;Gfs; kl;Lk; fUjg;gl;Ls;sJ. cjhuzk;> O3, N2O, CO2, CO32-, NO3 - , NO2 Tk;
xj;j %yf;$WfSk; mad;fSk;
• ituk;> fhuPak;> rpypf;fh Mfpatw;wpd; rhyf mikg;Gfs; myF 06 f;F efu;j;jg;gl;Ls;sJ
• myF 03,d; ghl cs;slf;fk; tpupthf;fg;gl;L ghlNtisfs; tpupthf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. gpd;tUk; ghl cs;slf;fk; myF 03 ,y;
cl;GFj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ
• gPrkhdk; njhlu;ghd gpurd;dq;fisj; jPu;g;gjw;fhff; $ba ghlNtisfs; Nghlg;gl;Ls;sJ
• fiury;fs; jahupj;jy;
• myF 04,d; cs;slf;fk; kPs;fl;bnaOg;gg;gl;Ls;sJ.
• myF 05 ,y; khw;wkpy;iy
• myF 06 khw;wg;gl;L kPs;fl;bnaOg;gg;gl;Ls;sJ
• “d” rpf;fy;fspd; IUPAC ngauPL Fiwf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. xU tif ,izapfs; kl;Lk; nfhz;l rpf;fy;fspd; ngauPL kl;Lk;
cs;thq;fg; gl;Ls;sJ.
• gpd;tUk; gupNrhjidr; nraw;ghLfs; myF 6 ,y; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.
• gupNrhjid uPjpahf tspapy; iejurd; gpurd;dj;ijf; fhl;Lthu;
• KIO3 IAk; KI Ak; gad;gLj;jp jNahry;Ngw;W fiuriy epakpg;ghu;.
• Fe2+madpd; nrwpit> epak mkpy KMnO4 fiuriy gad;gLj;jpj; jPu;khdpg;ghu;
• gupNrhjid uPjpahf nrwpit KMnO4 ,d; nrwpit xU epak mkpy K2C2O4 fiuriy cgNahfpj;Jj; Jzpthu;
• Ke;jpa ghlj;jpl;lj;jpy; cs;s rpy gupNrhjidr; nraw;ghLfs; ePf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
• fe;jfj;jpd; GwjpUg;gq;fisj; jahupj;jy;
• fe;jftPnuhl;irl;L jahupj;jYk; > mjd; ,ay;Gfisg; guPl;rpj;jYk;
• FNshupd; jahupj;jy;
• myF 08 ck; myF 09 ck; xd;wpizf;fg;gl;L xU myfhf IjNuhfhgd;fSk;> VNyh IjNuhfhgd;fSk; vd;w jiyaq;fj;jpd;
fPo; ghl cs;slf;fj;jpy; vt;tpj khw;wKkpy;yhky; Nru;f;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
• myF 11 ghl cs;slf;fj;jpy; vt;tpj khw;wKkpy;yhky; kPs; xOq;fhf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
• myF 12 ,d; ghl cs;slf;fj; njhlu;tupir kPs;xOq;fhf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.

• gpd;tUk; gupNrhjidfs; myF 12 ypUe;E ePf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
• jug;gl;l g+f;fis cgNahfpj;Jf; fhl;bia jahupj;jYk;> mjd; pH tPr;ir gupNrhjid uPjpahfj; jPu;khdpj;jYk;
• jug;gl;l fiurypd; mz;zsthd pH I fhl;bfis cgNahfpj;J jPu;khdpj;jy;.
• gpd;tUk; gupNrhjidfs; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd
• Na2CO3 ,w;Fk; HCl ,w;Fkhd epakpg;G> gpNdhj;jypd;> nkijapy; nrk;kQ;risg; gad;gLj;jp
• myF 13 ,d; ghl cs;slf;fk; khw;wg;gl;Ls;sJ.
• <UNyhf mupg;G> fNjhl;L ghJfhg;G capu;g;gpd;ikj; jd;ik (Passivation) mfw;wg;gl;Ls;sJ.
• gpd;tUk; gupNrhjidfs; myF 13 ypUe;j mfw;wg;gl;Ls;sd.
• ntt;NtW fyq;fspd; kpd;,af;ftpirfis msj;jy;
• ePiu kpd;gFj;jy; %yk; IjurDk;> xl;rprDk; jahupj;jy;
• nrk;G> nghd; Mfpatw;why; kpd;Kyhkply;
• kpd;dupg;ig xU kpd;dpurhad nraw;ghlhfg; gupNrhjid uPjpahff; fw;wy;
• gpd;tUk; gupNrhjidfs; myF 13 ,y; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd
• kpd;dpurhadj; njhlupy; nghJthff; fpilf;ff; $ba cNyhfq;fspd; rhu;epiyfisg; gupNrhjiduPjpahfj; Jzpjy;
• epak Ag (s) / AgCl (s) kpd;thiaj; jahupj;jy;
• myFfs; 15 ck; 16 ck; Kw;whf khw;wg;gl;L xU jdp myfhf (14) xd;W Nru;f;fgl;Ls;sJ. myF 14 njhopw;rhiyfSk;
#oy;khrhf;fKk; vd;w jiyg;Gld; cs;sJ.
• myF 15 ,y; ,ypUe;J. ,q;F gpd;tUk; cs;slf;fk; mfw;wg;gl;Ls;sJ.
• Nrhbaj;jpd; gpupj;njLg;G (lTd; fy Kiw)
• fwpcg;G cw;gj;jp
• a+upah cw;gj;jp
• ,aw;if ,wg;gupd; Nru;itahf;fk;
• rpy jhtug; gFjpfisf; nfhz;l ,urhadf; ifj;njhopy; (fljhrp> kUj;Jtf; ifj;njhopy;)
• epwg;gjpTKiw (jputk;> fljhrp)
• rPnke;J cw;gj;jpapy; ,urhadk;
• krF vz;nzAk; cilj;jYk; / ngw;Nwhypak; cw;gj;jp
• gpd;tUk; cs;slf;fk; myF 14 ,y; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ
• vjNdhy;> tpdhfpup> rhnwz;nza; / rhw;Wj; ijyk; (essential oil)> capu; Bry; (bio diesel) vd;gtw;wpd; gad;ghLfs;
• gy;gFjpahf;fj;jpy; gpsh];upf;F Nru;f;iffspd; (additives) tpisTfs;
• Ul;ilapy; (rutile) ,y; ,Ue;J titanium dioxide gpupj;njLg;Gk;> titanium dioxided ,d; gad;fSk;.
• ‘lt;’ (‘Dow’) Kiwiag; gad;gLj;jp magnisium gpupj;njLg;G.
• gpd;tUk; gupNrhjid myF 15 ,y; ,Ue;jJ. ,q;F mfw;wg;gl;Ls;sJ.
• fljhrp epwg;gjptpaiyg; gad;gLj;jp ,iyepwg;nghUl;fspd; fyitia Ntwhf;fy;
• gpd;tUk; gupNrhjidfs; myF 14 ,y; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd.
• fWth vz;nzia / ijyj;ij fWth ,iyfspypUe;J ePuhtpf; fha;r;rp tbj;jy; %yk; Ntwhf;fy;.
• capu; Briy (biodiesel) jahupj;jy;
• tpdhfpupapy; mrw;wpf; mkpyj;jpd; E}w;WtPjj;ijj; Jzpjy;
• gpd;tUk; cs;slf;fk; myF 16 ,y; ,Ue;jJ. ,q;F mfw;wg;gl;Ls;sJ.
• #oy; njhFjpapd; (eco sphere) $WfSk; mtw;wpd; Kf;fpaj;JtKk;.
• g+kpapy; capiug; guhkupg;gjw;F (maintain) capu; ,urhadj; njhFg;gpd; gq;F
• kz; khrhf;fpfisAk;> jpz;kf; fopTfisAk; Muha;jy;.
1.1 Njrpa ,yf;F fs;
Njrpa fy;tp KiwikahdJ jdp egu;fF

; k; r%fj;jpw;Fk; nghUj;jkhd ngUk;ghyhd Njrpa ,yf;Ffis mltjw;Fj; jdpegu;fSf;Fk;
FOtpdu;f;Fk; cjtp nra;jy; Ntz;Lk;. fle;j fhyq;fspy;,yq;ifapd; ngUk;ghyhd fy;tp mwpf;iffSk; Mtzq;fSk; jdpegu;
NjitfisAk; Njrpa NjitfisAk; epiwT nra;tjw;fhf ,yf;Ffis epu;zapj;Js;sd. rkfhyf; fy;tp mikg;GfspYk;
nrad;KiwfspYk; ntspg;gilahff; fhzg;gLk;gytPdq;fs; fhuzkhf epiyNgWila kdpj tpUj;jpapd; vz;zf;fUj; jpl;l
tuk;gpDs; fy;tpapD}lhf milaf;$ba gpd;tUk; ,yf;Fj; njhFjpapidj; Njrpa fy;tp Mizf;FO ,dq;fz;Ls;sJ.
1. kdpj nfsutj;ijf; fz;zpag;gLj;jy; vDk; vz;zf;fUTf;Fs; Njrpag;gpizg;G > Njrpa KOik> Njrpa xw;Wik> ,zf;fk;
rkhjhdk; vd;gtw;iw Nkk;gLj;jy; %yKk;> ,yq;ifg; gd;ik r%fj;jpd; fyhrhu NtWghl;bid mq;fPfupj;jy; %yKk;>
Njrj;ijf; fl;b vOg;GjYk; ,yq;ifah; vDk; milahsj;ij Vw;gLj;jYk;.
2. khw;wKWk; cyfj;jpd; rthy;fSf;Fj; jf;fthW Kfq;nfhLj;jNyhL Njrpa ghuk;gupajj;jpd; mjp rpwe;j mk;rq;fis
mq;fPfhpjj;Yk;> NgZjYk;.
3. kdpj chpikfSf;F kjpg;gspj;jy;> flikfs; fl;Lg;ghLfs; gw;wpa tpopg;Gzu;T> xUth; kPJ xUth; nfhz;Ls;s Mo;e;j
,ilawhj mf;fiwAzu;T vd;gtw;iw Nkg;gLj;Jk; r%f> ePjpAk; [dehaf tho;f;if Kiw epakq;fSk; cs;slq;fpa
Rw;whliy cUthf;FjYk; Mjupj;jYk;.
4. xUtuJ cs> cly; eyidAk; kdpj tpOkpq;fSf;F kjpg;gspg;gij mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l epiyNgWila tho;f;iff;
Nfhyj;ijAk; Nkk;gLj;jy;.
5. ed;F xd;wpizf;fgg;gl;l rkepiy MSikf;Fhpa Mf;f rpe;jid> jw;WzpG> Ma;e;J rpe;jpj;jy;> nghWg;G> tif$wy; kw;Wk;
cld;ghlhd mk;rq;fis tpUj;jp nra;jy;.
6. jdpeguJk; Njrj;jpdJk; tho;f;ifj; juj;ijg; Ngh\pf;ff; $baJk;> ,yq;ifapd; nghUshjhu mgptpUj;jpf;Fg; gq;fspf;f;$baJ
khd Mf;fg; gzpfSf;fhd fy;tpA+l;Ltjd; %yk; kdpjts mgptpUj;jpia Vw;gLj;jy;.
7. jdpegu;fspd; khw;wj;jpw;F Vw;g ,zq;fp thoTk; khw;wj;ij Kfhik nra;aTk;> jahh;gLj;jTk;> tpiuthf khwptUk;
cyfpy; rpf;fyhdJk; vjph;ghuhjJkhd epiyikfis rkhspf;Fk; jifikia tpUj;jp nra;jy;.
8. ePjp> rkj;Jtk;> gu];gu khpahij vd;gtw;iw mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L rh;tNjr rKjhaj;jpy; nfsutkhdNjhh; ,lj;ijg;
ngWtjw;Fg; gq;fspf;ff;$ba kdg;ghq;FfisAk;> jpwd;fisAk; tsh;j;jy;.
Njrpa fy;tp Mizf;F Otpd; mwpf;i f (2003)

fy;tpapDhlhf tpUj;jp nra;ag;gLk; gpd;tUk; mbg;gilj; Njh;r;rpfs; Nkw;Fwpj;j Njrpa ,yf;Ffis miltjw;F toptFf;Fk;.
1. njhlh;ghly; Njh;r;rpfs;
njhlh;ghly; gw;wpa Njh;r;rpfs; ehd;F Jizj; njhFjpfis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;lit: vOj;jwpT> vz;zwpT> rpj;jpumwpT>
jfty; njhopDl;gj; Nju;r;rpfs;.
vOj;jwpT : ftdkhfr; nrtpnkLj;jy; njspthfg; NgRjy; fUj;jwpa thrpj;jy; rupahfTk; nrk;ikahfTk; vOJjy;> gad;
jUtifahd fUj;Jg;gupkhw;wy;.
vz;zwpT : nghUs;> ,lk;> fhyk; vd;gtw;Wf;F vz;fisg; gad;gLj;jy;> vz;Zjy;> fzpj;jy;> xOq;FKiwahf msj;jy;.
rpj;jpumwpT : NfhL> cUtk; vd;gtw;wpd; fUj;ij mwpjy;> tpguq;fs;> mwpTWj;jy;fs;> vz;zq;fs; Mfpatw;iw NfhL cUtk;
tu;zk; vd;gtw;why; ntspg;gLj;jYk; gjpT nra;jYk;.
jfty; njhopDl;gj; Nju;r;rpfs;: fzdp mwpT> fw;wypy;> njhopypy;. Rw;whlypy; nrhe;j tho;tpy; jfty; njhlh;ghly; njhopDl;
gq;fisg; (ICT) gad;gLj;jy;.
2. MSik tpUj;jp njhlh;;ghd Njh;r;rpfs;
- Mf;fk;> tpupe;j rpe;jid> jw;WzpG> jPu;khdk; vLj;jy;> gpur;rpid tpLtpj;jy;> EZf;fkhd kw;Wk; gFg;gha;T rpe;jid>
mzpapduhf gzp nra;jy;> jdpahs; ,iltpidj; njhlh;Gfs; fz;L gpbj;jYk;> fz;lwpjYk; Kjyhd jpwikfs;.
- Neu;ik> rfpg;Gj;jd;ik> kdpj nfsutj;ijf; fz;zpag;gLj;jy; Mfpa tpOkpaq;fs;
- kdntOr;rpfs;> Ez;zwpT
3. #oy; njhlh;ghd Njh;r;rpfs;
,j;Njh;r;rpfs; #oNyhL njhlh;GWfpd;wd. r%fk; capupay; ngsjPfk;
r%fr; #oy; : Njrpa ghuk;gupak; gw;wpa tpopg;Gzh;T > gd;ikr; r%fj;jpd; mq;fj;jth;fs; vd;w tifapy; njhlu;GWk; Ez;Z
zu;Tj; jpwd;fSk; gfpu;e;jspf;fg;gLk; ePjp r%fj; njhlu;Gfs;> jdpegu; elj;ijfs;> nghJthdJk;
rl;lG+h;tkhdJkhd rk;gpujhaq;fs;> cupikfs;> nghWg;Gf;fs; flikfs; flg;ghLfs; vd;gtw;wpy; mf;fiwAk;.
capupay; #oy; : thOk; cyF> kf;fs;> capupay; #oy; njhFjp - kuq;fs;> fhLfs;> fly;> ePu;> tsp> capupdj; jhtuk;>
tpyq;;F> kdpj tho;T.
ngsjPfr; #oy; : ,lk> rf;jp> vupnghUs;> rlg;nghUs;> nghUs;fs; gw;wpAk; mit kdpj tho;f;if> czT> cil> ciwAs;>
Rfhjhuk; nrsfupak;> Rthrk;> epj;jpiu> ,isg;ghWjy;> Xa;T> fopTfs; capupd fopTg;nghUs;fs; Mfpatw;W
ld; nfhz;Ls;s njhlh;G gw;wpa tpopg;Gzu;Tk;> Ez;Zzu;Tj;jpwd;fSk; fw;wYf;Fk;> Ntiy nra;tjw;Fk;>
tho;tjw;Fk; fUtpfisAk;> njhopDl;gq;fisAk; gad;gLj;Jk; jpwd;fSk; ,q;F cs;slf;fg;glL;s;sd.
4. Ntiy cyfj;jpw;F jahh; nra;jy; njhlh;ghd Njh;r;rpfs;
- mtu;fsJ rf;jpia cr;r epiyf;Ff; nfhz;L tUtjw;Fk; mth;fsJ Mw;wiyg; Ngh\pg;gjw;Fk; Ntz;ba njhopy;rhh;
jpwd;fs ;
- nghUshjhu tpUj;jpf;Fg; gq;fspj;jy;.
- mtu;fsJ njhopy; tpUg;gq;fisAk; csr;rhh;GfisAk; fz;lwpjy;.
- mth;fsJ Mw;wy;fSf;Fg; nghUj;jkhd Ntiyiaj; njupT nra;jy;.
- gaddpf;ff; $baJk; epiwNgWilaJkhd [PtNdhghaj;jpy; <Lgly;.
5. rkaKk; xOfyhWk; njhlh;ghd Nju;r;rpfs;
md;whl tho;f;ifapy; kpfg; nghUj;jkhdtw;iwj; njupT nra;aTk;> ehshe;j tho;f;ifapy; xOf;fnewp> mwnewp> rkanewp
njhlh;ghd elj;ijfisg; nghUj;jKw Nkw;nfhs;sTk; tpOkpaq;fisj; jd;kakhf;fpf; nfhs;sYk; cs;thq;fYk;
6. Xa;T Neuj;ijg; gad;gLj;jy;> tpisahl;Lg; gw;wpa Nju;r;rpfs;
mofpaw; fiyfs;> ,yf;fpak;> tpisahl;L> nka;ty;Yeu; Nghl;bfs;> Xa;T Neug; nghOJNghf;Ffs; kw;Wk; tho;tpd;
Mf;fg;g+u;tkhd nraw;ghLfs; %yk; ntspg;gLj;jg;gLk; ,d;g Efu;r;rp> kfpo;r;rp> kdntOr;rpfs; ,itNghd;w kdpj mDgq;fs;
7. fw;wYf;Ff; fw;wy; njhlh;ghd Nju;r;rpfs;
tpiuthf khWfpd;w rpf;fyhd xUtupy; xUtu; jq;fp epw;fpd;w cynkhd;wpy; xUtu; RahjPdkhff; fw;gjw;fhd typikaspj;jYk;
khw;wpaikf;Fk; nrad;Kiw Clhf khw;wjjpw;Nfw;g ,aq;fTk; mjid Kfhik nra;aTk; Ntz;ba czu;itAk;
ntw;wpiaAk; ngwr; nra;jy;.
1.2 mbg;g ilj; Nju;r ; r pfs;
fPNo $wg;gl;Ls;s fy;tp %yk; Nju;r;rpfis tpUj;jp nra;jy; NkNy $wg;gl;Ls;s Njrpaf;Fwpf;Nfhs;fis miltjw;F cjTk;
i. njhlu;g hly; gw;w pa Nju;r ;r pfs;
,j;jifikfspd; Kjw;njhFjp ehd;F Jizj; njhFjpfshy; mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.

- vOj;jwpT> vz;zwpT> rpj;jputwpT kw;Wk; jftywpT> njhlu;ghly; jpwd;fs; (skills) vd;gd.
vOj;jwpT: ftdkhfr; nrtpkLj;jy;> njspthfg; NgRjy;> Gupe;J nfhs;Sk; tpjkhf thrpj;jy;> njspthfTk; jpUj;jkhfTk;
vOJjy; vd;gd
vz;zwpT: vz;fis vz;Zjy;> fzpj;jy;> FwpaPLfs; kw;Wk; nghUs;> ,lk;> fhyk; vd;gtw;iw msg;gjw;Fk; gad;gLj;jy;
rpj;jputwpT: NfhL> cUtk; vd;gtw;wpd; fUj;ij cUthf;Fjy; kw;Wk; Kf;fpa juTfs; mwpTWj;jy;fs;> vz;zq;fs;
Mfpatw;iw NfhL> cUtk;> tu;zk;> ,U kw;Wk; Kg;gupkhz mikg;Gfs;> tiuGf;FwpaPLfs; (graphic symbols)
cUtg;glk; (icons) vd;gtw;why; ntspg;gLj;jYk; gjpT nra;jYk;
jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;gj; Nju;r;rpfs;
fzzp njhlu;ghd mwpT> jfty; njhlu;ghly; jpwd;fis fw;wypy; my;yJ Ntiyapy; kw;Wk; gpuj;jpNaf tho;f;ifapy;
gad;gLj;Jk; Mw;wy;
ii. MSik tpUj;jp njhlu;ghd Nju;r;rpfs;
- nghJthd jpwd;fshd (General skills) Mf;fj; jpwd;> nt;NtW Kiwahd rpe;jid> (divergent thinking) Muk;gpj;jy; (initiative) >
; y;> ju;f;fk;> (critical) kw;Wk; gFg;gha;Tr; rpe;jid> FOepiy Ntiy> (team work) Ml;fSf;Fk;
KbT vLj;jy;> gpur;rid jPu;jj
(inter) jdpegupw;Fkhd njhlu;G> fz;Lgpbj;jYk; Muha;r;rp nra;jYk;
- kjpg;gPLfshd Neu;ik (integrity) > rfpg;Gj;jd;ik> kdpj nfsutj;ij kjpj;jy;
- eltbf;if (cognition) vLj;jy;
iii. #oy; njhlu;ghd Nju;r;rpfs;

,j;jifikfspd; ,uz;lhk; njhFjp r%fk;> capupay;> kw;Wk; ngsjpfr; #oYld; njhlu;Gilad.
i. r%fr; # oy; : r%f mq;fj;jtu;fs; gw;wpa tpopg;Gzu;T> Ez;Zu;T> jpwd;fs; vd;gd kw;Wk; r%f njhlu;Gfs;> jdpegu; elj;ij>
nghJthdJk; rl;lg+u;tkhdJkhd rk;gpujhaq;fs;> cupikfs;> nghWg;Gfs;> flikfs;> flik czu;r;rpfs;.
ii capupaw;#oy;: thOk; cyF> kdpjd;> capupaw; njhFjp vd;gd gw;wpa tpopg;Gzu;T> Ez;Zzu;T> jpwd;fs; kw;Wk; kuq;fs;>
fhLfs; fly;> ePu;> tsp> capupdk; - jhtuk;> tpyq;F kw;Wk; kdpj capu; vd;gd.
iii ngsjpfr;#oy;: ,lk;> rf;jp> vupnghUs;> rlg;nghUs; nghUl;fs; vd;gd gw;wpa tpopg;Gzu;T> Ez;Zzu;T> jpwd;fs; kw;Wk; mit
mit kdpj tho;f;if czT> cil> tjptplk;> Rfhjhuk;> trjp> Rthrk;> epj;jpiu> ,isg;ghWjy;> Xa;T> fopT>
kyryk;> njhlu;ghlYk; Nghf;Ftuj;Jf;Fkhd rhjdk; / fUtp vd;gdtw;Wldhd njhlu;Gfs;.
iv cyfNtiyia jahupj;jy; njhlu;g hd Nju;r ;r pfs;

Ntiytha;g;G njhlu;ghd jpwd;fis mtu;fspd; jpwikfSf;F Vw;g mjpfg;gLj;jy; kw;Wk; nghUshjhu tsu;r;rpf;F
Vw;g mjpfg;gLj;jy; kw;Wk; nghUshjhu tsu;r;rpf;F gq;fspg;gjw;F mtu;fspd; Mw;wiy mjpfupj;jy;> mtu;fspd;
njhopy; rk;ge;jkhd eyd;fisAk; kdg;ghq;fpidAk; fz;lwpjy;> mtu;fspd; Mw;wYf;F Vw;gTk;> kw;Wk; ntFkjpahd
khWk; epiyahd tho;thjhuj;jpy; <Lglf;$baJkhd Ntiyiaj; Nju;e;njLj;jy;
v xOf;fhw;W> rkak; vd;gd njhlu;ghd Nju;r ;r pfs;

• Rw;Wr;#oy; tsq;fis Gj;jprhypj;jdkhf mtw;wpd rhj;jpaj; jd;ikia tpsq;fpf; nfhs;tjd;%yk; epu;tfpg;gJ
njhlu;ghd jpwikfis cUthf;Fjy;
• cs> cly; uPjpahd MNuhf;fpa tho;it Kd;ndLg;gjw;F tpQ;Qhd mwptpd; gad;ghL njhlu;ghd jpwikfis
/ cUthf;Fjy;
• Njrj;jpd; mgptpUj;jpapd; xj;Jiog;Gf;F gq;fspg;Gr; nra;Ak; ntw;wpAld; $ba jdpegu; cUthFtjw;F>
NkYk; fy;tpapy; <Lgl kw;Wk; vjpu;fhyj;jpy; rthyhd Ntiytha;gG ; fis vjpu;nfhs;sy; njhlu;ghd jpwikfis
cUthf;Fjy;
• ,aw;if epfo;Tfs; kw;Wk; mfpyj;jpw;Fupa tpQQ ; hd mbg;gilia Gupjy; njhlu;ghd jpwikfis cUthf;Fjy;
• Mw;wy; kw;Wk; rf;jpiag; gad;gLj;Jtjw;F cfe;j mstpy; jpwd; kw;Wk; nray; jpwidg; guhkupg;gjw;F
Neu;j;jpahd njhopy;El;gj;ij gad;gLj;jy;.
2.0 Nehf;fq;fs; (Aims)
ghlKbtpy; khztuhy;
1. ,urhadtpaypd; mbg;gil vz;zf;fUf;fis tpsq;fpf; nfhs;sTk; ghlj;jpy; cs;s xd;Wgl;l myFfisAk;> xOq;fikg;igAk;
czuTk; ,aYk;
2. ,urhadj; Njhw;wg;ghLfSf;fhf ,urhadj;jpYs;s vz;zf;fUf;fisAk; mwpitAk; fw;gid uPjpahfTk; ju;f;fkhfTk; gpuNahfpj;J

rpe;jpj;J gpuNahfpg;gij tpUj;jp nra;a ,aYk;.
3. r%fj;jpw;F ,urhadtpaypd; Njitia ,dk; fhzYk; kw;Wk; njhopy;El;g> r%f> nghUshjhu mgptpUj;jpapy; tpQ;Qhdj;ij
gpuNahfpg;gjw;Fj; Njitahd tpsf;fj;ijg; ngw;Wf; nfhs;s ,aYk;.
4. ,aw;if tsq;fis tpsq;fpf; nfhs;tjpYk; mtw;iwg; ghJfhg;gjpYk; gad;gLj;JtjpYk; cs;s gpur;ridfis tpsq;fpf;nfhs;siy
tpUj;jp nra;a ,aYk;
jiyg;Gfspd; gl;baYk; ghlNtisfspd; xJf;fPLk;. (List if topics and allocated number of periods)
myF jiyg;G ghlNtisfs;
myF 01 mZf;fl;likg;G 33
myF 02 fl;likg;Gk; gpizg;Gk; 35
myF 03 ,urhadf; fzpj;jy;fs; 37
myF 04 rlg;nghUspd; thA epiy 32
myF 05 rf;jpapay; 37
myF 06 s, p,d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; ,urhadk; 65
myF 07 Nrjd ,urhadj;jpd; mbg;gil vz;zf;fUf;fs; 18
myF 08 IjNuhfhgd;fSk; myrNdw;wg;gl;l IjNuhfhgd;fSk; 46
myF 09 xl;rpridf; nfhz;Ls;s Nrjdr; Nru;itfs; 45
myF 10 iejuridf; nfhz;Ls;s Nrjdr; Nru;itfs; 13
myF 11 ,urhad ,af;ftpay; 44
myF 12 rkepiy 88
myF 13 kpdpdpurhadk; 40
myF 14 ifj;njhopy; ,urhadKk; #oy; khrhf;fKk; 67
nkhj;jk; 600
jtizfspy; fw;g;gpf;f vjpu;ghu;f;fg;gLk; Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fs;
juk; juk; Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fs;
Kjyhk; jtiz 1.1 ,Ue;J 3.3 tiu ( 11 Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fs;)
juk;-12 ,uz;lhk; jtiz 4.1 ,Ue;J 6.6 tiu ( 15 Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fs;)
%d;whk; jtiz 7.1 ,Ue;J 10.3 tiu ( 20 Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fs;)
Kjyhk; jtiz 11.1 ,Ue;J 12.2 tiu ( 7 Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fs;)
juk;-13 ,uz;lhk; jtiz 12.3 ,Ue;J 13.4 tiu ( 8 Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fs;)
%d;whk; jtiz 14.1 ,Ue;J 14.8 tiu ( 8 Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fs;)

juq;fs; 12> 13 ghlj;jpl;lk; - ,urhadtpay;
myF 01: mZf; fl;likg;G
Nju;r;rp Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fs; ghl cs;slf;fk; fw;ww; NgWfs; ghlNtisfs;
1.0 1.1 mZf; • fNjhl;L fjpu;fspd; khztu;fshy; ntspgg ; Lj;jg;gl Ntz;bad 06
rlg;nghUspd; fl;likg;G khjpup ,ay;Gfs; • fNjhl; L fjp u f
; sp d ; nra;J fhl;lypd; gpd;
jd; i kiaj; cUf;fis • m Z > m Z t pd ; c g mtjhdq; f is vOJthu;
jP u ; k hdpf; f kP sha; t hu; Jzpf; i ffs; mwpKfg; • f N j h l ; L f ; f j p u ; f s p d ; ,ay;Gfis
fye;JiuahLthu;
,y j; j pud ; gLj;jy;
• mZ> mZtpd; cgJzpf;iffis
fspd; xOq; • ,ujNghl;L mZ
tpgupg;ghu;.
fikg; G > khjpupAU • ,ujNghl;L mZkhjpupAUf;fis
rf; j pg; • mZvz;> jpzpntz; nghw;jfl;Lg; gupNrhjid KbTfspd;
gupkhw; w k; • rkjhdpfs; cjtpAld; tpgupgg ; hu;
vd; g • epa+f;fpisl;L • mZntz;> jpzpntz; vd;gtw;iw $Wthu;.
tw; i wg; • rhu;gZj;jpzpT (epa+ff; pspNahd; vz;)
gad; • fNjhl;L fjpuf; spd; • rkjhdp fis tiuaWg;gjw;F mZf;fUtpy;
gLj; J thu; ,ay;Gfisr; GNuhjpud; > epa+j; j pud; f spd; gq; f spg; i g
nra;Jfhl;ly; tpsf;Fthu;.
• epa+ff
; pisl;Lfis $Wthu;
• xU mZtpd; njhlu;g Zj; jpziitg;
gad;gLj;jp vspa fzpg;Gfis
Nkw;nfhs;thu;
• ,aw;ifia tpsq;Ftjw;F tpQQ ; hdpfspd;
Kaw;rpia ghuhl;Lthu;.
• ,yj; j pud; f spd; miy-
1.2 kpd;fhe;j • rlj;jpd; miy-Jzpf;if vDk; Jtpj
Jzpf;if ,ay;G
,ay; i g b GNuhypapd ; rkd; g hl; b d;
fjpu;;g;Gfspd; • kpd;fhe;j fjpu;g;Gfs;
ntt; N tW [fjp (C) >miy ePsk; ( ) > h
tiffis kPbwd;()> rf;jp (E) ] cjtpAld; tpgupg;ghu; λ 
mv
Muha;thu; • C =  h 04
• miyfspd; ,ay;Gfis tpgupf;Fk; ngsjPf
• E = h > λ 
mv fzpaq;fisg; ngaupLthu;> mtw;wpw;fpilap
yhd njhlu;igr; nrhy;thu;.
• kpd;fhe;j jpUrpak;
• kpd;fhe;j fjpu;tPry; vd;why; vd;d vd
tpgupg;ghu;.
1
h
• C =  > E = h λ . E =mc 2
mv
vd;gtw;iw cgNahfpj;J vspa
fzpg;Gfisr; nra;thu;.
• kpd;fhe;j jpUrpaj;jpy; ntt;NtW tPrR
; fis
ngaupLthu;
1.3 mZf;fspd; • %yfq;fspd; njhlu; • madhf;f rf;jpia kPs epidt+l;ly;
,yj;jpud; rf;jp madhf; f w; rf; j pfspd; • njhlu; madhf;f rf;jpfis tpgupg;ghu;
kl;lq;fSf;fhd khwy;fs; • %yfq;fspd; njhlu; madhf;fw; rf;jpfspd;
rhd;Wfisf; • Nghupd; nfhs;ifiaAk; tiuGfis cgNahfpj;J mZf;fspYs;s
$Wthu; Nghupd; khjpupAUitAk; ,yj;jpud;fs; gpujhd rf;jp kl;lq;fspYk;
mwpKfg;g Lj;jy;. cgrf;jp kl;lq;fspYk; fhzg;gLtjw;fhd
• Ijurd; mZ epwkhiy rhd;Wfis Kd;itg;ghu;.
• Nghupd; nfhs;ifia • Nghupd; mZ khjpupAUit tpgupg;ghu;.
cgNahfpj;J Ijurd; • Nghupd; khjpupAUit cgNahfpj;J Ijurd; 09
mZ epwkhiyia mZ epwkhiyapYs;s Nfhl;Lj; njhlu;fis
tpsf;Fjy;.
gz;gwp uPjpahf tpsf;Fthu;.
• rf;jpr; nrhl;lhf;fk;
• xU mZtpdhy; rf;jpahdJ Nghl;Nlhd;fs; /
• rf;jp kl;lq;fspy;
rf ; j pr; n rhl; n lz; f s hf n ts ptP r y ; /
,yj;jpud; fhzg;gly;.
cwpQ;Rjiyf; $Wthu;
• mZ Xgpw;wy;fs; s, p, d,
• ehd;F rf;jpr; nrhl;nlz;fisAk; tpgupg;ghu;
f I mwpKfk; nra;jy;.
• ehd;Frf;jpr; nrhl;nlz;fs; • rf;jp kl;lq;fspy; ,yj;jpud;fs; fhzg;gLt
gw;wpa RUf;fkhd ijr; rf;jpr; nrhl;nlz;fis cgNahfpj;J
mwpKfk; ehd;fhk; rf;jp epiytiu tpsf;Fthu;.
• Kjd;ikr; rf;jpr; nrhl; • xU Fwpj;j mZtpYs;s xU
nlz; (n) ,yj;jpudpd;milahsj;ijg; nghUj;jkhd
• jpirtpw; rf;jpr; njhFjpr; rf; j pr; nrhl; n lz; f spdhy;
nrhl;nlz; tpgupf;fg;gLtijf; $Wthu;.;
2
• ,yj;j pud;f is • ehd;F rf;jpr; nrhl;nlz;fshy; jug;gLk;
epuk;Gjy; • fhe;jr; jfty;fisf; $Wthu;.
rf;jpr; nrhl;nlz; • s, p Xgpw;wy;fspd; tbtq;fis Fwpj;Jf;
(ml ) fhl;Lthu;.
• fwq;fy; rf;jpr;
nrhl;nlz; (ms )
• Xgpw;wy;fspd; tbtq;fs;
(s, p kl;Lk;)
1.4 jdpahf;fg;gl;l • cgrf;jp kl;lq;fspYs;s
(thA epiy) • cgrf;jp kl;lq;fspy; fhzg;gLk; Mff;$ba
mjp$ba ,yj;jpud;fspd; ,yj;jpud;fspd; vz;zpf;ifiaf; $Wthu;
mZf;fspdJk; vz; zpf; if.
mad;fspdJk; • ,yj;jpud;fis epuk;Gjy; njhlu;ghd tpjp
• ,yj;jpud;fis epuk;Gjy; fisAk; Nfhl;ghLfisAk; $Wthu;.
jiuepiy njhlu;ghd tpjpfs;> Nfhl;
,yj;jpud; epiy • 1-54 tiuahd mZ vz;fisf; nfhz;l
ghLfs; %yfq;fspd; jdpahf;fg;gl;l thA epiy
aikg;igf; • Fz;bd; tpjp (Hund’s
$Wthu; mZf;fspdJk; mad;fspdJk; ,yj;jpud;
Rule) epiy mikg;Gfis epak epiyf;F Vw;g
• ngsypapd; jtpu;f;iff; vOJthu;.
Nfhl;ghL 06
• mghT (Aufbau) jj;Jtj;ij cgNahfpj;J
• fl;bnaOg;gy; Nfhl;ghL Vw;Wf; nfhs;sg;gl;l ,yj;jpudikg;gpypUe;J
(Aufbau Principe) kw;Wk; 4d njhlu; %yfq;fspy; Pd ,d; tpyfiyf;
cau; mZntz; $Wthu;
nfhz;l %yfq;fspy; • cWjpahd ,yj;jpud; epiyaikg;Gf;fs;
,jd; tpyfy;fs;. ,Ug;gjw;fhd cjhuzq;fisj; jUthu;.
• 1-54 tiuahd mZ vz;
fisf; nfhz;l %yfq;
fspd; jdpahf; f g; g l; l
thA epiy mZf;fspdJk;
mad;fspdJk; jiuepiy
,yj;jpud; epiy
mikg;Gf;fs;.
3
• cgrf;jp kl;lq;fspd; rhu;
gstpyhd c Wjpahd
,yj;jpud; epiy mikg;G
fs;.(s2, p3, p6, d5, d10 kl;Lk;)
• Mtu; j ; j d ml; l tiz • ,yj;jpud; epiy mikg;gpd; mbg;gilapy;
1.5 %yfq; fspd;
iaf; fl;bnaOg;Gjy;. Mtu;jj ; d ml;ltiziaf; fl;bnaOg;Gtu;.
,yj;jpud; epiy
• eP z; l Mtu; j; jd ml; l • %yfq;fis filrp ,yj;jpud; epuk;Gk;
aikg;ig gFj; tizapd; mwpKfk;. Xgpww ; y; njhlu;ghf s, p, d njhFg;Gf;fshfg; 08
jha;tjd; %yk; • s, p, d, f njhFg;Gfs; ghFgLj;Jthu;.
Mtu;jj; d ml;l • $l;lq;fs; 1 njhlf;fk; • 1Kjy; 1 8 tiuahd $l; l %yfq; f is
tizapy; mtw; 18 tiuapyhd %yfq;fs;. mtw;wpd; tYtsT Xl;L ,yj;j pud; fs;
wpd; miktplj;ij • s, p njhFg;G %yfq;fs; njhlu;ghf ,dk; fhz;ghu;.
cWjpg;gLj;jy;> Mtu;j;jdk; FWf;NfAk; • jpiuaply; tpisT> gad;gL; fUNtw;wk;
mZ ,ay;Gfis $l;lj;jpd; fPo;Nehf;fpAk; Mfpatw;iw tpsf;Fthu;.
,yj;jpud; epiy fhl;Lk; Nghf;Ffs;. • xU %yfj;jpd; mZthiufis gq;fPl;L
aikg;Gld; • jpiuaPl;LtpisT> Miufs;> te;ju;thYR Miufs; kw;Wk;
gad;gL fUNtw;wk; cNyhf Miufs; vd tpgupgg ; hu;
njhlu;GgLj;Jthu;
(gz;gwp uPjpapyhd fw; w ad; > mdad; Miufis mtw; w pd;
mZthiuAld; xg;gpLthu;
tpsf;fk; khj;jpuk;)
• s, p njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; gq;fl P L ; Miufis
• mZ Miu
Mtu; j ; j dj; j pd; FWf; N fAk; $l; l j; j pd;
• gq;fPl;LtY Miu fPoN; ehf;fpAk; fhl;Lk; khw;wq;fis tiugpd;
• te;ju;thYR Miu cjtpAld; tpsf;Fthu;.
• cNyhf Miu • %yfq;fspd; ,yj;jpud; epiyaikg;igf;
• madhf;fw; rf;jp / fUj; j pw; n fhz; L > mtw; w pd; Kjyhk;
njhlu; madhf;fw; rf;jp madhf; f w; rf; j pfspd; FWf; F kWf; F
• ,yj;jpud; Vw;wy; rf;jp khwy;fis tpsf;Fthu;.
(mstwpuPjpahf kl;Lk;) • ,yj;jpud; Vw;Fk; rf;jpia $Wthu;
• kpd;ndjpu;j; jd;ik • Mtu; j; j dj;j pd; FWf;N fAk; $l; l j; j pd;
(Pauling - msTj;jpl;lk fP N oAk; ,yj; j puNdu; rf; j pkhwy; f is
kl;Lk;;) tpgupgg ; hu;
• fw;wad;fis> mdad; • ngsypapd; myFfspy; %yfj; j pd;
fis cUthf;fy;. kpdn ; djpu;jj; d;ikia tpgupgg ; hu;
4
myF 02: gpizg;Gk; fl;likg;Gk;
• ,urhadg; gpizg; G fs;
2.0 2.1 r l g ; n g h U s p d ; khztu;fshy; ntspgg ; Lj;jg;gl Ntz;bad
cUthjy;-Kjd;ik ,il
rlg;nghUspd; fl; l ikg; i gAk; • ,urhadg;gpizg;Gfs; kPJ NkNyhl;lkhd
<u;g;G tpirfs;
,ay;GfSld; ,ay;GfisAk; g h u ; i t A l d ; (Over views) t Y t s T
• gq;fPl;LtYg; gpizg;G
gpizg;igAk; jP u; khdpg;g jw;f hf ,yj; j pud; f spd; gq; f spg; i g tpsq; f pf;
• xw;iwg; gpizg;GfSk;
fl; l ikg; i g gy;mZj;njhFjp nfhs;thu;.
gd;ikg; gpizg;GfSk;
Ak; njhlu; G fspd; Kjd; i k • ,y j; j pud ; f i sg; gq ; f pLtjd ; %y k; 12
• %yf;$WfspdJk; mad;
gLj; J thu; ahd ,il<u; g ; G gq; f P l ; L tYg; gpizg; G fs; cUthjiy
fspdJk; fl;likg;Gfs;
fisg; gFj;jha; tpsf;F thu;.
• Y}apapd; fl;likg;Gfs;
thu;. • xw;iwg; gpizg;GfisAk;> gd;ik gpizg;G
(Gs;sp-Gs;sb> Gs;sp-Gs;sp
fisAk; ,dk; fhz;ghu;.
kw;Wk; Gs;sp-Nfhl;L
• mZ xgpw;wy;fspd; Nkw;nghUe;Jifahy;
fl;likg;Gfs;)
gq;fPl;LtYg; gpizg;Gfs; cUthtjidf;
• Y}apapd; fl;li
; kg;Gfis
$Wthu;.
tiutjw;fhd epajpfs;
• Y}apapd; fl; l ikg; i g tiutjYld;
• kpd;ndjpu;j;jd;ik tpj;jp
njlu;Gila tpjpfisf; tpsf;Fthu;.
ahrj;ijf; nfhz;L gpizg;G
• gq;fPl;L %yf;$WfspdJk;> gd;mZ mad;
j;jd;ikia xg;gply;;.
f s pdJ k ; Y}apa pd ; fl; l i k g; G f i s
(ngsypq;;fpd; kpd; n djpu; j ;
tiuthu;.
jd;ik kl;Lk;)
• gpizg;gpy; <Lgl;Ls;s mZf;fspd; kpd;
• xU gpizg;gpd; KidTj;
ndjpu;jd;ik NtWghl;il cgNahfpj;J
jd;ikAk;> ,U KidTj;
gpizg; G fis Kidtw; w gq; f P l ; LtYg;
jpUg;Gj;jpwDk;;
gpizg; G fs; > KidTg; gq; f P l ; L tYg;
• Kidtw;w gq;fPl;LtYg;
gpizg;Gfs;> mad; gpizg;Gfis
gpizg;G(c-k;: H2, Cl2, O2, N2)
xg;gpLthu;.
• KidTg; gq;fPl;LtYg;
• KidTg; gq;fl P L
; g; gpizg;gpwF ; nghUj;jkhd
gpizg;G (c-k;: HCl, H2O,
cjhuzq;fis cgNahfpjJ ; Kidthf;fk;>
NH3)
,UKidTj; jpUg;Gjpwd; Mfpa gjq;fis
• %yf;$Wfspd;
tpgupg;ghu;.
,UKidTj;j pUg;G j;
• <jw; gq;fPl;LtYg; gpizg;G cUthFjiy
jpwd;
tpsf;F thu;.
5
• ,izj;jy; (<jw; gq;fPl;L • mad; gpizg;Gfs; cUthjiy tpgupg;ghu;.
tY) gpizg; G (c-k; : • NaCl I cgNahfpj;J mad; rhyfj;jpd;
H3O+, NH4+, NH3BF3) fl;likg;igAk; ngsjpf ,ay;GfisAk;
• mad; gpizg;G tpsf;F thu;.
• mad;; rhyfk; • fw;wad;fspd; Kidthf;Fk; tY>
• mad; gpizg;Gfspd; md;dad;fspd; KidthFjd;ik
gq;fPl;LtYj; jd;ik mbg;gilapy; mad; gpizg;Gfspd;
• fw;wad;fspd; Kidthf; gq;fPl;L tYj;jd;ikia tpsf;Fthu;.
Fk; tY • Nru;itfspd; mad; jd;ik > gq;fPl;Lj;
• mdad;fspd; Kid jd;ikfis xg;gpLthu;
thFjd;ik • c N y hf g; gp i z g; g pd ; f l ; li k g ; i g
• cNyhfg; gpizg;G tptupg;ghu;.
• gq;fPL> mad;> cNyhfg; gpizg;Gfis
Kjd; i kahd ,il <u; g ; G fshf ,dk;
fhz;ghu;.
2.2 g q ; f P l ; L t Y > • gupT vz;zf;fU
KidTg; gq;fPl;L • v s p a % y f ; $ W f s ; > • cr; ; r vz; z pf; i f gj; J mZf; f is
mad; f s; vd; g tw; w pd; cilatw; w pw; F gupTf; fl; l ikg; i g
tY %yf;$Wfsp tiutjw; f hd tpjpfis cgNahfpj; J >
dJk; vspa mad; gupT f l ; l i k g ; G f s ;
gupT fl;likg;ig tiuthu;.
$l; l q; f spdJk; cY}apapd; Gs;sp - NfhL • XNrhd; %yf;$W> fhgNdw;W mad; xt;
tbtq;fisg; (dot-dash) cgNahfpj;jy; nthd; wpYk; gpizg;G eP sq;fs; rkkhf
gFj;jha;thu; ,Ug;gjw;fhd fhuzj;ijg; gupit 16
• kj;j pa(ika) mZtpd; cgNahfpj;J tpsf;Fthu;.
fyg; ghf;fk; (sp, sp2, sp3 • m Z Xgpw; w y ; f spd; f yg; g hf; f j; i j
khj;jpuk;> Nrhbahf; fhj tpsf; Fthu;
,yj;jpud;fis cila • nghUj;jkhdcjhuzq;fis cgNahfpj;J
Nru; i tfs; jtpu) (2k; i k a m Z t p y ; v t ; t h W sp, sp 2 , sp 3
Mtu;jj ; dk; kl;Lk;) fyg;ghf;fq;fs; epfo;fpd;wd vd tpgupg;ghu;.
• s-s, s-p kw;Wk; p-p Xgpw;wy;fspd; Neu;Nfhl;L>
n g hUe ; J i f % y k ;  g pi zg; G f s ;
cUthjiy tpsf;Fthu;.
6
• ,UpXgpw;wy;fspy; gf;fNkw; nghUe;Jif
me;jj;jpYs;s mZf;fspd;
apdhy;  cUthjiy tpsf;Fthu;.
(Terminal atoms) fyg; G •  kw;Wk;  gpizg;Gfspd; cWjpapid
Njitaw;wJ. xg;gpLthu;.
• %yf;$Wfs; /mad;fspy; • fyg;G xgpw;wy;fspd; Nkw;nghUe;Jifahy;
 ,  gpizg;Gfspd; -gpizg;G cUthjiy tpsf;Fthu;.
jd; i k • tYtsT Xl;L ,yj;jpud; Nrhb js;Siff;
• tYtsT xl;L ,yj;jpud; nfhs;ifia cgNahfpj;Jg; gq;fPl;L %yf;
Nrhbfspd; js;Siff; $Wfs;> mad;fs; vd;gdtw;wpy; ika mZ
nfhs;if (VSEPR) itr; #o ,yj;jpud; Nrhbfspd; xOq;fhf;fk;
• VSEPR nfhs;ifiag; (,yj; jpud; Nfj; jpufzpj tbtk;) mjd;
%yk; %yf;$Wfs;> mad;fspd;
gad;gLj;jp %yf;$W
tbtq;fis (%yf;$w;W Nfj;jpufzpjk;)
fspdJk; mad;fspdJk;
vjpu;T $Wthu;. 16
tbtq;fis vjpu;T$wy;.
• ntt;NtW tif %yf;$Wfspy; gpizg;Gf;
(kj;jpa mZitr; #o
Nfhzq; f is xg; g pLthu; . (gpizg; G f;
Mff;$baJ 6 Nrhb
Nfhzq;fspd; rupahd ngWkhdq;fs; guPl;
,yj;jpud;fisf; nfhz;l
rpf;fg;glkhl;lhJ.)
%yf;$WfSk; mad;
• tbtq;fisj; njspthf;f %yf;$Wfspd;
fSk; kl;Lk;)
khjpupAUf;fisf; fl;bnaOg;Gthu;.
• Nfj;jpufzpj tbtq;fs;
• Neu;NfhL
• kpd;ndjpu;j;jd;ikapy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fis
• js Kf;Nfhzk; mtw;wpd; Vw;wk;> fyg;ghf;fk;> xl;rpNaw;w
• ehd;Kfp vz; vd;Dk; mbg;gilapy; tpgupg;g hu;.
• Kf;Nfhz $k;gfk; (gz;gwpuPjpahf kl;Lk;)
• Nfhz tbtk;
• Kf;Nfhz ,U$k;gfk;
• rPNrh tbtk; - epWj;jhL
tis (rpije;j
ehd;Kfp) ( See-saw
shape))
• T tbtk;
7
• vz;K fp
• rJuf; $k;gfk;
• rJuj; jsk;
• #o;epiyAld; mtw;wpd;
kpd;n djpu; j;j d; ik
khw;wkilAk; (Vw;wk;>
fyg;ghf;fk;>xl;rpNaw;w
vz; khj;jpuk;)
• khjpupfis cgNah
fpj;J tbtq;fisf;
fhl;rpg;gLj;Jjy;
• Jizapil <u;g;Gfs;; • nghUj;jkhd cjhuzq;fis cgNahfpj;J

2.3 rlg;nghUl;fspd; (te;ju;-thy;]; tpirfs;) Jiz ,il <u;g;G tiffis tptupg;ghu;.
fl;likg;igAk; • ,UKidT- ,UKidT • xU gjhu;j;jj;jpy; cs;s Jiz ,il <u;g;G
,ay;GfisAk; ,il <u;g;Gfs; tiffSf;Fk; mjd; ngsjPf ,ay;GfSf;F
jPu;khdpg;gjw;fhf • mad; - ,UKidT ,il kpilNaAs;s njhlu;ig Kd;dpiyg;gLj;jp
ntt; N tW <u;g;Gfs; ntspg;gLj;Jthu;.
njhFjpfspy; • Ijurd; gpizg;G • $l;lk; 15> 16> 17> ,d; %yfq; f spd;
,Uf;Fk; Jiz • mad; - J}z;ba ,U Ijiul; L fspd; cUFepiyapy; Ijurd;
,il <u;g;Gfisg; KidT ,il <u;g;Gfs; gpizg;gpd; tpisit tpsf;Fthu;
gFj;jha;thu; • ,UKid - J}z;ba ,U • Jiz ,il <u;g;Gfspd; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ijAk;
KidT ,il <u;g;Gfs; epiyfs; kPjhd mtw;wpd; tpisitAk;
• fiyT ,il <u; g ; G fs; ,dk; fhz;ghu;.
(yz;ld; tpirfs;) • %yf;$w;W rhyfk; cUthtjid jug;gl;l
(Nkw;$wpa ahTk; gz;gwp cjhuzq;fis gad;gLj;jp tpsf;Ftu;.
uPjpapy; kl;Lk; fUjg;gLk;)
• rhyf fl;likg;Gfspy; ngsjpf ,ay;Gfis
• Jiz,il <u;g;Gfsp
ypUe;J vspa %yf;$w;W vjpu;T $Wthu;.
rhyfk; cUthjy;
(I2, H2O)
8
myF 03: ,urhadf; fzpj;jy;fs;
• xl;rpNaw;w vz; gw;wpa • jug;gl;l xU ,dj;jpYs;s $W mZf;fspd;
3.0 ,urhad f; 3.1 mZf;fSlDk; vz;zf;fU. xl;rpNaw;w vz;fisf; fhz;ghu;.
f zpj; j y ; %yf;$WfSlDk; • ,urhadr; #j; j puq; f s; > • ,urha d r; #j; j puq ; f i s vOJ thu; >
fisj; njhlu;Gila vspa Nru;itfspd; m t w ; i w IUPAC t p j p f S f ; f i k a
j p Uj ; j ngsjPff; IUPAC; ngauPL. ngaupLthu;.
khfr; nra; fzpaq;fisg; • vspa Nru;itfspd; nghJ • mbf; f b cgNahfpf; f g; g Lk; ,urhadr;
thu; . gad;gLj;jp thd ngau;fs; Nru; i tfspd; nghJthd ngau; f isf;
,urhadr; • %y; f s; > %yu; j ; j pzpT $Wthu;.
#j;jpuq;fisj; mtfhjNuh khwpyp • mtfhjNuh khwpypapd; ngWkhdj;ij (L)
mbg;gilapy; vspa fzpj; 13
jPu;khdpg;ghu; myFfSld; $Wthu;.
jy;fs;
kw;Wk; • mtfhjNuh khwpyp kw;Wk; %y; njhlu;ghd
• mDgt#j;jpuk;> %yf;$w;
juTfisg;; fzpj;jy;fis Nkw;nfhs;thu;.
Wr; #j;jpuk;
gad;gLj;jp • mikg;Gf;fspd; gukhdq; • E}w;WtPj mikg;igg; gad;gLj;jp mDgt
njhlu;ghd fs; (parameters) #j;jpuj;ij jPu;khdpg;ghu;>
fzpj;jy;f is • jpzpTg;gpd;dk; • mDgt #j; j puk; > %yf; $ w; W j; j pzpT
Nkw;nfhs;Sthu; epiw E}w;WtPjk;(W/W%) Mfpatw; i w cgNahfpj; J %yf; $ w; W r;
kpy;ypadpd; gFjpfs; #j;jpuj;ij jPu;khdpg;ghu;.
(Parts Per Million, mg Kg-1) • jug;gl;l %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuj;ij
gpy;ypadpd; gFjpfs; cgNahfpj; J #yfq; f spd; mikg; i gj;
( Parts Per Billion, g Kg-1) jPu;khdpg;ghu;
• fdtsTg; gpd;dk; • mikg; G fspd; gukhdq; f is kP s ; N ehf;
fdtsT E}w;WtPjk;(V/V%) Fthu;. (jpzpTg;gpd;dk;> fdtsTg;gpd;dk;>
kpy;ypadpd; gFjpfs; %y;gpd;dk;> nrwpT)
(thAf;fs;) Parts Per Million
• jpzpTg;gpd;dk;> fdtsTg; gpd;dk;> %y;
(for gases), L L-1
gp;d;dk; njhlu;ghd gpurpdq;fisj; jPu;g;gu;.
• %y; gpd;dk;
• epiw / fdtsT • nrwpit XuyF fdtstpYs;s fiuaj;jpd;
Ijhd ePu;f;fiury; %y;vz;zpf;ifahf tiuaWg;ghu;.
fSf;F ppm I mg dm-3 • ppm kw;Wk; ppb Ig; gad;gLj;jp Rtlhf
Mff; fUJjy;. (trace) m w p a g ; g L k ; g j h u ; j ; j q ; f s p d ;
mikg;ig ntspg;gLj;Jthu;
9
• Ijhd ePu;f;fiury; • %y; / fdtsT> njhif / fdtsT
fSf;F ppb I g dm-3 njhlu;ghf $Wfpd;w mikg;igr; (nrwpthf)
Mff; fUJjy;. tiutpyf;fzk; nra;thu;.
• nrwpT (%yu;j;jpwd;)
%y; / fdtsT • jpzpT / fdtsT> gjhu; j ; j msT /
( mol dm-3 ,mmol m-3 , fdtsT (nrwpT) njhlu;ghd
mol m-3. gpuridfisj; jPu;g;ghu;.
• fz; z hb cgfuz • Ma;Tr;rhiyapy; Fohap> mstp> Kfit>
-q; f s; > ehw; N fhy; j uh msTr;rhbNghd;w fz;zhb cgfuzq;fis
-Rfisf; ifahSjy;. f;ifahSthu;.
3.2 rkg;gLj;jpa ,u • ,urhadr; rkd;ghLfisr; • jpzpTf;fhg;G> Vw;wf;fhg;G vd;gtw;iwf;
rkg;gLj;jy;. fUj;jpw; nfhz;L ,urhadr; rkd;ghLfs;
rhadr; rkd;ghL
• fz;lwpjy; Kiw rkg; gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sjh vd guPl;rpg;ghu;.
fs; njhlu;ghd 10
• jho;jN ; jw;w Kiw (redox) • fz;lwpjy; Kiw> jho;j;Njw;W Kiwfis
fzpj;jy;f is
• xl;rpNaw;w vz;fis cgNahfpj;J rkd;ghLfis rkg;gLj;Jthu;.
Nkw;nfhs;thu;
cgNahfpj;j y; • vspa fUj;jhf;fq;fisr; rkg;gLj;Jthu;.
• miu mad; rkd;ghL
fis cgNahfpj;jy;
• vspa fUj; j hf; fq; f is
rkg;gLj;jy;
• ntt; NtWtif • ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fspy; msTfisf;
3.3 gPrkhdk;> epakpg;G ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fs; gPrkhdj;ij gad;gLj;jp fzpg;ghu;.
fs; njhlu;ghd njhlu;ghd fzpj;jy;fs; • fiury;fs; jahupjj ; y;> Ijhf;fk; njhlu;ghd
fzpj;jy;f is • mkpy - %y> jho;jN ; jw;W Kiwfs; gw;wp tpsf;fkspg;gu;. 14
Nkw;nfhs;Sthu;. jhf; f q; f s; njhlu; g hd • epak Na CO fiuriy jahupg;gu;
2 3
fzpj; j y; .
• tPo;gbthf;fy; njhlu;ghd
fzpj;jy; (epiwkhdk;)
• epakf;fiuriyj; jahupgg; hu;
10
myF 04: rlj;jpd; thAepiy
4.0 rlj;jpd; 4.1 rlj;jpd; %d;W • rlj;jpd; gpujhd epiyfs; khztu;fshy; ntspgg ; Lj;jg;gl Ntz;bad 02
thAepiy gpujhd epiyfspy; • jpz;kk; • gpujhd epiyfshd jpz;kk;> jputk;> thA
elj;i jfis Jzpf;iffspd; • jputk; vd;gtw;wpd; Jzpf;iffspd; xOq;fikg;G
Muha; t hu; xOq; f ikg; g pid • thA gw;wp Muha;thu;.
gad;gLj;jp mtw; • J z pf ; i f f s p d ; x Oq ; • jpz;kk;> jputk;> thA vd;gdtw;wpd; ngUk;
wpd; mbg;gil fikg;Gk; mtw;wpd; mirT ghu; i tf; F upa ,ay; G fshd fdtsT>
,ay;Gfis fSk; mlu;j;jp> tbtk;> (<u;g;Gtpirapd;;
tpsf; Fthu; • ,ay;Gfspd; gz;gwp nry;thf;fpd; fPo); mKf;fg;gLk; jfT Mfpa
uPjpahd xg;gPL tw;wpid Jzpf;iffspd; xOq;fikg;Gld;
• fdtsT ,af;fj;ijAk; jpz;kk;> jputk;>
• mlu;j;jp thAf;fSf;Fj; njhlu;GgLj;jp xg;gpLthu;.
• tbtk; (<u;g;G)
• mKf;fg;gLk; jfT /
jd; i k
4.2 ,yl;rpa thA • ,yl;rpa thAtpid
khjpup xd;wpidg; mwpKfg;g Lj;jy;. • Xu; ,yl;rpa thAit tiuaWg;ghu;. 10
gad;gLj;jp • ,yl;rpa thAtpd; rkd; • ,yl; r pa thAr; rkd; g hl; i lAk; ; mjd;
mjidf; fUj;jpw; ghLk; mjd; ngWjpfSk; ngWjpfisAk; gjq;fSld; vOJthu;
nfhz;L nka; (P, V, T cld; n k; khwpfs;) • nghapypd; tpjp> rhs;rpd; tpjp> mtfhjNuh
thAf;fspd; elj; P=CRT tpjp vd;gtw;iw $Wtu;. mj;Jld; ,yl;rpa
ijf; Nfhyq;fis Pv=m/M RT thA rkd; g hl; b d; epiyj; j d; i kiaf;
tpgupg;ghu; PM=dRT fhl;Lthu;
• nghapypd; tpjp> rhs;rpd; • xU thAtpd; %yu; fdtsit tiuaWg;gu;.
tpjp> mtfhjNuh tpjp • ,yl;rpa thAr; rkd;ghL> mjd; ngWjpfs;
• nghapypd; tpjp> rhs;rpd; njhlu;ghd fzpg;Gf;fis jPu;g;ghu;.
tpjp> mtfhjNuh tpjp vd;g
tw; W ld; ,yl; r pa thA
rkd;ghLk;
11
• %yu; fdtsT
• xl;rprdpd; %yu; fdtsit gupNrhjid
• xU thAtpd; %yu; f ;
thapyhf Jzpthu;.
fdtsit
• kfdP r paj; j pd; njhlu; G mZj; j pzpit
gupNrhjid uPjpahfj;
Jzpjy; . gupNrhjid Kiwahf Jzpthu;.
• Mg ,d; njhlu; g Zj;
jpzpit Ijurd;
thAtpd; %yu; f ;
fdtsit cgNah
fpj; J gupNrhjid
uP j pahfj; J zpjy ; .
• thAf;fspy; %yf;$w;W ,af;ff; nfhs;iff;
4.3 nka;thAf;fspd; • thAf;f spd; %yf;$w;W fhd vLNfhs;fisf; Fwpg;gpLthu;. 08
elj;ijapid ,af; f f; nfhs; i f • thAnthd; w pd; mKf; f j; i jg; ghjpf; F k;
tpsf;Ftjw;F • thAnthd;wpd; mKf;fk; fhuzp fis tpgupg;ghu;.
thAf;fspd; %yf; • fjp ,il> fjptu;ff ; ,il> • fjp ,il> fjptu;f;f ,il> fjptu;f;f ,il
fjptu;f;f ,il %yk; %yk; Mfpatw; w pw; f hd Nfhitfis
$w;W ,af;ff; vOJthu;.
nfhs;ifiag;gad; Mfpatw;wpd; Nfhitfs;. • %yf;$w;W ,af; f rkd;g hl;b idf; $wp>
gLj;Jthu; • %yf;$w;W ,af;fr; rkd;
mjd; gjq;fis tpsf;Fthu;.
ghL (epWty; mtrpa

3RT
1 2
2
• C = ,id ngWthu;.
kw;wJ) PV  mNC M
3

3RT

2 3RT
2 • C =
•C =
njhlu;ghd vspa fzpg;Gfisj;
M M
jPu;g;ghu;
• kf;Rnty; Nghw;Rkd;
• thAf; f Sf; f hd kf; R nty; - Nghw; R kd;
guk; g y; vspa tbtk;
guk;gy; tisapdhy; ngwg;gLk; jftiy
(tiuG %yk;)
tpsf; Fthu;
• ntg;gepiyAlDk;> %yf; • kf;Rnty;-Nghw;Rkd; tiuGfspy; ntg;gepiy
$w;W jpzpTlDk; guk;g kw;Wk; %yu;jpzpT njhlu;ghf khwy;fis
ypd; khwy;. tpsf; Fthu;
12
4.4 thAf; fyit • nkhj;j mKf;fKk; gFjp • gFjpaKf;fk; vd;Dk; gjj;ij tpsfFthu;.
nahd;wpd; elj; aKf;fKk; • jhw;wdpd; gFjpaKf;f tpjpiaf; $Wthu;.
ijia tpsf;F • jhw;wdpd; gFjpaKf;fq; • ,yl;rpa thAr; rkd;ghl;bypUe;J jhw;wdpd;
tjw;F jhw;wdpd; fSf;fhd tpjp. gFjpaKf;f tpjpiag; ngWthu;. 06
gFjpaKf; f • jhw;wdpd; gFjpaKf;f tpjpAld; njhlu;
tpjpia gad; Gila fzpg;Gfisj; jPu;g;ghu;.
gLj;Jthu;
4.5 ,yl;rpa thAr; • mKf;fg;gLk; jfTf;fhuzp • mKf;fg;gLk; jfTf; fhuzpia tiuaWg;ghu

rkd;ghl;bid (,yl;rpa elj;ijia • ,g;ngWkhdkhdJ nka;> ,yl;rpa
nka;thAf;fSf;F kl;Lk; Nrhjpg;gjw;F) thAf;fspwF ; ntg;gepiyAld; vt;thW khW
gpuNahfpg;gjw;fhd • , y l ; r p a t h A t p j p fpwJ vd;gjid tiuG uPjpahf Kd;itg;ghu;. 06
jpUj;jq;fisg; apypUe;J nka;thAf;fspd; • %yf; $ w; W ,af; f f ; nfhs; i ff; f hd
gFj;jha;thu; tpyfy;. vLNfhs; fspd; mbg;gilapy;
• %yf;$w;W ,ilj; n k a ; thA f ; f s p d ; e lj ; i j> ,y l ; r pa
jhf;fq;fs; thAf; f spd; elj; i japypUe; J tpyF
• %yf;$Wfspd; fdtsT tjw;fhd fhuzq;fis tpgupg;ghu;.
• ,yl;rpa thAr; rkd;ghl; • ,yl;rpa thAf;fspd; elj;ijapypUe;J nka;
bw;fhd jpUj;jq;fs; thAf;fspd; tpyfiy tpsf;Ftjw;F fl;b
• te;ju;thYR rkd;ghL naOg;gg;gLk; xU rkd;ghlhf te;ju;thYRr;
(gz;GuPjpahd tpguq;fs; rkd;ghl;il Kd;dpiyg;gLj;Jthu;.
kl;Lk;) • mtjp ntg;gepiyia tpgupg;ghu;.
• mtjp ntg;gepiy • tpQ;Qhd vz;zf;fUf;fs; epiyaw;wit@
Mdhy; cz; i kfspd; mbg; g ilapy;
njhlu;r;rpahd Kd;Ndw;wj;jpw;F cl;gLj;jg;
gLfpd;wJ vd kjpg;gpLthu;.
13
myF 05: rf;jpapay; ghlNtisfs; 41
• tpuptpay;Gk; nrwptpay;Gk; khztu;fshy; ntspgg ; Lj;jg;gl Ntz;bad
5.0 ntg; g Ts; 5.1 ntg;gTs;Siw 05
• njhFjp> #oy;> vy;iy • tpuptpay;igAk; nrwptpay;igAk; tpgupg;ghu;.
SiwapYk; njhlu;ghd vz;
• J}a gjhu;j;jq;fs; • njhFjp> #oy;> vy;iy> %ba njhFjp>
ve;jpug;gpapYk; zf;fUf;fis jpwe;j njhFjp> jdpg;gLj;jg;gl;l njhFjp
fiury; f s; vd; g tw; w pd;
Vw; g Lk; Njbawpthu; vd;w gjq;fis tiuaWg;ghu;.
epak epiyfs;
,ize; j • J}a gjhu;j;jq;fspd;> fiury;fspd; epak
• njhFjpapd; epiyAk;
khw; w q; f is epiyfisf; $Wthu;
epiyj; njhopw;ghLk;
Muha; t jd;
• ntg;gKk;>ntg;gTs;Siw • njhFjpapd; epiy> epiyj; njhopw;ghL
%yk; ,urha vd;w gjq;fis tiuaWg;ghu;.
Ak;.
dj; njhFjp • xU jhf;fj;jpd; ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wj;ij
fspd; cWjpj; • xU nrad;KiwAld; tpsf; Fthu;
jd;ik> khw; xUq;fpize;j • ntg; gTs;S iwiaepiyj; njhopw;g hlhf
wq;fs; epfOk; ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wq;fs my; y J ntg; g ,af; f tpay; ,ay; g hf
rhj; j paj; Δ H  H , Wjp  H M uk; g k; k J tpgupg;ghu;. Mdhy; ntg;gk; mt;thW md;W.
jd;i k vd;g • xd;wpize;j H ,d; ngWkhdj;ij KJ
,y ; ; X uy F m s Ti la ,y; my;yJ xU jhf;f mstpd; myfhf
tw; i w jhf;fj;jpw;fhd (per extent
vjpu; T KJmol-1 Mff; $Wthu;
of reaction) ntg;gTs;Siw • jhf;fq;fSld; ,ize;j ntg;gTs;Siw
$Wthu; k h w ; w k ; kJmol -1 , y ; khw;wq;fis Δ H  H , Wjp  H M uk; g k;
ntspg;gLj;jg;gLk;. vd; D k; rkd; g hl; b id cgNahfpj; J f;
• epakepiyfSld; fzpg;ghu;
,ize;j ntg;gTs;Siw • epakepiyfspy; ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wj;ij
khw;wq;fs ΔH 0  H 0 ,Wjp  H 0 Muk; gk; c g N a h f p j ; J f ;
fzpg;ghu;
ΔH 0  H 0 ,Wjp  H 0 Muk; gk; ;
5.2 ntg;gTs;Siw • ntg;g khw;wj;ijAk; jhf;f • Q = mc  t Ig; gad;gLj;jp khwh
khw;wq;fis tiu ntg;gj;ijAk; Q = mcΔT
aWg;ghu; jug;gl;l mKf;fj;jpy; ntg;g khw;wq;fisf; fzpgg ; hu;. 23
Ig; gad;gLj;jp fzpj;jy;. • rf;jp tiuglq;fisg; gad;gLj;Jtjd; %yk;
khw;wq;fSld; • mfntg;g (rf;jp cwpQr ; y;)> mfntg;g> Gwntg;g jhf;fq;fis tpsf;Fthu;.
njhlu;ghd ntg;g Gwntg;g (rf;jp ntspgg ; ly;) • ghlj;jpll
cs;Siw khw;wq; nraw;ghLfs; (process) ; j;jpy; jug;gl;l ntg;gTs;Siw khw;
fis fzpg;ghu; wq;fisAk; epak ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wq;
fisAk; tiuaWg;ghu;.
14
• ntg; g Ts; S iw khw; w q; • vRtpd; ntg;gf;$l;ly; tpjpiaf; $Wthu;.
fSk;epak ntg;gTs;Siw • ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wq;fisf; fPNo jug;gl;
khw;wq;fSk;
Ls;s Kiwfspy; fzpg;ghu;.
• Njhd;wy; ntg;gTs;Siw
• ntg;gTs;Siw tiuglq;fs;
( ΔHf ) • ntg;g ,urhad rf;fuq;fs; my;yJ ntg;g
• jfd ntg;gTs;Siw( ΔHc) ,af;ftpay; rf;fuq;fs;
• gpizg;gpd; gpupif ntg;g • Njhd;wy; ntg;g Ts;S iw khw;wq; f is
Ts;Siw khj;jpuk; gad;gLj;jy;> gpizg;Gg;gpupif
• ruhrup gpizg;G gpupif ntg; g Ts; S iw khw; w q; f is khj; j puk; ;
ntg;gTs;Siw( ΔHd) gad;gLj;jy;
• eLepiyahf;f ntg;gTs;
Siw( ΔHneu ) • mkpy-%y eLepiyahf;fy; ntg;gTs;Siw
• ePN uw; w ntg; g Ts; Siw apidg; gupNrhjid %yk; jPu;khdpg;ghu;.
( ΔHhyd ) • td; d kpy - td; % y eLepiyahf; f y;
• fiury; ntg;gTs;Siw ntg;gTs;Siw khwpyp vdf; $Wthu;
( ΔHsol) • nkd;dkpy / nkd;%y eLepiyahf;fy;
• ntt;NtW nraw;ghLfSf; n t g ; g T s ; S i w > t d ; m k p y /t d ; % y
fhd ntg;gTs;Siw tiu eLepiyahf; f y; ntg; g Ts; S iwapYk;
glq;fSk; ntg;gTs;Siw NtWgl;lnjdf; $Wthu;
rf;fuq;fSk; • moldm-3 , 250cm 3 NaCl f i u r i y , U
• ntg; g Ts;S iw tiugl Kiwfspy; jahupj; J vRtpd; tpjpia
j;jpw;Fk; ntg;gTs;Siw tha;g;Gg; ghu;g;ghu;
rf;fuj;jpwF ; k; ,ilapyhd
NtWghL
• vRtpd; tpjp(epiyj;
njhopw; ghl;bd; xU
gpuNahfk;)
• ntt; N tW nraw; g hLfs;
njhlu;ghd ntg;gTs;Siw
khw;wq;fSf;fhd
15
ntt;NtWKiwfspy;
fzpg; G f; f s; - vRtpd;
tpjpapd; gpuNahfk;
• gupNrhjidthapyhf
mkpy / %y (NaOH / HCl,
KOH/HNO3, NaOH/CH3COOH,
NH4OH/ HCl) eLepiyahf;f
ntg;gTs;Siwfis
Jzpthu;.
• vRtpd; tpjpapid gup
Nrhjid %yk; tha;g;Gg;
ghu;g;ghu;
• Nghu;d;-Vgu; rf;fuk;;
gad;gLj;jp mad; • Nghu;d; - N`gu; rf;fuj;ij mikg;gjw;F
5.3 Nghu;d; - Vgu; rf;fu Nru;itapd; ;rhyfr; (develop) Njitahd ntg; g Ts; S iw
%yk; mad; rf;jpiaf;; fzpj;jy;. khw;wq;fis tiuaWg;ghu;.
Nru;itfspd; • gjq;fkhjy; ntg;gTs; • mad; Nru;itapd; rhyf ntg;gTs;Siw
rhyf ntg;g Siw( ΔHs ) njhlu; g hd Nghu; d ; - Vgu; rf; f uj; i j
Ts;Siw my;yJ • Mtpahjy; ntg;gTs; cUthf;F thu;.
Njhd;w y; Siw( ΔHvap) • Nghu;d; - Vgu; rf;fuj;ijg; gad;gLj;jp epak
ntg;gTs;Siw • cUfy; ntg;gTs;Siw rhyf ntg;gTs;Siwiaf; fzpg;ghu;.
fisf; fzpg;ghu; ( ΔHfus ) • ntg;gTs;Siw tiuglq;fis
• mZthjy; ntg;gTs; cgNahfpj;J epak rhyf
Siw ( ΔHatm) ntg;gTs;Siwiaf; fzpg;ghu;. 08
• madhf;fy; ntg;gTs; • ,uz;lhk; %d;whk; Mtu;j;jd %yfq;fspd;
Siw ( ΔHI )
,yj; j pud; Vw; w y; ntg; g Ts; S iwfspd;
• ,yj;jpud; Vw;Fk; ntg;g
khWifia tpsf;Fthu;
Ts;Siw (,yj;jpudhl;
lk;) ( ΔHEA)
• rhyf ntg;gTs;Siw
( ΔHLE )
16
• vOe;jkhdkhw;wj;jpd; mstPlhf ve;jpug;gp
5.4 , u r h a d j ; • ve;jpug;gpAk;(S) ve;jpug;gp
(S), ve;jpug;gp khw;wk; ( S) vDk; gjq;fis
jhf;f q;fs; khw;wKk; ( S) .
Rakhf epfo;jy; • fpg; ] ; rf; j pAk; (G)fpg; ] ; tpsf;F thu;.
gw;wp vjpu;T RahjP d rf; j p khw; w Kk; • vOe; j khdj; J ld; njhFjpapd; cWjpj;
$Wthu; jd;ik mjpfupg;gij tpsf;Fthu;.
(G) . • ntg;gepiy> ngsjpfepiy> Jzpf;iffspd;
• G, H, S ,w;F ,il xOq;fhf;fk; vd;gtw;wpy; ve;jpug;gp khw;wk; 05
apyhd njhlu;G. jq;fpAs;sijf; $Wthu;
• • fpg;]; ,d; rf;jpiaAk; (G) fpg;]; ,d; rf;jp
G = H - TS
• epak fpg;rpd; (Gibbs) rf;jp khw;wj;ijAk; (  G) tpsf;Fthu;.
khw; w Kk; ( G ) epak • S ck; G ck; epiyj; njhopw;ghLfs; vd
0
tpsq;fpf; nfhs;thu;.
ve;jpug;gp khw;wKk; ; (S0 )
• G, S vd; gtw; i w gpd; tUtdtw; i wg;
• G0 , H0 , S0 ,w;F ,il gad;gLj;jp fzpg;ghu;
apyhd njhlu;G.
• S = S(tpisT) - S(jhf; fp)
• G0 = H0 - TS0
• G ,idg; gad;gLj;jp • G = G(tpisTfs; ) - G(jhf; fpfs; )
xU jhf;fk; Rakhf epfo; • rf;jp rf;fuk;
tijj; jPu;khdpj;jy;. • G0 , S0 gjq;fis tpgupg;ghu;
• G = 0 rkepiy
• G, H, S kj;jpapyhd njhlu;gpidf;
• G < 0 Rakhf epfo;jy; $Wthu;.
• G > 0 Rakhf epfohik • G0 , H0 , S0 ,w; F ,ilj; njhlu; i gf;
$Wthu;.
• G ,idg; gad;gLj;jp khwh
mKf;fj;jpYk; ntg;g epiyapYk; Rakhf
xU jhf;fk; epfOkh my;yJ xU epfo;T
eilngWkh vd vjpu;T$Wthu;.
17
•  G ck; S ck; xd;wpize;j njhifahf

 G (kJ), S (JK-1)my;yJ jhf;fnkhd;wpd;
xU msTf;fhd myfhf kJmol-1 $Wthu;
 G (kJ mol -1 ),  S (kJK -1 mol -1 )
• G 0 , H 0 , S0 epakg; ngWkhdq; f spd;
mbg;gilapy; fzpg;gPLfis Nkw;nfhs;thu;.
• G ,d; ngWkhdj;jpd; %yk; jhf;fj;jpd;
rhj;jpag; ghl;il vjpu;T$Wthu;.
ΔG =ΔH -TΔS
18
myF 06: s, p, d - njhFg;G %yfq;fspd;; ,urhadk; nkhj;jk; - 64 ghlNtisfs;
6.0 s, p, d njhFg;G 6.1 s - njhFg;gpYs;s • s - njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; khztu;fshy; ntspgg ; Lj;jg;gl Ntz;bad
10
• s - njhFg; G %yfq; f spdJk; mtw; w pd;
%yfq;fspdJk; %yfq; fspd; ,Uf;if
Nru;itfspdJk; ,Uf;iffis tpgupg;ghu;.
mtw; wpd; ,ay;Gfis (Na, K, Mg, Ca kl;Lk;)
• <Lnra; j ,urhadrkd; g hLfs; %yk;
Nru;itfspdJk; Muha;thu; • Nju;e;njLf;fg;gl;l rpy Kjyhk;> ,uz;lhk; $l;l %yfq;fspd;
,ay;Gfis s - njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; ePu;> tsp / O2, N2, H2 mkpyq;fs; cldhd
Muha;;thu; jhf;fq;fs; jhf;fq;fspd; jd;ikia tpgupg;ghu;.
• ePUld; • Na, Mg ,id gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;Jk; %yfq;
• tsp / O2 cld; fshff; f Ujptsp / O 2> eP u ; > mkpyq; f
• N2 cld; Sldhd jhf;fq;fis mtjhdpg;ghu;.
• H2 cld; • gupNrhjid mtjhdq;fis cgNahfpj;J
• mkpyq;fSld; $l;lk; I, II %yfq;fspd; jhf;Fjpwid
• tsp> ePu; mkpyq;fSld; xg;gpLthu;
s - njhFg;GcNyhfq;fspd; • fUTld;kpfj; jsu;thfg; gpizf;fg;gl;ljhd
jhf;fq;fspd; xg;gPL ntspNahl;L ,yj;jpud;fis toq;Ftjd;
• Nru;itapYs;s %y k ; ( xl; rpN a w; wk ; ) t pOk pa thA
%yfq;fshd Li, Na, K, ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;G cila fw;wad;fis
Ca, Ba, Sr I Rthiyr; cUthf;fp jho;j;Jk; fUtpahf s - njhFg;G
Nrhjid %yk; %yfq;fs; nraw;gLtij tpsf;Fthu;.
,dq;f hzy; • Rthiyr; Nrhjid %yk; s - njhFg;G
fw;wad;fis ,dq;fhz;ghu;.
• Rthiyg; gupNrhjidapy; s-njhFg; G
%yfq;fspd; Rthiy epwq;fis $Wthu;
• p - njhFg;G %yfq;fspdJk; Nru;itfspd
6.2 p - njhFg;G %yfq; • p - njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; Jk; ,Uf;iffis s - njhFg;Gld; RUf;fkhf
fspdJk; ; , U f ; i f f s ; (C, N, O njhlu;GgLj;jp tpgupg;ghu;. 23
mtw; wpd; khj;jpuk;) • mYkpdpaj;jpdJk;mYkpdpa xl;irl;bdJk;
Nru;itfspdJk; • p - njhFg; G %yfq; f s; <upay;gpdf; fhl;Lk;; jhf;fq;fis tpgupg;ghu;.
,ay;Gfis ($l; lk; 13 - 18) • AlCl3 ,d; ,yj;jpud; gw;whf;FiwiaAk;>
Muha;thu; • Nju;e;njLf;fg;gl;l %yfq; Al2Cl6 ,d; cUthf;fj;ijAk; tpgupg;ghu;.
fspdJk; mtw;wpd; Nru;it • fhgdpd; %d;W gpujhd gpwjpUg;gq;fis
fspdJk; ,ay;Gfs;.
19
ituk;> fhuPak;> /Gy;nynud; vd
• mYkpdpak;
ngaupLthu;
• mYkpdpak;; xl;irl;L;
• ngd;rpw;fup (fpwigw;)apdJk; ituj;jpdJk;
• mYkpdpak;> mjd;
fl;likg;ig tpgupg;ghu;
xl;irl;bd; <upay;Gfs; • ituk;> fhuPak; vd;gtw;wpd; cUFepiy>
• mYkpdpak; FNshiul;bd; cuha;TePf;Fk; Mw;wy;> td;ik
,yj;jpud; gw;whf;Fiw kpd;flj;Jkhw;wy; Mfpa ,ay;Gfis
• fhgd; tpsf;Fthu; > fl;likg;ig tpgupg;ghu;
• fhgdpd; gpwjpUg;gq;fs; • CO, CO2 ,d; fl;likg;GfisAk;> mtw;wpd;
(ituk; > fhuP a k; > / ,ay;GfisAk; Kd;itg;ghu;
Gy;nynud; -fullerene) • H2CO3 ,d; fl;likg;ig Kd;itj;J mjd;
• fhgdpd; xl;irl;Lfs; mkpy ,ay;ig tpsf;Fthu;
• fhgdpd; xl;rpakpyk; • gpizg;Gr;rf;jpia cgNahfpj;J iejurdpd;
• iejurd; rlj;Jtj; jd;ikia tpsf;Fthu;
• N ,id cila Nru;it • iejurdpd; ntt;NtW xl;rpNaw;w vz;fl;F
fspy; iejurdpd; i e juri d f ; n f hz; l N ru; i tf s pd ;
xl;rpNaw;w epiyfs; cjhuzq;fis vOJthu;.
• rf;fukw;w xl;rpmkpyq; • iejurdpd; xl;irl;Lf;fspdJk;
fSk;> xl;irl;Lf;fSk; xl;rpakpyq;fspdJk; fl;likg;Gfis jUthu;.
• cNyhfq;fSlDk; • Mg, Cu, C, S vd;gdtw;wpd; HNO3 cldhd
my;YNyhfq;fSlDk; jhf; f q; f spd; <Lnra; j rkd; g hLfis
HNO3 ,d; jhf;fq;fs; vOJthu;.
(Mg, Cu, C, S) • Na, Mg cld; mNkhdpahtpd; xl;rpNaw;Wk;
• mNkhdpah fUtpf;fhd jhf;fq;fis vOJthu;.
• xl;rpNaw;Wk;> jho;j;Jk;; • Cl2, CuO cld; mNkhdpahtpd; jho;j;Jk;;
,ay;Gfs; fUtpf;fhd jhf;fq;fis vOJthu;.
; (Na, Mg, Cl2, CuO) • mNkhdpak; cg;Gf;fspd; ntg;gg;gpupiff;fhd
• mNkhdpak; cg;Gf;fs; <Lnra;j rkd;ghLfis vOJthu;.
• ntg;gg;gpupif • HCl, ghrpr;rhaj;jhs; nerpyupd; Nrhjidg;
(Viyl;Lfs;> NO3-, NO2, nghUs; cgNahfpj;J gupNrhjid thapyhf
CO32-, SO42-, Cr2O72-) mNkhdpah thAit ,dq;fhz;ghu;
20
• xl;rprd;> fe;jfj;jpd; gpwjpUg;g tbtq;fs;
• xl; r prDk; fe; j fKk;
gw;wpa jfty;fis mspg;ghu;.
• gpwjpUg;gq;fs;
• fe;jfj;jpd; xl;rpakpyq;fspd; fl;likg;Gf;
• rf;fukw;w xl;rpmkpyq;fs; fis jUthu;
(H2SO4, H2SO3, H2S2O3) • cNyhfq;fs;> C, S cld; nrwp H2SO4 ,d;
• H2SO4 ,d; jhf; f q; f s; > xl;rpNaw;Wk; Mw;wiy tpsf;f jhf;fq;fis
(cNyhfq;fs;>C, S cld;) vOJthu;.
• xl;rprDk; fe;jfKk; • ePupd; GNuhj;jd; nfhLf;fy;> thq;fy ,ay;ig
nfhz;l Nru;itfs; NH 3, HCl vd; g tw; W ld; jhf; f q; f is
• ePupd; GNuhj;jd; nfhLf; cgNahfpjJ ; tpsf;Fthu;
fy; thq;fy; ,ay;G • H + /KMnO 4 , H + /K 2 Cr 2O 7 c l d ; H 2 O 2 ,d ;
(amphioprotic) jhf;fq;fis vOJthu;
• H2O2, H2S, SO2 ,d; xl;rp • KI, Fe2+ vd;g tw; Wld; ; H2O2 ,d; jho;j;jy;;
Naw;Wk; jho;j;Jk; ,ay;G jhf;fq;fis vOJthu;
fs; • H+/KMnO4, H+/K 2Cr2O7, SO2 vd; g tw; W ld;
• myrd;fs; H2S ,d; xl;rpNaw;w jhf;fq;fis vOJthu;
• Na, Mg Mfpadtw;Wld; H2S ,d; jho;jj ; y;
• nrk;G> ,Uk;G mNkhdpah
jhf;fq;fis vOJthu;
Tld; FNshupdpd; jhf;fq; • H+/KMnO4, OH-/KMnO4 vd; g tw; W ld; SO2
fs; ,d; xl;rpNaw;w jhf;fq;fis vOJthu
• kw;iwa Viyl; mad; • H2S, Mg Mfpadtw;Wld; H2S ,d; jho;jj ; y;
fis ,lk;ngau;f;Fk; jhf;fq;fis vOJthu;
myrd;fspd; • myrd; f spd; ngsjpf epiyfisAk;
jhf;f q;fs; epwq;fisAk; tpgupg;ghu;.
• ePu;> NaOH cld; • FNshupdpd; Cu, Fe, NH 3 cld;
FNshupdpd; ,Utop jhf;fq;fl;fhd <L nra;j rkd; ghLfis
tpfhuj; jhf;fq;fs; vOJthu;.
• FNshNuw;W (I) madpd; • myrd;fspd; ,lg;ngau;r;rp jhf;fq;fl;F <L
,Utop tpfhuk;. nra;j rkd; ghLfis vOJthu;.
• FNshupdpd; xl;rpakpyq; • myrd;fspd; rhu;G xl;rpNaw;w typikia
fs; xg;gpLthu;.
• FNshupdJk; FNshNuw; W (I) ,dJk;
21
,Utop tpfhuq;fis <Lnra;j
• Viyl;L f; f s; rkd;ghLfspdhy; tpgupg;ghu;.
• eP&lfj;jpy; Ijurd; • ntt;NtW xl;rpNaw;w epiyfl;F
Viyl;Lfspd; mkpyj; FNshupdpd; xl;rpakpyq;fspd;
jd;ik fl;likg;Gfis Kd;itg;ghu;
• tpOkpa thAf;fs; • xl; r pNa w; w epiy fis cgNa hfpj; J
• nrddpd; GNshiul;Lf;fs; FNshupdpd; xl;Nrh mkpyq;fspd; mkpy
• md ad ; f is typik> xl;rpNaw;Wk; Mw;wy; vd;gtw;iw
xg;gpLthu;
,d q; f hzy ;
• ePu; Clfj;jpy;> nghUj;jkhd
• Viyl; L fs; > SO42-,
cjhuzq;fspd; %yk; Ijurd;
SO 32 , S2O 32-,S2-, CO 32-, Viyl;Lf;fspd; mkpy elj;ijia
NO 3- , NO2- (F- jtpu) tpgupg;ghu;.
• gupNrhjid uP j pahf • tpOkpa thAf;fspd; ,ay;Gfisf;
tspapy; iejurdpd; $WtJk; mit cUthf;Fk; rpy
gpurd; d j; i j fhl; L jy; Nru; i tfSf; f hd cjhuzq; f isAk;
• Viyl;L mad; f is mspg;ghu;. XeF4, XeF2, XeF6
,dq; f hzy; ; . • tPPog
; bthf;fy; Kiw %yk;; mdad;fis
• jNahry; N gw; W SO42-, SO32-, S2O32-, S2-, CO32- ,dq;fhz;ghu;.
fiurypid KIO3 • mdad;fspd; jd;ik mbg;gilapy; mkpyq;
IAk; KIIAk; gad; fspy; mtw;wpd; tPo;gbTfspd;;
gLj; j p epakpj; j y; ; . fiujpwd;fis tpsf;Fthu;.
mNkhdpah thAitAk; • NO3-, NO2- vd;gtw;iw Ijhd HCl, fgpy
mN khdpak ; tisag; gupNrhjid> NaOH/Al
cg; G f; f isAk; cgNahfpj;J ,dq;fhz;ghu;
,d q; f hzy ; . • tspapy; iejurdpd; gpurd;dj;ij Mg I
(ghrpr; r haj; j hs; > HCl, cgNahfpj;J gupNrhjpg;ghu;
• Viyl;L mad;fis AgNO3/NH3, Pb(NO3)2,
nerpyupd; Nrhjidg;
Cl2/CCl4 cgNahfpj;J ,dq;fhz;ghu;.
nghUs; vd; g tw; W ld; )
• jNahry;Ngw;W fiurypd; nrwpit KI/KIO3
cgNahfpj;J jPu;khdpg;ghu;.
22
6.3 s, p njhFg;G • s- njhFg;G %yf Nru;it
%yfq;fspdJ fspd; Nghf;Ffs; 08
Nru;itfspd; $l; l j; j py; fP o ; N ehf; f p khztu;fshy; ntspf;fhl;lg;glNtz;bad
,ay;GfisAk; mikAk; Kiwikia • ePupy; s - njhFg;G %yf cg;Gf;fspd; fiu
mtw; wpd; vLj;Jf;fhl;ly;. jpwid xg;gpLthu;.
Nghf;FfisAk; • s - njhFg;G %yf • s - njhFg;G %yf iej;jpNuw;Wfs;> fhg
Muha;thu; Ijnuhl;irl;Lfs;> Ndw;Wfs;> Ijurd; fhgNdw;Wfspd; ntg;g
fhgNdw; W fs; > Ijurd; cWjpj; jd;ikia xg;gpLthu;.
fhgNdw;Wfs;> • 3k; Mtu; j ; j d topNaAk; $l; l j; j pd;
iej;jpiuw;Wfs;> iej;jp fPo;Nehf;fp Ak; s, p njhFg;G xl;irl;Lfs;>
Nuw; W fs; > Viyl;Lfs;> Ijnuhl;irl;L fspd; mkpy/ %y / <upay;G
ry;igl;Lfs;> ry;igw;Wfs;> elj;ijfs; vt;thW khWgLnkd
FNuhNkw;Wfs;> xl;rNyw; tpsf;F thu;.
Wf;fs;> nghRg;Ngw;Wf;fs;> • ePu;g;gFg;gilAk; Nghf;if tpsf;Ftjw;F
ry;Ngw;Wfspd; fiujpwd; eP U ld; Ijiul; L f; f s; > Viyl; L f; f s;
fspd; xg;gPL. Mfpatw; w pd; jhf; f q; f Sf; F <Lnra; j
• s- n j h F g ; G %yf rkd;ghLfis vOJthu;
iej;jpNuw;Wfs;> Ijurd; • $l;lk; 15 %yf Viyl;Lfgspd; ePu;g;gFg;G
fhgNdw;Wfs;> Mw;wiy xg;gpLthu;
fhgNdw;Wfspd; • gupNrhjid Kiwikahf s - njhFg;G
ntg;gcWjpia %yf cg;Gfspd; fiujpwd;fis
xg;gpLjy;. xg;gpLthu;
• s, p njhFg;G %yf Nru;it • gupNrhjid Kiwikahf s - njhFg;G
fspd; Nghf;Ffs; Mtu;j; %yf fhgNdw;Wf;fs;> iej;jpNuw;Wfspd;
jd j; j pd ; F Wf ; N f A k ; ntg;g cWjpia xg;gpLthu;
$l;lj;jpy; fPo;Nehf;fpAk;
mikAk; Kiwikia
vLj;Jf;fhl;ly;.
23
• Ijnuhl;irl;Lfs;> xl;irl;
Lfs; vd;gtw;wpd; mkpy/
%y/ <upay; G fs; 3tJ
Mtu; j ; j dj; j pd; topNa
mikAk; Kiw
• ePUld 3tJ Mtu;jj ; dj;jpd;
FWf; N f Ijiul; L f; f sp
dJk; Viyl;Lf;fspdJk;
jhf;fq;fs;.
• ePUld; $l;lk; 15 ,d;
Vi y l ; Lf ; f s p d ;
jhf; f q; f s; $l; l j; j pd;
topNa fPo; Nehf;fp
mikAk; Nghf;F.
• s njhFg; G %yf
cg; G f; f spd;
fiujpwd; f isr;
Nrhjpj; j y; .
• s- njhFg;G %yfq;fspd;
iej; j pNuw;W f;f s;> fhg
Ndw;Wfspd; ntg;g
cWjpiar; Nrhjpj; j y; .
6.4 d - njhFg;G %yf
, a y ; G f i s A k ; • rpy d- njhFg;G
mit %yfq;fspdJk; mtw;wpd;
Mtu;j;jdj;jpd; Nru;itfspdJk; • rpy d - njhFg;G %yfq;fspdJk; (Cu, Fe, 06
FWf;Nf khWgLk; ,Uf;iffSk; mtw;wpd; Ti) mtw;wpd; Nru;itfspdJk; ,Uf;if>
jd;ikiaAk; cgNahfq;fSk; cgNahfq;fs; vd;gtw;wpid tpgupg;ghu;.
Muha;thu; (Cu, Fe, Ti) • ehd;fhk; Mtu;j;jd d - njhFg;G %yfq;fs;
• s, p - njhFg;G %yfq;fS fhl;Lk; khWgLk; xl;rpNaw;w epiyfis
,yj; j pud; epiyaikg; G mbg; g ilapy;
2 4 $Wthu;.
ld; d - njhFg;G %yfq; • khWgLk; xl;rpNaw;w epiyfisf; fhl;Lk;
fspd; gpd;tUk; d - njhFg; G %yfq; f spd; jfit s, p
,ay;Gfis xg;gply;. %yfq;fSld; xg;gpLthu;.
• ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;Gfs>; • s - njhFg; G %yfq;f Sld; d - njhFg; G
khWgLk; xl;rpNaw;w epiy %yfq;fspd; kpd;ndjpu;j;jd;ikia
fs; xg;gpLthu;.
• kpd;n djpu; j;j d; ik • s - njhFg; G %yfq;f Sld; d - njhFg; G
• cNyhf ,ay;G %yfq;fspd; cNyhf ,ay;ig xg;gpLtu;.
• Cf;fw; nraw;ghL • d - njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; Cf;fy; ,ay;ig
• epwKs;s Nru;itfis tpgupg;ghu;.
cUthf;Fk; Mw;wy; • epwKs;s rpf;fw; Nru;itfis cUthf;Fk;
• ePu;f;fiurypy; rpf;fyad; d-njhFg;G %yf jpwid tpgupg;ghu;.
fspd; epwq;f is mil • d-njhFg;G %yf rpf;fyad;fspd; epwq;fis
ahsk; fhzy;. gupNrhjid uPjpahf milahsk; fhz;ghu;
• FNuhkpak;> kq;fdPrpd;;
6.5 d - njhFg;G xl;irl;Lf;fspd; mkpy / • FNuhkpaj;jpdJk; kq;fdprpdJk; xl;irl;L
%yfNru;itfspd; %y / <upay;G elj;ijfs; fspd; mkpy / %y / <upay;G elj;ijfis
,ay;Gfis • FNuhkpak;> kq;fdPrpd;; ntspg;gLj;Jthu;.
xl;rp mdad;fs; • mkpy / fhu Clfq; f spy; Cr, Mn ,d;
Muha;thu; 08
• CrO 4 2- , Cr 2 O 7 2-, MnO 4 -
xl;rpmdad;fspd; xl;rpNaw;wy;> jho;j;jy;
vd;gd xl;rpNaw;Wk;
fUtpfshf jhf;fq;fSf;fhd rkd;ghLfis <Lnra;thu;.
• xU fiurypYs;s nguR • jug;gl;l xU khjpupapYs;s Fe2+ nrwpit
mad; nrwpit mkpy mkpy KMnO 4 My; g upNrhjid %yk;
nghl;lhrpak; Jzpthu;.
Ngu;kq;fNdw;W fiuryhy; • epak mkpykhf;fg;gl;l K2C2O4 fiuriy
jPu;khdpj;jy;. cgNahfpj;J KMnO4 fiurypd; nrwpit
• epak m k p y K 2 C 2 O 4 gupNrhjid thapyhfj; Jzpthu;.
fiuriy cgNahfpj; J
KMnO4 fiurypd; nrwpit
gupNrhjid thapyhfj;
Jzpjy;
25
; w; • Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, d ;
6.6 d- njhFg;G rpff
Nru;itfspd;; mad;fs; gpd;tUk; mono • H2O, Cl- Mfpa ,izapfSld; Cr, Mn,
,ay;Gfis dentate ,izapfSld; Fe, Co, Ni, Cu ,d; mad;fs cUthf;Fk;
Muha;thu; cUthf;Fk; rpff ; w; Nru;it rpf;fw; Nru;itfis vOJthu;
fSk;mtw;wpd; epwq;fSk;. • IUPAC tpjpfisg; gad;gLj;jp xU tif
• H2O, ,izapAila rpf;fy;fisg; ngaupLthu;
• Cl- • NaOH, NH 3(aq) M f p a t w ; W l d ; d F O
• IUPACtpjpfisg; gad; fw;wad;fs; Cr3+, Mn2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Co2+, Ni2+, 09
gLj;jpNkw;Fwpj;j rpf;fw; Cu2+, Zn2+ vd;gtw;wpd; jhf;fq;fis vOJthu;
Nru;itfSf;F ngauply; • nfhg;gu;(II)> epf;fy;(II)> NfhNghy;w;W(II) vd;g
• NaOHc l D k ; NH 3
tw;wpd; cg;Gf;fSld; IjNuhFNshupf;fkpyk;>
clDk; fw; w ad; f spd;
mNkhdpah vd;gtw;wpd; jhf;fq;fis
jhf;fq;fs;.Cr3+, Mn2+, Fe2+,
Fe3+,Co2+, Ni2+, Cu2+, Zn2+ mtjhdpj;J epwq;fisf; $Wthu;
(Mn2+,Fe3+,Cr3+, Mfpatw;wpd; • jho; j ; N jw; W jhf; f q; f is cgNahfpj; J
mikd; rpf;fy;fs; kq;fdprpd; +2, +4, +6, +7 xl;rpNaw;w epiyfs;
mtrpaky;y) njhlu;ghd epwq;fis gupNrhjid uPjpahf
• Cu(II), Ni(II), Co(II) vd;gd mtjhdpg;ghu;.
tw;wpd; cg;Gfs; IjNuhf; • fiurypYs;s Ni2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Cu2+, Cr3+ mad;
FNshupf; f kpyk; > fis gupNrhjid uPjpahf ,dq;fhz;ghu;.
mNkhdpah vd;gtw;Wld;
cUthf;Fk; rpf;fy;fspd;
epwq;fis mtjhdpj;jy;.
• jho;jN; jw;w jhf;fq;fis
cgNahfpj;J kq;fdPrpd;
+2, +4, +6, +7x l ; r p N a w ; w
epiyfSld;
njhlu;Ggl;l mad;fspd;
epwq;fis mtjhdpj;jy;.
• Ni2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Cu2+, Cr3+
mad;f is NaOH, NH3
c gN ahfpj; J
,d q; f hzy ;
26
myF 07: Nrjd ,urhadj;jpd; mbg;gil vz;zf;fUf;fs; ghlNtisfs; 18
khztu;fshy; ntspg;gLj;jg;glNtz;bad
7.0 ntt;NtW tpj 7.1 ,urhadtpaypd; • Nrjd ,urhadj;jpd; 02
• fhgd; %yfj;ij gpujhd Mf;ff;$whf
khd Nrjdr; tpNrl Jiwahf mwpKfk;.
cs;slf;Fk; ,aw;ifahd nraw;ifahd
Nru; i tfis Nrjd ,urhadj; • ngUk; vz;zpf;ifapyhd
Nru;itfs; ngUk; vz;zpf;ifapy; cs;sd
Muha; t hu; jpd; Kf; f paj; J Nrjdr; Nru;itfs; ,Ug;g vdf; $Wthu;.
tj;ij Muha;thu; jw;fhd fhuzq;fs;. • mNdf vz;zpf;ifapyhd Nru;itfis
• md;whl tho;fi
; fapy; Nrj fhgd; cUthf;Ftjw;fhd Mw;wiy> mjw;
dr; Nru;itfspd; Kf;fpaj; Fj; njhlu;Gila fhuzpfis nfhLg;gjd;
Jtk;. %yk; tpsf;Fthu;.
• ntt;NtW JiwfspypUe;J
cjhuzq; f isf; nfhLg; g jd; %yk;
md;whl tho;f;ifapy; Nrjd ,urhadj;jpd;
Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ij fhl;Lthu;.
• ehshe;j tho;f;ifapy; ntt;NtW
Jiwfspy; Nrjd ,urhadk;
gpuNahfpf;fg;gLtij Vw;Wf;nfhs;thu;
7.2 njhopw;ghl;L; $l; • N rj d r ; N ru ; i t f s pd ;
lq; f spd; mbg; tiffs;. • IjNuhfhgd; f s; mtw; w pd; fl; l ikg; G r;
gilapy; Nrjdr; • mypgw;wpf; (rf;fukw;w) #j; j puq; f Sf; N fw; g mypgw; w pf; my; y J 02
IjNuhfhgd;fSk; mNuhkw;wpf; tbtpy; cs;sij milahsk;
Nru;itfspd;
mNuhkw;wpf; IjNuh fhz;ghu;
tiffis Muha; fhgd;fSk;
• ghlj;jpl;lj;jpy; cs;slf;fg;gl;l
thu; (ngd;rPDk; gpujpaPL nra; njhopw;ghl;L; $l;lq;fspd; ngau;fisAk;
ag;gl;l ngd;rPd; Nru;it FwpaPLfisAk; ,dq;fhz;ghu;.
fs; khj;jpuk;) • njhopw;gLk; $l;lq;fs; cs;sjd;
• mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fSk; mbg;gilapy; ntt;NtW tifahd Nrjdr;
Viuy; Viyl;Lf;fSk; Nru;itfis ngaupLthu;
• mw;fNfhy;fSk; gpNdhy; • xt;nthU njhopw;ghl;L; $l;lj;ijf; nfhz;
fSk; Ls;s Nru;itfspd; mikg;nghj;j njhlu;
• <ju;fs; fisg; ngaupLthu;. mj;Jld; cjhuzq;
• my;bifl;Lf;fSk; fPw;
fisAk; Kd;dpiyg;gLj;Jthu;
Nwhd;fSk;
• fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fs;
27
• mkpy FNshiul;Lf;fs;
;
• vRj;ju;fs;
• mypgw;wpf; mikd;fSk;
(mkPd;fSk;) Viuy;
mikd;fSk; (mkPd;
fSk;)
• Vikl;Lf;fs;
• mkpNdh mkpyq;fs;
7.3 vspa mypgw;wpf; • n ghJthd Nrjdr; • nghJthff; fhzf;$ba Nrjdr; Nru;it
Nrjdr; Nru;it Nru; i t fspd; nghJg; fspd; fl;likg;Gr; #j;jpuq;fisf; nfhLf;Fk;
fisg; ngaupLthu; ngau;fs; NghJ nghJg; ngau;fisf; $Wthu;.
• gpdt; Uk; fl;likg;G vy;iy • epakg; ngauP l ; L Kiwapd; Njitia
fspw;Fs; Nru;itfspd; milahsk; fhz;ghu; 06
IUPAC ngauPlL ; tpjpfisg; • IUPAC t p j p f i s g ; gad;gLj;jp
(Rules) gpuNahfpj;jy;; ghlj;jpl;lj;jpy; $wg;gl;Ls;sthW
• gpujhd fhgd; rq;fpyp fl;likg;gpd; vy;iyf;Fl; gl;l> jug;gl;l
apYs;s fhgd; mZf; Nrjdr; Nru;itfisg; ngaupLthu;.
fspd; vz;zpf;if Mwp • IUPAC ngaiuf; $Wk;NghJ Nru;itapd;
Yk; $lthf ,Uj;jy; fl;likg;Gr; #j;jpuj;ij tiue;J fhl;Lthu;.
$lhJ.
• gpujhd rq;fpypf;F C
apd; epuk;gpa> fpis mw;w>
gpujpaplg;glhj gf;fr;
rq;fpypfs; khj;jpuk;
,izf;fg;gl;bUj;jy;
Ntz;Lk; .
• epuk;ghj Nru;itfsp
Ys;s,ul;ilg;
gpizg;Gf;fs;>
28
Kk;ikg; gpizg;Gf;fspd;
nkhj;j vz;zpf;if
xd;wpYk; $lf;$lhJ.
• gpujhd rq;fpypapy; ,ul;
ilg; gpizg;G my;yJ
Kk; i kg; gpizg; i gg;
gpujpalP hff; fUjf;$lhJ.
vdpDk; ,J gpujhd rq;fpyp
apd; xU gFjpahFk;.
• gpujhdfhgd; rq;fpypapy;
gpujpaplg;gl;l njhFjp
fspd; ($l;lq;fspd;)
vz;zpf;if ,uz;bYk;
$lf;$lhJ.
• gpd; t Uk; njhFjpfs;
khj; jpuNk gpujpaP l ; Lj;
njhFjp fshf ,Uf; f
Ntz;Lk; .
-F, -Cl, -Br, -I, -CH3,
-CH2CH3, -OH, -NH2, -NO2,
-CN, -CHO, >C=O
• gpd; t Uk; njhFjpfs;
khj; jpuNk gpujhd
njhopw;gLk; njhFjpfshf
mika Ntz;Lk; .
-OH, -CHO, >C=O, COOH,
-COX, -COOR, -NH2,
-CONH 2
29
• xd;wpw;F Nkw;gl;ljhf
gpujhd njhopw;ghl;L
njhFjp ,lk;ngwf;
$lhJ.
(mNuhkw;wpf; Nru;it
fspd; ngauPL guPl;rpf;fg;
glkhl;lhJ.)
7.4 xNu %yf;$w;Wr; • rkgFjpr;Nru;T

#j;jpuj;ijf; • fl;likg;Gr; rkgFjpaq;fs; • jug;gl;l %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuj;jpw;Fr; rhj;jpa
nfhz;Ls;s %yf; • rq;fpypr; rkgFjpaq;fs; khd vy;yh fl;likg;Gr; #j;jpuq;fisAk;
$WfspYs;s • epiyr; rkgFjpaq;fs; tiuthu;.
mZf;fspd; ntt; • njhopw;ghl;L $l;lr; • rkgFjpr; Nru;T vd;Dk; gjj;ij tpsf;Fthu; 07
NtW rhj;jpakhd rkgFjpaq;fs; • ju g; gl ; l % y f ; $ w; Wr ; #j ; j pu j; jp w; F
xOq;fikg;Gf;fis • jpz;k rkgFjpaq;fs; nfhLf;ff;; $ba fl;likg;Gfis rq;fpyp>
Muha;thu;. • <u;ntspikar; rkgFjp e p i y k w ; W k ; n j ho p w ; g h l ; L f ; $ l ; l
aq;fs;. rkgFjpaq;fs; vdg; ghFgLj;Jthu;
(Nfj;jpufzpj rkgFjp • Nfj;jpufzpj kw;Wk; xspapay;
aq;fis khj;jpuk; tpsf; rkgFjpaq;fis fhl;rpg;gLj;Jtjw;F jpUg;jp
fpr;nrhy;Yjy;.) nra;aj; Njitahdtw;iwf; $Wthu;
• vjpUUf;fs; • Nru; i tfspd; fl; l ikg; G r; #j; j puq; f s; >
(xU rkr;rPuw;w fhgidf; vjpUUf;fshfTk;> <u;ntspika
nfhz;Ls;s xspapay; rkgFjpaq; f shfTk; ,Uf; f yhk; vd
rkgFjpaq;fs; khj;jpuk;) milahsk; fhz;ghu;
• vy;yh tifahd rkgFjpr;Nru;TfisAk;
njhFg;ghu;.
30
myF 08: IjNuhfhgd;fSk; myrd;Nru; IjNuhfhgd;fSk; (Halo Hydrocabuns) ghlNtisfs; 46
8.0 IjNuhfhgd; 8.1 mypgw;wpf; IjNuh • IjNuhfhgd;fspd; khztu;fshy; ntspg;gLj;jg;glNtz;bad 06
fspd; fl; l fhgd;fspd; fl;l tiffs; • nghUj;jkhd cjhuzq;fisg; gad;gLj;jp
ikg;GfspwF ; k; ikg;G> ngsjPf • mw;Nfd;fs; mw;Nfd;fs;> mw;fdP f
; s;> mw;ifd;fs; vd;gd
,ay;GfSf;F ,ay;Gfs;> gpizg; • mw;fdP ;fs; tw; w pd ; gpi zg; G f ; f s pd ; jd ; i k i a
kpilNaahd Gf;fspd; jd;ik • mw;ifd;fs; tpgupg;ghu;.
njhlu; i g vd;gdtw;iw • mikg;nghj;j njhlu;fs; • mw;Nfd;fs;> mw;fdP f
; s;> mw;ifd;fs; vd;gd
M uha ;T Muha;T nra;thu; • ngsjPf ,ay;Gfs; tw;wpd; mikg;nghj;j njhlu;fspd; topNa
n r a ;t hu; (rf;fukw;w • %yf;$w;wpil tpirfs; mtw;wpd; ngsjPf ,ay;Gfspd; khWjiy
mypghw;wpf; • cUFepiyfSk; nfhjp tpsf;F thu;.
Nru;itfis epiyfSk; • vspa mw;Nfd;fs;> mw;fPd;fs;> mw;ifd;fs;
kl;Lk; fUj • Nrjdr; Nru;itfspYs;s C vd;gdtw;wpd; Nfj;jpufzpj tbtq;fis
Ntz; Lk;) mZf;fspd; fyg;ghf;fk; mtw;wpd; fhgd; mZf;fspd;
(sp3, sp2, sp vd;gd) fyg;ghf;fj;Jld; njhlu;GgLj;Jthu;.
• mw; Nfd;fs;> mw;fPd;f s;>
mw;ifd;fs; vd;gdtw;wpd;
Nfj;jpufzpj tbtq;fs;.
8.2 fl;likg;Gf;fspd; • mw;Nfd;fspd; jhf;fq;fs; • KidT Nrhjidg; nghUl;fSld;
mbg;gilapy; mw; • nghJthd Nrhjidg; mw;Nfd;fspd; jhf;fkpd;ikia> 14
Nfd;fs;> mw;fPd; nghUl;fspwF ; mw;Nfd;fspd; KidTj;jd;ikaw;w C - C , C - H
fs;> mw;ifd; jhf;Fjpwd; Fiwthff; vd;gdtw;wpd; gpizg;Gfspd; mbg;gilapy;
fspd; ,urhadj; fhzg;gly;. tpsf; Fthu;
jhf;f q;fis • RahjPd %ypfq;fSld; • nkNjdpd; RahjPd %ypf FNshupNdw;wg;
xg;gpl;L Muha;T jhf;fq;fs. nghwpKiwia tpsf;Fthu;
nra;thu; • FNshuPDld; gpujpaPl;Lj; • mw; fPd; fs; ,yj; jpudhl;l f; $l;lq;fspy;
jhf;fq;fs; <LgLk; ehl;lj;ij epuk;ghj; jd;ik
• kPNjDld; (nkNjd;) ,yj;j pud; nrwpTj;jd;ik vd;g dtw;wpd;
FNshupNdw;wj; jhf;fg; mbg;gilapy; tpsf;Fthu;
nghwpKiw • mw;fPd;fSld; Ijurd; Viyl;bd;
• gpizg;Gf;fspd; Vftpdg; jhf;fj;jpd; nghwpKiwia vOJthu;
gpsT
31
• jhf;fj;jpd; ,ilepiy • mw;fPd;fSld; Ijurd; Viyl;ilr;
fshf RahjPd %ypfq; Nru; f ; F k; N ghJ jhf; f ,ilepiyfshf
fs;. fhNghfw;wad;fis ,dq;fhz;ghu;
• mw;fPd;fspd; jhf;fq;fs; • Kjy; top kw;Wk; Gil fhNghfw;wad;fspd;
• mw;fPd;fspd; rpwg;gpay; rhu; cWjpepiyia xg;gpLthu;
ghd jhf;fq;fshf ,yj; • mw;fPd;fSld; Ijurd; Viyl;Lfs;
jpudhl;lf; $l;ly; jhf; $l;lyilAk; jpir ,ilepiyahf
fq;fs;. cUthf;fg;gLk; fhNghfw;wadpd;
• vspa mw;fPd;fSld; rhu;cWjpepiyahy; jPu;khdpf;fg;gLtij
Ijurd; Viyl;bd; milahsk; fhz;ghu;
$l;lYk;>mtw;wpd; • mw;fPDld; GNuhkpdpd; jhf;fj;jpd;NghJ>
nghwpKiwAk; GNuhkpd; %yf;$wpd; Kidthf;fj;;jpdhy;
• jhf;f ,ilepiyfshf Br+ Muk;g $l;lypy; Kd;ndLj;Jr;
fhNghfw;wad;. nry;tjhy; ,j;jhf;fk; ,yj;jpudhl;lf;
• Kjy;> top> Gil fhNgh $l;lyhFk; vd milahsk; fhz;ghu;
fw;wad;fs; vd;gdtw; • mw;fPd;fspw;Fk; GNuhkpdpw;Fkhd
wpd; rhu; cWjpepiy nghwpKiwia vOJthu;
• guxl;irl;L Kd;dpiy • mw; f P d ; f spw; ; F k; nrwpe; j H 2SO4 ,w; F k;
apy; HBr ,d; mrhjuz ,ilNaahd jhf; f j; j pidj; njhlu; e ; J
,ay;G (nghwpKiw ePu;g;gFg;gpdhy; ngwg;gLk; ,Wjp tpisit
mtrpakw;wJ) vOJthu;
• vspa mw;fPd;fSld; • mw; f P d ; f spd; Cf; f y; IjurNdw; w j; j pd;
GNuh kPdpd; $l;ly; tpisit vOJthu;
• Gnuhg;gPDld; • mw;fd ; Sld; fhu KMnO4 ,d; jhf;fj;jpdhy;
P f
GNuhkPdpd; ngwg;gLk; tpisitAk; mtw;wpd;
$l;lYf;fhd nghwpKiw. epwkhw;wq;fisAk; Fwpg;gpl;L vOJthu;
• ry;g+upf; mkpyj;Jld; • mw;ifd;fs; ,yj;jpudhl;lf;$l;ly;
$l;ly; jhf;fKk; $l;ly; jhf; f j; j py; < LgLk; ehl; l j; i j mtw; w pd;
tpistpd; ePu;g;gFg;Gk; epuk;ghj; jd;ik kw;Wk; ,yj;jpud; nrwpTj;
• Cf;fp Kd;dpiyapy; jd;ikapd; mbg;gilapy; tpsf;Fthu;
IjurDld; $l;ly;
32
• F s p u ; f h u KMnO 4 c l d ; • mw;ifd;fspw;Fk; Nrhjidg; nghUl;fs; Br2,
mw; f P d ; f spd; jhf; f q; f s; HX, dilH2SO4/Hg2+ ,w;Fkhd ,yj;jpudhl;lf;
(Ngaupd; Nrhjid - Bayers $l;ly; jhf;fj;ij vOJthu;
test) • Ni/Pt/Pd Kd;dpiyapy; mw;ifd;fSf;Fk;
• mw;ifd;fspd; jhf;fq;fs; H2 ,w;Fkhd jhf;fq;fis vOJthu;
• mw;ifd;fspd; rpwg;gpay; • Pd/BaSO4/Fapdypd; (Quinolin) Kd;dpiyapy;
ghd jhf;fq;fshf ,yj; mw;ifd;fspd; gFjp IjurNdw;wj;jpd;NghJ
jpudhl;lf; $l;lw;whf;fq; ngwg;gLk; tpisit vOJthu;
fs;. • fhgd; mZtpd; fyg;ghf;fj;jpdhy;
• GNuhkPDld; $l;ly; mw;ifd;fspd; KbTH ,d; (-CC-H) mkpyj;
• Ijurd; Viyl;Lld; jd;ikiaAk; ,t; Ijurd; cNyhfq;fsp
$l;ly; dhy; gpujpaPL nra;ag;glf; $baJ
• Hg2+ (Nkf;fpa+upf); maDk; vd;gijAk; milahsk; fhz;ghu;
ry;g+upf; mkpyKk; cs;s
NghJ ePUld; $l;ly;.
(ePNuw;wj;jhf;fk;)
• Cf;fp Kd;dpiyapy; Iju
rDld; $l;lYk;. gFjp
IjurNdw;wKk; cl;gl
• gpizg;gpd; jd;ikapd; mbg;
gilapy; KbTIjurid
cila mw; i fd; f spd;
(alk-1-yne ( m rw ; w y p d p f ;
Ijuridf; nfhz;l)
mkpyj;j d;ikia
(-CC-H) (terminal alkynes)
tpsf;fy;.
• KbT Ijurid cila
mw;ifd;fspd; (-CC-H)
(terminal alkynes)jhf;fq;fs;.
33
• Na clDk; NaNH2
clDk; jhf;fk;.
• mNkhdpah Nru; CuCl
• mNkhdpah Nru;
AgNO 3
• mw;fd P f
; s;> mw;ifd;fs;
vd;gtw;wpd; jhf;fq;fis
fhuKMnO4 clDk; Br2
clDk; mtjhdpjj ; y;.
• mNkhdpah Nru; AgNO3
clDk;> mNkhdpahNru;
Fg;gpuRf; FNshiul;LlDk;
(CuCl)KbT Ijuridf;
(-CC-H) nfhz;Ls;s
mw;ifd;fspd; jhf;fq;
fis mtjhdpjj ; y;.
• nff; F Ny ngd; r P d pw; F Kjd; K iwahf
nfhLj; j fl;l ikg; ghdJ Vd; ngd;r Pd pd; 03
8.3 ngd;rPdpYs;s • ngd;rPdpd; fl;likg;G vy; y h ,ay; G fisAk; tpsf; f tpy; i y
gpizg;gpd; • fhgd; mZf; f spd; fyg; vd;gjw;fhd fhuzq;fisf; nfhLg;ghu;
jd;ikia ghf;fk; • ngd;rPdpd; fl;likg;igAk; cWjpj;jd;ik
Muha;T nra;thu; • ,yj;jpud;fspd; Xuplg; ia fhgd; mZf;fspd; fyg; g hf; f j; i j
ghlw;w jd;ik Ak; Xuplg;ghlw;w ,yj;jpud;fisAk; gad;
• guptpd; vz;zf;fUf;fs; gLj;jp tpsf;Fthu;
• ngd;rPdpd; cWjpj;jd;ik • ngd;rd P pd; cz;ikahd fl;likg;gpwF ; Mjhu
khd rhd;Wfis Kd;dpiyg;gLj;Jthu;
34
8.4 ngd;rd
P pd; • ngd;rd P ; $l;lw;whf;fq;fsp • ngd;rPd; $l;lw;whf;fq;fspYk; ghu;f;f gpujp 07
cWjpj; jd;ikia Yk; Nkyhf gpujpaPl;Lj; aPlL
; j; jhf;fq;fspwF
; ehl;lKilaJ vd;gij
mjd; rpwg;gpay;ghd jhf; fq;fspw;F mjw;Fg; nghUj;jkhd cjhuzq;fs; %yk;
jhffq;f isj; Kd;Dupik cilaJ. vLj;Jf; fhl;Lthu;.
njhlu;GgLj;jp • ngd;rPdpd; rpwg;gpay;ghd • iej;jpNuw;wk;> mw;ifNyw;wk;> VirNyw;wk;>
gFg;gha;T nra; jhf;fq;fshf ,yj;jpudhl; myrNdw;wk; vd;gdtw;wpd; nghwpKiwfisg;;
thu; lg; gpujpalP L
; j; jhf;fq;fs;. gad; g Lj; j p; ngd; r P d pd; rpwg; g pay; g hd
• iej;jpNuw;wKk; mjd; jhf;fq;fshf ,yj;jpudhl;lg; gpujpaPl; Lj;
nghwpKiwAk; jhf;fq;fis tpgupg;ghu;.
• mw;ifNyw;wKk; mjd; • mw;Nfd;fs;> mw;fd P ;fs;> mw;ifd;fs; vd;gd
nghwpKiwAk; tw;wpd; jhf;fq;fSld; ngd;rPdpd; jhf;fq;
• VirNyw;wKk; mjd; fis xg;gpLthu;.
nghwpKiwAk; • mw;ify; $l;lq;fSk; Viry; $l;lq;fSk;
• FeX3 Kd;dpiyapy; myr ngd;rPd; tisaj;Jld; ,izf;fg;gLk;NghJ
Ndw;wKk; mjd; nghwp xl; r pNaw; w kilAk; Nghf; F mjpfupf; F k;
KiwAk; (X = Cl, Br) vd;gij tpgupg;ghu;.
• xl;rpNaw;wj;jpw;F jil
• H+/KMnO4IAk;H+/K2Cr2O7
IAk; gad;gLj;jp
mw;ify; ngd;rPdpdJk;
(Gil mw;ify; $l;lk;
jtpu)Viry; ngd;rd P pdJk;
xl;rpNaw;wk;.
• mw;fPd;fSld; xg;gpLk;
NghJ IjurNdw;wj;jpw;
fhd fbdj;jd;ik.
• ngd;rPdpd; Cf;fy;
IjurNdw;wk;
35
8.5 X u ; g p u j p a P l ; L • VNjh> guh jpirg;gLj;Jk; • Xu; gpujpaP l ; L g; ngd; r P d pd; gpujpaP l ; L j;
ngd;rPdpd; gpujp njhFjpfs; njhFjpfis VNjh> guh my;yJ nkw;wh
aPlL
; j; njhFjpf ; spd; (VNjh> guh topfhl;bfs;) ( t o p f h l ; b f s h f ) j p i r g ; g L j ; J k ;
jpirg;gLj;j ypd; -OH, -NH2, -NHR, -R, -Cl, njhFjpfshf ,dq; fhz;ghu;. 05
,ay;ig Br, -OCH3 • Xu; gpujpaPl;L; ngd;rPdpd; ,uz;lhtJ gpujp
milahsk; • nkw; w h jpirg; g Lj; J k; aPl;Lj; njhFjp ,izAk; jhdj;ij Kjyh
fhz;ghu; njhFjpfs; (nkw;wh top tJ njhFjpapd; jpirg;gLj;Jk; jd;ikapd;
fhl;bfs;) mbg;gilapy; $Wthu;.
-COOH, -CHO, -COR, -NO2
(tpsf;fk; Njitapy;iy)
• ghFgLj;j y; • mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fis Kjy;> top> Gil

8.6 mw;ify; Viyl;Lf; • Kjy;> top> Gil vd ghFgLj;Jthu;. 09
fspd; fl;likg; • C-X gpizg;gpd; KidTj; • mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fs; fUehl;lg; gpujpaPl;
igAk; C-X jd;ik (X-F, Cl, Br, I) Lj; jhf;fq;fspy; <LgLk; Nghf;if C-X
gpizg;gpd; • ngsjPf ,ay;Gfs; gpizg;gpd; KidTj;jd;ikAld;
KidTj; (cUFepiy> nfhjpepiy> njhlu;GgLj;Jthu;.
jd;ikiaAk; fiujpwd;) • fUehbfs;> %ykhf njhopw;glyhk; vd
kw;Wk; jhf;fq;fs; • mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fspd;
milahsk; fhz;ghu;
vd;gdtw;iwAk; fUehl; l g; gpujpaP l ; L j;
• Viuy; Viyl;Lf;fs;> itidy; Viyl;Lf;fs;
Muha;T nra;thu; jhf;fq;fs;
vd;gtw;wpd; (sp 2 Cm Z f ; f S l d ;
• Nghl;bapLk; jhf;fkhf
,izf;fg;gl;l myrd;fs;) jhf;fkpd;ikia
; y; jhf;fk; (Elimination
ePff
tpsf;F thu;.
as a competing reaction)
• fpupdhl;bd; Nrhjidg;nghUs;
• fUehbfshf Ijnuhl;
jahupj; j iyAk; mjd; ,ay; G fisAk;
irl; mad;> raidl;L
tpgupg;ghu;.
mad;> mrw;wpiyl;
• C - Mg ,d; KidTj;jd;ikia C - X ,d;
ma;dmw;ifidl;mad>;;
KidTj; j d; i kAld; xg; g pl; L> mtw; w pd;
(alkynide) (RC  C  ) mw;nfhl; KidTj;jd;ikfs; vjpu;khwhf ,Ug;gjid
irl;L mad; (RO-) xg;gpLthu;
36
• Viuy; Viyl;Lf;fspdJk; • C - Mg gpizg;gpd; KidTj;jd;ikapdhy;
itidy; Viyl; L f; f fpupdhl;bd; Nrhjidg; nghUspy; Mg ,w;F
spdJk; jhf;F jpwdw;w ,izf; f g; g l; l C %ykhfTk; mj; J ld;
jd;ikia mw;ify; fUehbahfTk; njhopw; g lf; $ baJ vd
Viyl;Lf;fSld;; xg;gply; milahsk; fhz;ghu;
• mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fSld; • ghlj; j pl; l j; j py; nfhLf; f g; g l; L s; s thW
kfdPrpaj;jpd; jhf;fk;. fpupdhl;bd; Nrhjidg; nghUSld; GNuhj;jd;
(fpupdhl; b d; Nrhjidg; toq;fpfs; Vw;gLj;Jk; tpisit vOJthu;
nghUisj; jahupj;jy;.)
• cyu; epge;jidfspd;
Njit
• cNyhf - fhgd; gpizg;
gpd; jd;ik
• GNuhj;jpud; toq;fpfSld;
fpupdhl;bd; Nrhjidg;
nghUspd; jhf;fq;fs;
• ePu;
• mkpyq;fs;
• mw;fNfhy;fSk; gPNdhy;
fSk;
•mkPd;fs;
• mkpy ‘H’ mZf;fis
Aila mw;ifd;fs;
37
8.7 mw;ify; • xU gbj; jhf;fk;
Viyl;Lf;fspd; (gpizg; G ciljYk; > • mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fspd; fUehl;lg; gpujp
fUehl;lg; gpujp gpizg; G cUthjYk; aP l ; Lj; jhf; f q; f Sf; F ,U rhj; j pakhd
aPl;Lj; jhf;fq; xNu Neuj;jpy; ghijfs; cs;s d vd; gij milahsk; 03
fis gpizg;G eilngWk;. jhf;f fhz;ghu;.
ciljy; kw;Wk; ,ilepiy cUthfkhl; • mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fspd; fUehl;lg; gpujpaPl;
gpizg;G cUthjy; lhJ.) Lj; jhf; f q; f spy; gpizg; G ciljYk;
gbfspd; Neuj;jpd; • ,U gbj; jhf;fk; gpizg; G cUthjYk; xNu Neuj; j py;
Nghf; fpy; (gpizg;G ciljy; gb eilngw;why;; mjid xU gbj; jhf;fkhf
gFj;jha;thu; Kjypy; eilngWk;. jhf; tpgupg;ghu;.
fj;jpy; ,ilepiyahf • mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fspd; fUehl;lg; gpujpaPl;
f w ; w a d ; c U t h F k ; . Lj; jhf;fq;fspy; gpizg;G cile;j gpd;G
,uz;lhtJ gbapy; Gjpa gpizg;G cUthfpdhy; mjid ,U
fhNghfw;wad; gbj; jhf;fq;fshf tpgupg;ghu;.
fUehbAld; gpizg;ig
cUthf; Fk;.)
38
myF 09: xl;rpridf; nfhz;Ls;s Nrhjidr; Nru;itfs; ghlNtisfs; 45
9.0 xl;rpridf; 9.1 mw; f Nfhy; f spd; • mw;fNfhy;fspd; ghFghL khztu;fshy; ntspgg ; Lj;jg;gl Ntz;bad
nfhz;Ls;s fl;likg;G> fhgd;- • Kjy;> top> Gil mw;f • mw;fNfhy;fis Kjy;> top> Gil vd
Nrjdr; xl;rprd; gpizg; Nfhy;fs; tifg;gLj;Jthu;.
Nru;itfspy; gpdJk;> xl;rprd; • ngsjPf ,ay;Gfs; • mw;fNfhy;fspd; O-H gpizg;gpdJk; C-O
fl;likg;gpwF; k; Ijurd; gpizg;gp • nfhjpepiy gpizg;gpdJk; KidTj; jd;ikia tpgupg; 08
,ay;GfspwF ; k; dJk; KidTj; • ePupYk; nghJthd Nrjd ghu;.
,ilapyhd jd;ik kw;Wk; fiug;ghd;fspYk; fiu • mw;fNfhy;fspd; ngsjPf ,ay;Gfis> mit
njhlu; i g jhf;f q;fs; jpwd; Ijurd; gpizg; G f; f is cUthf; F k;
Muha; T vd;gdtw;iw • O-H gpizg;G ciljYld; Mw;wYld; (abitily) njhlu;GgLj;Jthu;.
nra; t hu; Muha;T nra;thu; <LgLk; jhf;fq;fs; • mw;fNfhy;fs; ,U ntt;NtW Kiwfspy;
• Nrhbaj;Jld; (Na) jhf;fk; jhf;fq;fspy; <LgLtij O-H gpizg;G
(xl;rprDld; ,izf;fg; c i l t j d ; % y K k ; C-O g p i z g ; G
gl;Ls;s Ijurdpd; mkp ciltjd; %yKk; milahsk; fhz;ghu;
yj;jd;ik) • HBr, HI, PCl3 / PBr3, PCl5 cldhd
• fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fS mw; f Nfhy; f spd; fUehl; l g; gpujpaP l ; L j;
ld; jhf;fq;fs; jhf;fq;fis C-O gpizg;G ciltjdhy;
(mw;fNfhy;fspd; Vir tpsf; Fthu;
Nyw;wj;jhy; vRj;ju; • mw;f Nfhy;f Sld; nrwp H2SO4 my;y J
cUthFjy;) Al2O3 jhf;fkilAk;NghJ ePufw;wypdhy;
• C-O gpizg;G ciljYld; ngwg;gLk; tpisTfis vOJthu;
<LgLk; fUehl;lg; gpujpaPl; • mkpy Kd;dpiyapy; mw;fNfhy;fspypUe;J
Lj; jhf;fq;fs; ,yFthf fhNghfw;wafs; cUthFtij
• HBr, HI mtw; wpd; Kjy> top> Gil ,ay; G ld;
• PCl3 / PBr3 njhlu;GgLj;Jthu;
• PCl5 • Kjy;> top> kw;Wk; Gil mw;fNfhy;fs;
cld; jhf;fq;fs; ntt; N tW xl; r pNaw; W k; fUtpfSld;
jhf; f kilAk; N ghJ ntt; N tWtpjkhf
ele;J nfhs;tij milahsk; fhz;ghu;
• mw;fNfhy;fspd; ,ay;Gfis mtw;iwr;
Nrhjpj;J ghu;g;gjd; %yk; gjpT nra;thu;
39
• ZnCl2/nrwpej; HCl mkpyj;
Jldhd jhf;fq;fs;
(Lucas test Y}f;fhrpd;
Nrhjid)
(C-O gpizg;G ciltjhy;
cUthFk; f h N g h
fw;wad;fspd; rhu; cWjp
epiyfshy; tpsf;fTk;.)
-ngd;iry; mw;fNfhYld;
jhf;fk; mtrpakw;wJ.
• nrwpe;j ry;g+upf;fkpyk;
my;yJ Al2O3 cld;
ePf;fy; jhf;fk;.
(ePufw;wypdhy; mw;fPd;
fisf; nfhLj;jy;)
• xl;rpNaw;wk;
• H+ / KMnO4 cld;
• H+ / K2Cr2O7 cld;
• gpupbdpak; FNshNuh
FNuhNkw;W (Pyridinium
chlorochromate)
(Kjy; mw;fNfhy;fis
my;bifl;Lf;fshfTk;
top mw;fNfhy;fis fPw;
Nwhd;fshfTk; khw;Wk;.)
• mw;fNfhy;fspd; ,ay;G
fisr; Nrhjpj;jy;.
40
9.2 gPN dhypd; • vspa gPNdhyhf Ijnuhl; • mw;fNfhy;fspYk; ghu;f;f Vd; gPNdhy;fs;
jhf; fq;fis iry; ngd;rd P pd; fl;likg;G mkpyj; jd;ik $baJ vd;gij
mjd; C-O • mw;fNfhy;fSld; tpsf;F thu;.
gpizg;G kw;Wk; xg;gpLk; NghJ • mw;fNfhy;fs; <LgLk; fUehl;lg; gpujpal
P L
; j;
O-H gpizg;gpd; gPNdhy;fspd; cau; jhf;fq;fspy; Vd; gPNdhy;fs; <LgLtjpyi; y 04
mbg;gilapy; mkpyj;j d; ik. vd;gij tpsf;Fthu;.
gFg;gha;thu; • gPNdhypd; jhf;fq;fs; • gPNdhy; Nrhbaj;JlDk;> Nrhbak; Ijnuhl;
• Nrhba cNyhfk; irl;LlDk; <LgLk; jhf;fq;fisf; $Wthu;.
• Nrhbak; Ijnuhl;irl;L • vspa Nrhjidfs; %yk; gPNdhypd; ,ay;G
• mw;fNfhy;fs; fU ehl;lg; fisg; gjpT nra;thu;
gpujpaPl;Lj; jhf;fq; fspy;
<LgLk; mNj
epge;jidfspy; gPNdhypd;
jhf;fkpd; ik.
• gPNdhypd; ,ay;Gfisr;
Nrhjpj;jy;.
9.3 gP N dhypd; -OH
njhFjp ngd;rPd;
tisaj;jpy; Vw; • ,yj;jpudhl;lg; gpujpal ; j; • gPNdhypd; gpujpaPl;Lj; jhf;fq;fspy;> gpujpg;
P L
gLj;Jk; jhf;fj; jhf;fq;fs; nghUs; -OH $l;lj;jpw;F rhu;ghf XNjh 02
jpd; tpisit • GNuhkPNdw;wk; (2> 6) kw;Wk; guh (4) ,lq;fspy; NrUk;
Muha;T nra;thu;. • iej;jpNuw;wk; vd milahsk; fhz;ghu;
• Vd; gPNdhypYs;s mNuhkw;wpf;
tisakhdJ ngd;rPdpYk; ghu;f;f
,yj;jpudhbfSld; tpiuthfj;
jhf;fkilAk; vd tpsf;Fthu;.
41
9.4 my;bifl;Lf;fsp • fhgidy; $l;lj;jpd; epuk;ghj; jd;ikia
• my ; b if l; L f ; f spdJ k;
dJk; fP w ; N whd; tpsf;Fthu;;.
fPw;Nwhd;fspdJk; tpNrl
fspdJk; C=O • my; bifl;Lf; fspdJk; fPw ;N whd; fspdJk; 16
jhf;fq;fshf fUehl;lf;
gpizg;gpd; tpNrl jhf; f q; f shf fUehl; l f; $l; l w;
$l;ly; jhf;fq;fs;.
KidTj; jd;ik jhf;fq;fis tpsf;Fthu;.
• HCN c ld ; j h f ; f Kk ;
epuk;ghj; jd;ik> • fpupdhl;bd; Nrhjidg;nghUSlDk; HCN
mjd; nghwpKiwAk;
vd;gdtw;iw clDk; fUehl; l f; $l; l j; jhf; f g;
• fpupdhl; b d; Nrhjidg;
jhf;fq;fs; %yk; nghwpKiwia tpsf;Fthu;
nghUSld; jhf; f Kk;
c jhuzq ; f hl; b • my;bifl;Lf;fspdJk; fPw;Nwhd;fspdJk; 2>
mjd; nghwpKiwAk;.
Muha;T nra;thu; 4 - ,Uiej;jpNuh gPidy; IjurPDldhd
• 2> 4 - ,Uiej; j pNuh
gPidy; IjurPDld; jhf;fj;jpy; -NH2 njhFjp C=O $l;lj;Jld;
jhf;f k; jhf;fkile;J gpujpepjpg;gLj;Jtij
(2> 4 - DNP or gpubapd; milahsk; fhz;ghu;
Nrhjidg;nghUs; (Brady’s •  - H I cila fhgidy; Nru;itfspd;
reagent) (fUehl;lf; $l;l jhf; F jpwid jFe; j cjhuzq; f isg;
iyj; njhlu;e;J ePufw;w gad;gLj;jp fhz;gpg;ghu;.
y; vd tpsf;Fjy;) • Ijiul;L jho;j;Jk; fUtpfshy;
(tpupthd jhf;fg; nghwp my;bifl;LfSk; fPw;Nwhd;fSk;
Kiw mtrpakw;wJ) mw; f Nfhy; f shfj; jho; j ; j g; g Lk; vd
• Nrhbak; Ijnuhl; i rl; milahsk; fhz;ghu;
Kd; dpiyapy; • fPw;Nwhd;fspYk; ghu;f;f my;bifl;Lfs; kpf
my;bifl;Lf;fspdJk;> ,yFthf xl;rpNaw;wkilAk; vd
fP w ; N whd; f spdJk; jd; milahsk; fhz;ghu;
xLf;fy; jhf;fq;fs;. • nghUj;jkhd Nrhjidfisg; gad;gLj;jp
• NaBH 4 , d h y ; m y ; y J my; b ifl; Lf; f isAk; fP w ; N whd; f isAk;
LiAlH4,dhy; NtWgLj;jp ,dq;fhz;ghu;.
my;bifl;Lf;fspdJk; >
fPw;Nwhd;fspdJk;
jho; j; jy;m jidj;
njhlu; e ; J eP u ; g ; gFg; G
42
(tpupthd nghwp KiwAk;
,ilepiy tpisTfSk;
mtrpakd;W)
• Zn(Hg) / nrwpthd HCl
cld; jhf;fk;
(fhgidy; $l;lk;
nkjyPd; $l;lkhf
khWtjw;fhd
fpsnkd;rdpd; jho;jj ; y;)
• my;bifl;Lf;fspd; xl;rp
Naw;wk;.
• mNkhdpah Nru; AgNO3
cld; (njhydpd/; Tollen’s
reagent)
• gPypqf ; pd; fiurYld;
(Fehling’s solution)
• H+ / KMnO4 cld;
• H+ / K2Cr2O7cld;
(fPwN
; whd;fspd; jhf;f
kpdi ; kia xg;gpLf.)
• my;bifl;Lf;fs;> fPwN ; whd;
fs; vd;gdtw;wpwf ; hd
Nrhjidfs;.
9.5 fhnghl;rpypf; • ngsjPf ,ay;Gfs; - H - • fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fspd; ngsjPf ,ay;G
mkpyq; fspdJ gpizg;gpd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; fis mtw;wpd; fl;likg;Gld; njhlu;GgLj;J
fl;likg;GfisAk; • cUFepiyfSk; / thu;.
,ay;GfisAk; nfhjpepiyfSk; ; kpyq;fs;fhgidy; (-C=O)
• fhnghl;rpypfm
xl;rpridf; • ePupYk;> nghJthd $l;lj;ijf; nfhz;Ls;sd vd milahsk;
nfhz;Ls;s Nrjdf;fiug;ghd;fspYk; fhz;ghu;
Vida Nrjdr; fiujpwd;. • fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fs;> mw;fNfhy;fs; > 10
Nru;itfSld; ( ,U gFjpaf; fl;likg; gPNdhy; vd;gdtw;wpd; mkpy ,ay;G fis
Gf;fis Kd;itj;jy;) Na, NaOH, Na 2 CO 3 k w ; W k ; NaHCO 3
xg;gpLthu;
• -COOH n j h F j p a p d ; v d ; g d t w ; W l d h d jhf;fq;fisg;
gad;gLj;jp xg;gpLthu;.
43
jhf;F jpwd; Nfhyj;ij • fhnghl; r pf; mkpyq; f s; fUehbfSld;
my;b ifl;Lf;fs;> jhf;fkilAk;NghJ gpujpaPl;Lj;
fPw;Nwhd;fs; jhf;fq;fisf; nfhLf;Fk; vdTk; Mdhy;
vd;gdtw;wpd; C=O my;bifl;Lfs; kw;Wk; fPw;Nwhd;fs; $l;lj;
$ l; l j; J lDk ; k w; W k ; j h f ; f q ; f i s f ; n f h L f ; F k ; v d T k ;
mw;fNfhy;fs;> milahsk; fhz;ghu;
gPNdhy;fs; vd;gd tw;wpd; • fhnghl;rpypfm ; kpyq;fspdJ ,ay;GfisAk>;
O-H $l;lj;JlDk; jhf;fq;fisAk; Nrhjpg;ghu;
xg;gpLjy;.
• O-H gpizg; G ci lj
Yld; <LgLk; jhf;fq;fs;
• fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;
fspd; O cld; gpizf;
fg;gl;l H ,d; mkpy
,ay;G.
• fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;
fspd; mkpy
,ay;Gfis
mw;fNfhy;fs;> gPNdhy;
vd;gtw;Wld;mtw;wpd;
,iz%yj;jpd; rhu;
cWjpj; jd;ikapd;
mbg;gilapy; xg;gpLjy;.
• jhf;f q;fs;
• Na cld;
• NaOH cld;
• NaHCO3/Na2CO3 cld;
• C-O gpizg;G
ciljYld; <LgLk;
jhf;fq;fs;.
44
• PCl3 my;yJ PCl5 cld;
• mw; fNfhYld;
• LiAlH4 cld; fhnghl;rpypf;
mkpyq;fspd; jho;j;jy;.
• fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fspd;
,ay;Gfisr;; Nrhjpjj
; y;
• mkpy FNshiul;Lf;fs;
9.6 m k py g ; n gW jp • mkpyg; ngWjpfspd; rpwg;gpay;ghd jhf;fq; 06
• NaOH ePu;f;fiurYld;
fspd; tpNrl jhf; fs; fUehl;lg; gpujpaPl;Lj; jhf;fq;fs; vd
jhf;fKk; mjd;
fq; f is Muha; milahsk; fhz;ghu;.
nghwpKiwAk;
thu; • mkpy FNshiul;Lf;fspd; rpwg;gpay;ghd
• jhf;f q;fs;
jhf;fq;fis cjhuzq;fSld; vOJthu;.
• ePUld;
• vRj;ju;fspd; rpwg;gpay;ghd jhf;fq;fis
• mNkhdpahTld;
cjhuzq;fSld; vOJthu;.
• Kjy; mikd;fSld;
• Vikl;Lf;fspd; rpwg;gpay;ghd jhf;fq;fis
• mw;fNfhy;fSld;
cjhuzq;fSld; vOJthu;.
• gPNdhYld;
• mkpyg; ngWjpfspd; vy;yhj; jhf;fq;fspYk;
• vRj;ju;fs;
fhgidy;fhgd; fUehbapdhy; jhf;fg;gLk;
• Ijhd fdpg;nghUs; mkp
vd milahsk; fhz;ghu;
yq;fSld; jhf;fq;fs;
• mkpy FNshiul;bw;Fk; Nrhbak; Ijnuhl;
• Nrhbak; Ijnuhl;irl;L
irl;bw;Fk; ,ilapyhd jhf;fj;jpd;
ePu;f;fiurYld; jhf;fk;
nghwpKiwia vOJthu;.
• fpupdhl;bd; Nrhjidg;
nghUSld; jhf;fk;
• LiAlH4 ,dhy; jho;j;jy;
• Vikl;Lf;fs;
• NaOH ePu;f;fiurYld;
jhf;f k;
• LiAlH4 cld; jho;j;jy;
45
myF 10: iejuridf; nfhz;l Nrjdr; Nru;itfs; ghlNtisfs; 14
10.0 iejurid f; 10.1 mkPdf ; isAk; • mkPd;fspd; tiffs; khztu;fshy; ntspgg ; Lj;jg;gl Ntz;bad 08
nfhz;l Nrj mdpyPidAk; • mypgw;wpf;> mNuhkw;wpf; • Kjy;> top> Gil vd mkPd;fspd;
dr; Nru;it mtw;wpd; rpwg; mkPd;fs; tiffis ghFgLj;Jthu;
fspd; fl; gpay;ghd jhf;fq; • Kjy; mkPd;fs; • ghl;jj
; pll ; j;jpy; nfhLf;fg;gl;Ls;s Nrhjidg;
likg;gpw;Fk; fspdJk; ,ay;G • top mkPd;fs; n ghUs ; f Sld ; K jy ; m i k d ; f s pd ;
,ay;GfSf;Fk; fspdJk; mbg; • Gil mkPd;fs; jhf;fq;fis vOJthu;
,ilapyhd gilapy; gFj; • nghJthf mdpyPd; xU • jug;gl;Ls;s jhf;fq;fspd; mwpit
njhlu; i g jha;thu; mNuhkw;wpf; mkPd; ghlj;jpl;lj;jpy; jug;gl;Ls;s mkPd;fs; NtW
Muha; t hu; ; • GNuhkPDld; mdpyPdpd; njhopw; g hl; L f; $l; l q; f s; njhlu; g hd
jhf;fk; khw;wPLfspy; gpuNahfpg;ghu;
• Kjy; mkPd;fspd; jhf;fq; • n g d ; r P D l d ; xg; gpL k ; N ghJ m d py P d ;
fs; (kl;Lk;) ,yj;jpuidhl;lg; gpujpaPl;Lj; jhf;fj;jpw;F
• mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fSld; cau; jhf;Fjpwd; cilaij tpsf;Fthu;
• mybifl;Lf;fs;> • mdpyP D ld; GNuhkP d pd; jhf; f q; f is
fPw;Nwhd;fSld;
vOJthu;
• mkpyf;
FNshiul;Lf;fSld;;
• iej;jpuR mkpyj;Jld;
10.2 mkPdf ; spd; %yj; • mkPdf ; spd%; yj; jd;ikia
• Kjy; mikd;fspd; %yj;jd;ikia N 02
jd;ikia NtW mw; fNfhy; f Sf;F xg;gply;
mZtpYs; s jdpr; N rhb ,yj; j pud; f s;
Nrjdr; Nru;it • mypgw;wpfK ; jy; mkPdf; spd;
rhu; g stpy; fpilf; f f; $ ba jd; i kapd;
fSld; xg;gpl;L %yj;jd;ikia mdpyP m b g ; g i l a py ; m j d ; m w ; f N f h y ; f s ;
NtWgLj;Jthu; Dld; xg;gpLjy;.
mdpyPd;> Kjy; Vikl;Lfs; vd;gtw;Wld;
• mkPdf ; spd; %yj;jd;ikia
xg;gpLthu;
Vikl;Lf;fSld; xg;gply;.
46
10.3 <uNrhdpak; • <uNrhdpak; $l; l j; i j khztu;fshy; ntspf;fhl;lg;glNtz;bad 04
cg;Gf;fspd; mZnthd;wpdhy; my;yJ • <uNrhdpak; cg;gpd; jahupg;ig tpgupg;ghu;
jhf;f q;fis NtW $l;lj;jpdhy; khw;wLP • ePu;> H3PO2, CuCl, CuCN, CuBr, KI vd;gtw;
Muha;thu; nra;Ak; jhf;fq;fs;. Wld; <uNrhdpak; cg;Gf;fspd; jhf;fq;fis
• jhf;f q;fs; vOJthu;.
• ePUld; • N2 $ l ; l k ; rpwe;j ntspNaWk;
• cgnghRguR mkpyj;Jld; $l;lkhifahy; - N  N $ l ; l k ;
• CuCl cld;
ntt; N twhd Vida $l; l q; f spdhy;
• CuCN cld;
,y Fthf k hw; w P L nra ; a g; g Lk; vd
• CuBr cld;
milahsk; fhz;ghu;
• KI cld;
• <uNrhdpak; mad; xU • - N  N  $l;lk; ,yj;jpudhbahfnraw;gLk;
,yj;jpudhbahfr; vd milahsk; fhz;ghu;
nraw;gLk; jhf;fq;fs;. • <uNrhdpak; cg;Gf;fis cUthf;Ftjd;
• gpNdhYld; ,izjy; %yk; mdpyP D f; f hd Nrhjidfisr;
jhf;f k; nra;tJld; mtjhdq;fisg; gjpT nra;thu;.
• 2-eg;NjhYld; ,izjy;
jhf;f k;
• mdpyd P pwf
; hd Nrhjidfs;
<uNrhdpa cg;ig
c Uthf ; F tjd ; %y k ;
Nkw;nfhs;sy;
47
myF 11: ,urhad ,af;ftpay;
1 1 . 0 ,urhad j; 11.1 ,urhadj; jhf;fq; • jhf;fnkhd;wpd; tPjk; khztu;fshy; ntspgg ; Lj;jg;gl Ntz;bad 08
jhf; f nkhd; fspd; jhf;f tPjj; • nrwpT rhu;ghd tPjk; • ntt;NtW tPjq;fspy; ,lk;ngWk;
wpd; jhf; f ijAk; jhf;f aA + bB  cC + dD ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fSf;F cjhuzq;fis
tP j j; i jj; tPjj;ijg; ghjpfF
; k; • jhf;fp A r h u ; g h d j Ut J l d ; n tt ; N tW j hf ; f q ; f s pd ;
J zptjpYk ; fhuzpfisAk; jhf; ftPj k; tPjq;fisAk; xg;gpLthu;.
jhf; f j; j pd; JzpjiyAk; mwp • jh f ; f n k h d ; wpd ; tP jj ; i j g hj pf ; F k ;
tP j j; i jf; Kfg;gLj;Jthu;  C A  fhuzpfs;- ntg;gepiy> nrwpT (mKf;fk;)>
=  
fl;Lg; g Lj;J  t  ngsjpf jd;ik (jhf;fpfspd; Nkw;gug;G)
tjpYk; Cf; f pfs; vd; g tw; i w milahsq;
• tpisT D rhu;ghd jhf;f
,af; f fhz;ghu;.
,urhad   C D  • aA + bB  cC + dD vd;gJ xU
,af;f tpay; tPjk; =  
 t  nghJikg; gLj; j pa ,urhadj; jhf; f khFk;
Nfhl; g hL vdf; $Wthu;
fisg; gad; • ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fspd;
tPjq;fisg; ghjpf;Fk; • jhf;fnkhd;wpd; tPjj;ij Jzptjpy; gjhu;j;j
gLj; J thu; nkhd;wpd; nrwptpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wk; mbg;gilf;
fhuzpfs;.
• ntg;gepiy fhuzpahFk; vd;gijf; $Wthu;.
• nrwpT / mKf;fk; • jhf; f j; j pd; tP j j; i jj; jhf; f p A ,d;
• ngsjpf (jhf; f pfspd; nrwptpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wk; rhu;ghd tPjkhf
Nkw;gug;G)  C A 
• Cf;fpfs;   m y ; y J tp i s T D , d ;
 t 
 C D 
nrwptpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wk; rhu;ghf  
 t 
tiutpyf;fzg; gLj;Jthu;.
• jug;gl;l jhf;fnkhd;wpy; xt;nthU jhf;fp
fSk; mfw;wg;gLk; tPjKk; xt;nthU tpisT
fSk; cUthFk; tPjKk; rkdy;y vd
tpgupg;ghu;.
• jhf;fpnahd;wpd; mfw;wg;gLk; tPjk; my;yJ
48
tpisT xd; wpd; Njhd;Wk; tP jk; cupa
gjhu;j; jq;fspd; gPrkhdf; Fzfq;fspy;
jq;fpapUf;Fk; vd;gij $Wthu;.
1  C A  1  C D 
• jhf;ftPjk; =   =   vd;w
a  t  d  t 
thW nghJthf vLj;Jiug;ghu;.
• ve;jnthU khw;wj;jpw;Fk; jhf;ftPjk; XuyF
Neuj;jpy; nrwptpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wk; vdf;
Fwpg;gpLthu;.
• Fwpj;j xU jug;gl;l khwh msT
khw;wj;jpw;F> vLj;j Neuj;ij tPj
mstPLfspy; gad; g Lj; jyhk; vd;g jw; F
cjhuzq;fisf; nfhLg;ghu;.
1
(tPjk;  )
t
• jhf;ftPjq;fis xg;gpLtjw;F
gjhu; j ; j nkhd; w pd; mstpy; jq; f pAs; s
,ay;Gfs; (epwr;nrwpT> fyq;fy; Nghd;w)
my;yJ nrwpitAk; gad;gLj;j KbAk; vd
$Wthu;.
• jhf;ftPjq;fisj; Jzptjw;F Neuj;ij ,yF
thf msf;ff;$ba nkJthd jhf;fq;fis
cjhuzkhff; nfhLg;ghu;.
49
11.2 jhf;f tPjj;ijg; • xUgbj;jhf;fnkhd;wpd; rf;jp tiuglj;ij 06
ghjpf;Fk; • xU gbj; jhf;fj;jpd; rf;jp tiuthu;
fhuzpfspd; nry; tiuglk;. • Vtw;rf;jp vDk; gjj;ij tiutpyf;fzg;
thf;if tpsf;F • Vtw;rf;jp gLj;Jthu;
tjw;F %yf;$w;W • jhf;fnkhd;W eilngWt • jhf; f nkhd; W epfo; t jw; F mtrpakhd
,af;ftpay; jw; F jhf; f p %yf; $ W Njitfis gl;bay;gLj;Jthu;.
nfhs;ifia fshy; epiwNtw; w g; g l • ntg;gepiyia mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ %yf;$W
gad;gLj;Jthu; Ntz;baitfs;. f s pd ; ,a f ; f r; rf ; j pA k ; m j pf u pf ; F k ;
• %yf;$Wfspd; NkhJif vd;gijf; $Wthu;.
• nghUj;jkhd jpirKfk; • ,U NtW ntg;gepiyfspy; thA %yf;$W
• Vtw;rf;jpia kPwy; fSf;fhd vspikahf;fg;gl;l
• jhf;ftPjj;jpy; ntg;gepiy tbtj; j pw; F upa Nghl; R khdpd; guk; g y;
apd; ghjpg;G. tisapia tiutJld; ,t; N tWgl; l
ntg;g epiyfspy; %yf; $Wfspd; ,af;f
rf;jpg; guk;giy xg;gpLthu;.
• ntg;gepiy mjpfupg;gjhy; %yf;$Wfspd;
,af; f r; r f; j p mjpfupg; g Jld; mjdhy;
mtw;wpd; gaDs;s NkhJiffsp d;
vz; z pf; i ffSk; mjpfupg; g jhy; jhf; f
nkhd;wpd; tPjk; mjpfupg;gij tpsf;Fthu;.
• nrwpT njhlu;ghd vz;zf;fUitg; gad;
gLj;jp XuyF Neuj;jpy; xU fdtyFf;Fupa
Nkhjy; vz;zpf;if mjpfupg;gjid tpsf;F
thu;.
• jpirKfg;gLj;jg;gl;l NkhJiffspd; vz;
zpf; i f nkhj; j NkhJiffspd; vz;
zpf;iff;F Neu;tpfpj rkd; vdf; $Wthu;.
50
11.3 jhf;fpfspd; • NtWgl;l Kiwfspy; • nghUj;jkhd tiuGfisg; gad;gLj;jp Muk; 13
nrwpit jhf;f tPjj;ij tpgupj;jy;. gj; jhf;f tPjk;> fzj;jhf;f tPjk;> ruhrupj;
nghUj;jkhd Kiw • Muk;gj; jhf;ftPjk; jhf;f tPjk; vd;gtw;iwf; fhl;rpg; gLj;Jthu;.
apy; ifahs;tjd; • fzj; (cldbahd) • jug;gl;l jhf;fp rhu;ghf jhf;ftupirAk; mj;
%yk; jhf; ftPj k; jhf;fp rhu;ghd nrwpTk;> jhf;fj;jpd; tPjj;ij
jhf;fnkhd;wpd; • ruhrupj; jhf;ftPjk; vt;thW ghjpf;Fk; vd tpsf;Fthu;.
tPjj;ijf; • jhf;ftPjj;jpy; nrwptpd; • jhf;f q; f spd; jhf; f tpjpia jhf;f tP jk;
fl;Lg;gLj;Jthu; ghjpg;G
 K A  B
x y
• tPj tpjp> $Wfs; vd;wthW tiutpyf;fzg;
rhu;ghd jhf;ftupir gLj;Jthu;.
xU jhf;fj;jpd; tupir • jhf;ftPj tpjpapYs;s gjq;fis
(nkhj;jj;jhf;f tupir) tiutpyf;fzg;gLj;Jthu;.
• tPj khwpyp • g+r;rpa> Kjyhk;> ,uz;lhk; tupirj; jhf;fq;
• nkhj;jj; jhf;f tupir fspwF ; jhf;ftPj tpjpia (rkd;ghL) vOJtu;.
apd; mbg;gilapy; • g+r;rpa> Kjyhk;> ,uz;lhk; tupirj; jhf;fq;
jhf;fq;fis tifg; fspd; tPj khwpypapd; myFfis (SI myF
gLj;jy; (g+r;rpa tupir> fSf;F ,irthd my;yJ SI myFfSf;F
Kjyhk; tupir> ,uz; ,irtw;w) ngWthu;.
lhk; tupir kl;Lk;) • jhf;fnkhd;wpd; nkhj;jj; jhf;ftupiria
• Kjyhk; tupirj; jhf;f tpsf;F thu;.
nkhd;wpd; miu tho;Tf; • g+r;rpa tupir Kjyhk; ,uz;lhk; tupirj;
fhyKk; mjid tiuG jhf;f q; fSf; F nrwpTld; jhf;f tP jj;j pd;
%yk; tifFwpj;jYk; k hwy ; f i s ti uG uP j pa hf r; n ra ; J
(rkd;ghL mtrpakd;W) fhl;Lthu;.
• jhf;fnkhd;wpd; jhf;f • jhf; f nkhd; w pd; miutho; T f; fhyj; i j
tupiriaAk;> jhf;f tPj tpsq; f pf; n fhs; t Jld; tiutpyf; f zg;
khwpypiaAk; JzpAk; gLj;Jthu;.
Kiwfs;. • Kjyhk; tupirj; jhf;fj;jpd; miutho;Tf;
• Muk;gj; jhf;f tPj Kiw fhyk; Muk;gnrwptpy; jq;ftpy;iy vd;gij
tpsf;F thu;.
51
• Mg ,w;Fk; mkpyq;fSf; • NtWgl;l tupirfisf; nfhz;l jhf;fq;
Fk; ,ilNaahd jhf;fj; fSf;F cjhuzq;fisf; nfhLg;ghu;.
jpd;j hf;f tPj j;jpy; • g+r;rpa tupir> Kjyhk; tupir> ,uz;lhk;
mkpyr;nrwptpd; tpisit tupirj; jhf; f q; f is tpsf; F tjw; F
gupNrhjid uPjpahf gupNrhjid Nkw;nfhs;thu;
jPu;khdpj;jy;. • gupNrhjidfspy; ,Ue;J ngwg;gl;l jfty;
• Na2S2O3 ,w;Fk; HNO3 ,w; fis nghUj;jkhff; ifahStjd; %yk;
Fk; ,ilNaahd jhf;fj; NtWgl;l jhf;fpfs; rhu;ghf jhf;fq;fspd;
jpd; jhf;ftPjj;jpy; tupiriaj; Jzpthu;.
nrwptpd; tpisit • jhf;fq;fspd; tupiriaAk; jhf;f tpjpia
gupNrhjid uPjpahfj; Ak; njhlu;GgLj;Jk; gpur;rpidfisj;
jPu;khdpj;jy;. jPu;g;ghu;.
11.4 jhf;ftPjj;jpy; • jhf;f tPjj;jpy; ngsjpf • x U j p z ; k j ; j h f ; f p a p d ; N k w ; g u g ; G

ngsjpf jd;ik j d ; i k a p d J k ; mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ NkhJiffspd;
fspdJk; Cf;fp Cf;fpfsdJk; tpisit vz;zpf;if mjpfupg;g jhy; jhf;ftPjKk;
fspdJk; tpsf; Fthu; mjpfupf;Fk; vd;gijf; $Wthu;.
ghjpg;Gfis • xU jhf;fj; jpd; Vtw;r f;jpkPJ Cf; fpapd;
Muha;thu; tpisit tpgupg;ghu;.
52
11.5 ,urhadj; jhf;f • Kjd;ikj; jhf;fq;fs; • gy;gbj;jhf;fq;fspy; ,Ue;J Kjd;ikj; 6
nkhd;wpd; jhf;f • gy gbj; jhf;fq;fs; jhf;fq;fis NtWgLj;Jthu;.
tPjj;ij tpsf;F • rf;jp tiuglq;fs; • jhf;fnkhd;wpd; nghwpKiwf;Fk;
tjw; F jhf; f g; • jhz;ly; epiyAk; jhf;fnkhd; wpd; tupirf;Fk; ,ilNaahd
nghwpKiwiag; ,ilepiyfSk; njhlu;Gil ikia tpsf;Fthu;.
gad;gLj;Jthu; • jhf;ftPjj;ij epuz ; apfF; k; • rf;jp-jhf;f Ms;$w;W Njhw;wtiuG gw;wp
gbAk; nkhj;jj; jhf;fj;jpd; tpsf; Fthu; 11
tPjj;jpy; ,jd; ghjpg;Gk; • rf;jp tiuglj;jpy; jhz;ly; epiy> ,ilepiy
• Fe3+ ,w;Fk; I- ,w;Fk; vd;gtw;iw ,dq;fhz;ghu;
,ilapyhd jhf;fj;jpy; • %yf;$w;Wj; jpwidAk; Kjd;ik kw;Wk;
Fe3+ rhu;ghd jhf;f gy;gbj;jhf;fq;fspdJ tupiriaAk; tpsf;F
tupiria gupNrhjid thu;.
uPjpahfj; Jzpjy;. • rf;jpapaypd; mbg;gilf; nfhs;iffisg;
gad; gLj; j p NkhJifiaj; njhlu; e ; J
eilngWk; epfo;it tpsf;Ftjw;F rf;jp
kl;l tiuig fl;bnaOg;Gthu;.
• Fe3+ ,w;Fk; I- ,w;Fk; ,ilapy; eilngWk;
jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftPjj;jpy; Iron (III), mad;
fspd; nrwptpd; ghjpg;ig tpsf;Fthu;.
• jhf;fnkhd;wpd; nghwpKiwf;Fk; jhf;fnkhd;
wpd; tupirf;Fk; ,ilNaAs;s njhlu;ig
tpsf;F thu;.
• jhf; f nkhd; w pd; jhf; f g; nghwpKiwia
tpsf;Ftjw;F rf;jp kl;l tiuigf; fl;b
naOg;Gthu;.
53
myF 12: rkepiy
12.0 rkepiy gw; 12.1 mstwpuP jpahfj; • rkepiyapYs;s njhFjp khztu;fshy; ntspgg ; Lj;jg;gl Ntz;bad 19
• %ba> kPs;jhf;fj; njhFjpnahd;iwg; gad;
wpa vz;zf; njhFjpfspy; fs; (,af;fr; nrad;Kiw
gLj;jp ,af;f rkepiyia tpsf;Fthu;
fUitAk; fhzg;gLfpd;w Ak;> kPs;jd;ikAk;)
• rkepiy mile;jgpd; njhFjpapd; ngUk;
Nfhl;ghLfis ngUk;ghu;itf; • rkepiyapy; epyTk; ghu;itf;Fupa ,ay;Gfs; njhlu;e;J khwh
Ak; gad; Fupa gz;Gfisr; njhFjpfs;(Vftpd> gy;ypd) jpUj;jiy tpsf;Fthu;.
gLj;jp ,af;f rkepiy gw;wpa • ,urhad • epiykhw;wk;> fiury;fspy; fhzg;gLk;
rkepiyapy; vz;zf;fUtpd; • mad; rkepiyfs;> ,urhad njhFjpfs;> mad;
cs;s %ba JizAld; Jzp • fiujpwd; njhFjpfs;> mupjhf fiuAk; kpdg ; FnghUs;
njhFjpfspd; thu; • mtj;ij fisf; nfhz;l njhFjpfs;> kpd;tha;fs;
ngUk;ghu;itf; • kpd;tha; Nghd;w ngsjPf> ,urhad nrad;Kiwfis
Fupa gz; G • rkepiy tpjp cjhuzkhff; nfhz;L rkepiyapy; cs;s
fisj; j P u ; k h • rkepiy khwpyp njhFjpfis tpgupg;ghu;.
dpg; g hu; • ,urhad rkepiy • rkepiy tpjpia vLj;Jiug;ghu;.
• KP, KC & Q • jug;gl;l njhFjpfSf;fhd rkepiy khwpyp
• KP = KC(RT)n f i s ( K P , K C) V f t p d > gy;ypd
• rkepiyg;Gs;sp njhFjpfSf;F vOJthu;.
• rkepiyg;Gs;spia • Q it tiuaWg;ghu;
ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfs;
• Q itAk; k iaAk; xg;gpLthu;
• KP, KC f;fpilapyhd njhlu;igg; ngWthu;
• ,yPr;rw;wNyaupd;
• rkepiyg;Gs;spia tpsf;Fthu;.
jj; J tk; • khwh ntg;g epiyapy; xU njhFjpapd;
• gupNrhjid uPjpahf ,af;f rkepiy khwpyp khwhJ vd $Wthu;
rkepiy njhFjpapd; ,ay;G • nrwpT> mKf;fk;> ntg;gepiy> Cf;fpfs;
fis Fe3+/CNS- vd; g d rkepiyg; G s; s piag; vt; t hW
njhFjpia gad;gLj;jpf; ghjpf;Fk; vd tpgupg;ghu;
fw;wy;. • ,ypr;rw;wypaupd; jj;Jtj;ij $Wthu;
• gupNrhjid uPjpahf NO2 • xU njhFjp nrwpT> mKf;fk;> ntg;gepiy
itAk; N2O4 IAk; nfhz;l Nghd;w Gw tpisTfshy; Fiyf;fg;gLk;N ; ghJ
rkepiy kPJ ntg;gj;jpd; rkepiyj; njhFjpapd;kPJ ,ypr;rw;waupd;
tpisitf; fw;wy;. jj;Jtjjpwf ; ika vt;thW ghjpf;fg;gLnkd
vjpu;T $Wthu;
54
• KP, KC kw;Wk; Kp=Kc(RT)Δn I mbg;gilahf 20
nfhz;l gpur;rpidfisj; jPu;g;ghu;.
• Fe3+/CNS- rkepiyj; njhFjp kPJ nrwptpd;
ghjpgi; gr; Nrhjpgg
; hu;
• NO 2 / N 2 O4 r k e p i y j ; n j h F j p k P J
mKf;fj;jpd; ghjpgi ; gr; Nrhjpgg
; hu;.
12.2 nkd; m kpyq; f s; > • Mu;fpdparpd; nfhs;if> Gnuhs;]n ; ul;Nyhwp
• mkpyq;fs;> %yq;fs;>
nkd;%yq;fs;> apd; nfhs;if> Y}apapd; nfhs;iffis
cg;Gf;fs;
mkpy cg;Gf;fs;> cfe;j cjhuzk; nfhz;L tpsf;Fthu;.
• mkpy %y nfhs;iffs;
%y cg;Gf;fs;
• ,iz mkpyq;fSk;
• mkpyq;fisAk; %yq;fisAk; nkd;> td;
njhlu;ghd rk vd tifg;gLj;Jthu;
,iz %yq;fSk;
epiyj; njhFjp
• $l;lw;gpupif khwpypfs; • , i z m k p y > %y q ; f i s c j h u zk ;
fspd; ,ay;G nfhz;L tpsf;Fthu;
Kw, Ka, Kb
fis mstwp
• xRthypd; Ijhf;f tpjp • ePupd; jd; madhf;fj;ijf; fUjp Kw f;fhd
uPjpahf mwpthu; Nfhitia vOJthu;
• pH ngWkhdk;
• mkpyq;fs; (Xu;%y) %yq; • Ka, Kb f;fhd Nfhitfisj; jUthu;.
fs; (Xu;mkpy) fiury; • Ka, Kb > Ijhf;f tpjpf;fhd rkd;ghLfisg;
fspd; pH ngWkhdj;ij ngWthu;
fzpj; j y; • ,ize;j mkpy - %y Nrhbfspd; Ka f;Fk;
• cg;Gf;fiury;fspd; pH Kbf;Fk; ,ilapyhd njhlu;ig ngWthu;.
ngWkhdj;ij fzpj;jy; • Kw, Ka, Kb Mfpatw;iw cgNahfpjJ ; gpur;rpid
• mkpy-%y epakpg;Gf;fs; fis jPu;g;ghu;.
• epakpg;Gfis • pH ia tiuaWg;ghu;.
mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l • cg;Gf;fspd; ePu;g;gFg;gpid njspthf;Fthu;
vspa fzpg;Gfs; • mkpyq;fs;> %yq;fs;> Mfpatw;wpd; ePu;f;
• epakpg;G tiuGfs; fiury;fspd; pH I fzpg;ghu;
• fhl; b fs; gw; w pa • cg;Gf;fspd; fw;wad;fs;> mdad;fspd; ePug ; ;
nfhs; i ffs; gFg; i gf; fUj; j py; nfhz; L mtw; w pd;
fiury;fspd; pH I fzpg;ghu;.
55
• rktYg;Gs;spfis • epakpg;Gfisg; gad;gLj;jp gpur;rpidfisj;
Jzpjy; (fl;Gyd; Kiw jPu;g;ghu;
fhl;b fis cgNahfpj;J • mkpy %y (eLepiyahf;fk;) fhl;bfs; nkd;
kl;Lk;) mkpyq; f s; my; y J nkd; %yq; fs; vd
• PK IN n g W k h d q ; f s p d ; $Wthu;.
mbg; gilapy; • madhfhj> madhf; f g; g l; l epiyapy;
epakpg;GfSf;F fhl;bfs; ntt;NtW epwq;fis fhl;Lk; vd
nghUj;jkhd fhl;bfis ntspg;gLj;Jthu;.
njupT nra;jy;. • xU fhl;bapd; pH tPrR; (epwkhw;w ,ilntsp)
• pH ia Nrhjpg;gjd; %yk; mf;fhl;bapd; $l;lw; gpupif khwpypapy; (KIN)
cg;Gf; fiury;fspd; jq;Fk; vd tpsq;fpf; nfhs;thu;
mkpy> %y> eLepiy • xU epakpg;G fhl;bapd; njupT mjd; pKIN
jd; i kia gupNrhjid ngWkhdj; j py; jq; f papUg; g Jld; xU
uPjpahfj; Jzpjy;. epakpg;gpd; rktYg;Gs;spapd; pH my;yJ
• Na2CO3f;Fk; HCl f;Fkpil pH ,d; jpBu; khw;wk; Vw;gLk; pH tPr;Rld;
apyhd epakpgg
; pid gpNdhg; gad; g Lk; f hl; b apd; pK IN ngWkhdk ;
jypd;> nkijapy; nrk; xj;jpUf;Fk; vd Fwpj;Jf; fhl;Lthu;;
kQ;rs; Mfpa fhl;bfis • xU Fwpg;gpl;l epakpg;gpw;F nghUj;jkhd
cgNahfpj;Jr; nra;jy;. fhl;bia njupT nra;tjw;fhf fhl;bfs;
njhlu;ghd nfhs;ifia gpuNahfpg;ghu;.
• rktYg;Gs;spapy; mkpy/%y jhf;fq;fspd;;
pH ngWkhdq;fis fzpg;ghu;.
• ntt;NtW tifahd mkpy %y epakpg;G
fSf;F epakpg;G tiuGfis tiuthu;.
• rktYg;Gs;spf;fz;ikapy; rpwpa fdtsT
fiuriy Nru;f;Fk; nghOJ pH y; jpBu;
khw;wk; Vw;gLtij mwpthu;.
• Na2CO3 w;Fk; HCl f;Fkpilapy; epakpg;gpd;
Kf;fpa ,ay;Gfis gz;gwpuPjpahf epakpg;G
tiuGfisg; gad;gLj;jp fye;JiuahLthu;.
56
• gupNrhjid uPjpahf mkp / %y / eLepiyj;
jd;ikapid cg;Gf;fspd; fiury;fspd; pH
fis Nrhjpg;gjd; %yk; jPu;khdpg;ghu;
• Na 2CO 3 w ; F k ; HCl f ; F k p i l a p y h d ;
epakpg; g pidgpNdhg; g jypd; > nkijapy;
nrk;kQ;rs; gad; gLj;jp Nkw;nfhs;thu;.
• jhq;fw; fiury;fs; (gz;
12.3 Njitf; Nfw;g gwpuPjpahfTk; mstwpuPjp
jhq; fw; fiury; ahfTk;) • jhq;fw; fiuriy tiuaWg;ghu;.
fisj; jahupg;ghu; • vz;lu;rd; rkd;ghl;bidg; • jhq;fw; fiuriy mstwp uPjpahfTk; gz;gwp
ngWjYk; gpuNahfq;fSk; uPjpahfTk; EZfp Ma;thu;.
(Xu; %y> Xukpy njhFjp • xU %y> Xukpy njhFjpf;fhd vz;lu;rd;
fSf;F kl;Lk;> rkd;ghl;ilg; ngWthu;.
,Ugbr;rkd; ghLfSld; • vz;l u;r d; rkd;g hl;il xU vspikahd 12
njhlu;Gila fzpjj ; y;fs; fzpj;jy;fSf;F gad;gLj;Jthu;.
mtrpakd;W.) • xU jhq;fw; njhFjpapd; pH ngWkhdj;ij
• jhq;fw; njhFjp xd;wpd; gz; g wp uP j pahfTk; mstwp uP j pahfTk;
pH ngWkhdk;. tpsf;F thu;.
12.4 mupjpw; fiuAk; • fiujpwd; ngUf; f Kk;
mad; Nru;it (Ksp) mad; ngUf;fKk; • rpy mad;Nru;itfs; ePupy; kpf ed;whf
fisf; nfhz;l • tPo;gbTWjy;. fiuAk;. Mdhy; rpy mad; Nru;itfs; ePupy; 12
rkepiy njhFjp • fiujpwd; fiujpwd; Fiwe;jit vd $Wthu;.
fspd; ,ay;Gfis • nghJ mad; tpisT • mupjpy; fiuAk; kpd;gFnghUs;fSf;F
msg;ghu; • fw;wad;fspd; gz;gwp gFg;rkepiy tpjpia gpuNahfpg;ghu;.Ksp
(gy;ypd mad; gpy; gpuNahfk; (group • ePuf
; f
; iury;fspypUe;J xU mad; Nru;itia
rkepiy) analysis) tPo;gbthf;f Njitahdtw;iw tpsf;Ftu;.
• Ca(OH)2d; fiujpwd; • Xu; mupjpw; fiuAk; kpd;gF nghUspd; Ksp
ngUf;fj;ijg; gupNrhjid njhlu;ghd gpur;ridfis jPu;g;ghu;
uPjpahf Jzpjy;. • nghJ mad; tpisit gpuNahfpg;ghu;.
57
• tPog; bthf;fy; Kiw %yKk;> mjid njhlu;eJ
;
ntt;NtW Nrhjidg;nghUl;fspy; tPo;gbT
fspd; fiujpwid cgNahfpj;Jk; fw;wad;
fis ,dq;fhz;ghu;.
• fiujpwd; ngUf;fy; jj;Jtj;jpd; mbg;gil
apy; tPo;gbTfspd; fiujpwid tpsf;Fthu;.
• gl;baw;gLj;jg;gl;l fw;wad;fis> mad;
Nru;itfspd; fiujpwd; ngUf;fj;jpd; mbg;
05
gilapy; Ie;J $l;lq;fshf tFg;ghu;.
• fiujpwd;> fiujpwd; ngUf;fk; Ksp ,d;
mbg;gilapy; fzpg;Gfis Nkw;nfhs;thu;
• Ca(OH)2 ,d; Ksp I gupNrhjid uPjpahfj;
Jzpthu;
12.5 xU $wpid • J}a jputj; njhFjpfs; • mtj;ijia tiuaWg;ghu;
kl;Lk; nfhz;l • jputk;> Mtpff; pilahd • J}a jput njhFjpfis ,dq;fhz;ghu;.
njhFjpfspy; rkepiy • jput - Mtp rkepiyia %yf; $ w; W
jput - Mtp • jput> Mtp njhFjpapy; ,af;fk; %yk; tpsf;Fthu;.
rkepiy khWk; rkepiy cUthFk; • epuk;gyhtpaKf;fj;ij tiuaWg;gu;.
tpjj;ij EZfp Kiwia %yf;$w;W • nfhjpepiyia tiuaWg;gu;.
Muha;thu;;. (mtj; ,af;fj;jpd; JizAld; • ntg;gepiyAld; jputq;fspd; MtpaKf;fk;
ijr;rkepiy) tpgupj;jy; khwiy tpsf;Fthu;.
• epuk; g yhtpaKf; f Kk; • MtpaKf;fj;jpw;Fk; nfhjpepiyf;Fkpilap
nfhjpepiyg; Gs;spAk; yhd njhlu;ig ,dq;fhz;ghu;
• ePupdJk;NtW • mtjpntg;gepiyia tiuaWg;ghu;
jputq;fspdJk;
MtpaKf;fk;
• eP u pd; mtj; i j tiuig gad; g Lj; j p
ntg;gepiyAld; khW Kk;ikg; Gs;spia ngaupLthu;.
gLjy;. 12
• mtjp ntg;gepiy
• vspa $Wila njhFjp
xd;wpd; mtj;ij tiuG
58
• ePupd; mtj;ij tiuG
• Kk;ikg;Gs;sp
• MtpaKf;fKk; nfhjp
epiyAk;
• jput - jput njhFjpfs; • gFjpahf fyf; F k; jfTs; s > fyf; F k;
12.6 Jtpj jput •KOikahffyf;Fk; jftw; w njhFjpfs; vd cjhuzq; f s;
njhFjpfspd; jfTs;s jput-jputnjhFjp je;J tifg;gLj;Jthu;
jput - Mtp • ,uNthw;wpd; tpjp • rkepiy kw;Wk; ,af;ftpay; njhlu;ghd
rkepiy khWk; Nfhl;ghLfis Jtpjf; fiury; njhFjp
• ,yl;rpa fiury;fs;
tpjj;ij EZfp nahd;wpy; gpuNahfpj;J ,uNthw;wpd; tpjpia
• ,yl;rpakw;w jput
Muha;thu; ngWthu;.
njhFjp • ,yl;rpaf; fiuriy tiutpyf;fzk; nra; thu;.
• Kw;whff; fyf;Fk; • ,yl;rpakw;w fiuryhdJ Vd;> vt;thW
njhFjp fspd; mtj;ij ,uNthw;w pd; tpjpapypUe; J tpyFfpd;w J
tiuG>khwhf; nfhjpepiy vd;gjid rkepiy Mtpatj;ij mikg;G
fyit jtpu tiughy; tpsf;Fthu;;.
(Azeotropes jtpu) • rkepiyapd;NghJ fiury; kw; Wk; Mtp
• Mtp mKf;fk; - mtj;ijfspd; mikg;igj; Jzptjw;fhf
mikg;G ,uNthw;wpd; tpjpiag; gad;gLj;Jthu;.
mtj;ij tiuGfs; • Jtpj njhFjpfspd; ,yl; rpa elj;i j>
• ntg;gepiy - mikg;G ,yl;rpakw;w elj;ijfis tpgupg;ghu;
mtj;ij tiuGfSk; • Mtpgwg;Gs;s jputnkhd;W Mtpgwg;gw;w
gFjpglf; fha;r;rp gjhu;j;jj;Jld; fye;Js;s fiurnyhd;wp
tbj;jYk; ypUe;J mtw;iw Ntwhf;fp nfhs;tjw;fhf
vspa fha;r;rp tbg;igg; gad;gLj;jyhk; vd
$Wthu;.
• xU vspa tbg;gpw;Fk; gFjpgl tbg;gpw;Fk;
cjhuzq;fisj; jUthu;.
• gFjpgl fha;r;rp tbg;gpd; %yk;
Mtpg;gwg;Gs;sjputf; fyitnahd;wpypUe;J
Mtpg;gwg;Gs;s $Wfis NtWgLj;j KbA
nkdf; $Wthu;.
59
12.7 Kw;wpYk; fyf;Fk; • K w ; w p Y k ; f y f ; F k ; • Kw;whff; fyf;Fk; jftw;w jputq;fSf;F
jftw;w ,U jftw;w j p u t - j p u t cjhuzq;fs; jUthu; CCl / H O, CHCl /
4 2 3
jputq; f spilNa njhFjp.
H2O, C6H6 / H2O
xU gjhu;j;jj;jpd; • gq;fPl;Lf;Fzfk;
guk;giy Muha;thu; • vjNdhapf; mkpyj;jpd; • gq;fPl;L Fzfk; KDia tpsf;Fthu;.
gq;fPl;Lf; Fzfj;ij • N ed Rtpd ; (Nernst) guk ; g y; tpjpi a
ePUf;Fk; gpuNahfpg;gjw;F ,Uf;fNtz;ba
gpa+w;wNdhYf;Fk; epge; j idfisf; $Wthu;
,ilapy; gupNrhjid • KDia cgNahfpjJ ; gpur;rpidfis jPu;gg; hu;.
uPjpahf Jzpjy;. • eP u pw; F k; 2- gpa+w; w NdhYf; F k; ,ilNa
vjNdhapff ; kpyj;jpd; gq;fl P Lf; Fzfj;jpid
gupNrhjid %yk; jPu;khdpg;ghu;.
60
myF 13: kpd;dpurhadk;
13.0 k p d ; d p u r h a 13.1 f l j ; J j p w i d •k p d ; g F n g h U l ; f s p d ; khztu;fshy; ntspgg ; Lj;jg;gl Ntz;bad 07
dj; njhFjp fiurnyhd; w pd; tiffs; • td; kpdg
; FnghUs;
> nkd; kpdg ; FnghUs;> kpd;
fs pd ; fiuaq;fspd; gfhnghUs; Mfpa gjq;fis tpsf;Fthu;.
1
Kf; f paj; J gz;igAk;> nrwp • flj;JtY Conductance) • ePu; Clfj;jpy; kpd;gFnghUs;>
tj ; i j itAk; tpsq;fpf; R kpd;gfhnghUs;> nkd;gFnghUs;
Muhathu; nfhs;tjw;Fg; • flj;Jjpwd;(Conductivity) Mfpatw;wpw;F cjhu zq;fisj; jUthu;.
gad;gLj;Jthu; jilj; j pwdpd; kWjiy • kpd; fhtpr;nry;Yk; Jzpf;iffs; rhu;ghf
l kpd;flj;jpfs;> mad; flj;jpfs;
k vd;gdtw;iw xg;gpLthu;.
AR • kpd;gFnghUs; xd;wpD}lhf kpd;Ndhl;lk;
gha; tjw; F ,uz; L kpd; t ha; f spYk;
• flj;Jjpwidg; ghjpf;Fk; kpd;tha; jhf;fq;fs; epfo;tJ mtrpak; vd
fhuzpfs; Fwpg;gpLthu;.
• fiuaj;jpd; jd;ik> td;/ • jil (Resistance), jilj;jpwd; (Resistivity)
nkd; kpdg ; FnghUs;> kpd; Mfpa gjq;fis tiuaWg;ghu;.
gfh nghUs; vd;gtw;wpd; • flj;JtY (Conductance) flj;Jjpwd; Mfpa
ePu;f;fiury;fs;> gjq;fis tiuaWg;ghu;.
cUfpa kpd;gFnghUs; • kpdg ; FnghUs; fiury; xd;wpd; flj;Jjpwid
• nrwpT ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfisf; $Wthu;.
• ntg;gepiy
61
• cNyhf - cNyhf mad; kpd;tha; xd;wpd;
13.2 rkepiyapYs; s • rkepiyapYs;s kPs;jF 06
glj;ij tiuthu;.
kpd;tha;fs; gw;wp kpd;tha;fSk; mtw;wpd;
• nghJthd cNyhf - cNyhf mad;
Ak; mtw; W ld; kpd;tha; jhf;fq;fSk;
kpd;tha;fSf;F cjhuzq;fisf; nfhLj;J
njhlu;Gila kpd; • c N y h f k ; - c N y h f
kPSk; kpd;tha; jhf;fq;fis vOJtu;.
tha;j; jhf;fq;fs; mad; fs;
• kpd;tha; xd;wpw;Fk; mjd;
gw;wpAk; • cNyhfk; - fiuahj
fiurypw;Fkpilapyhd mOj;j NtWghL
Muha;thu; cg;Gf;fs;
k pd ; t ha pw; F k ; mjd ; kpd; g Fn ghUs ;
• thA kpdt ; ha;fs; (O2, H2,
njhLifAWk; gug;gpw;FkpilNa
Cl2)
epiyj;jpUf;Fk; vd tpgupg;ghu;.(electrode /
• jho;Njw;Wk; kpd;tha;fs;
electrolyte interface)
c-k;: Pt(s) / Fe2+(aq),
• ntt;NtW tifahd kpd;tha;fis (thA
Fe3+(aq)
kpd;tha;fs;> cNyhf - cNyhf mad; kpd;
tha; f s; > cNyhf -fiuahj cg; G fs;
kpd;tha;fs;> jho;Njw;W kpd;tha;fs;)
glkhff; fhl; b cjhuzq; f s; %yk;
tpsf; Fthu;
• ntt;NtW tifahd kpd;tha;fSf; fhd
kPSk; kpd;tha; jhf;fq;fis vOJtu;.
• epakpd;thia tiuaWg;ghu;.
10
• epak FwpaPLfis cgNahfpj;J kpd;tha;
fisf; Fwpg;gpLthu;.
13.3 kpd; ,urhadf; • jputr;re;jp (Liquid junction)
• jput re;jp> cg;Gghyk; gpupifahf;fp (seperator)
Mfpatw;wpd; cgNahfq;fis $Wthu;
fyq;fspd; ,ay;G • cg;Gg;ghyk;
• jputre;jp mw;w fyj;jpw;F cjhuzq;fisj;
fis jPuk ; y;. • Ntwhf;fp (Separator)
; hdpjj jUthu;
• jputr;re;jpapyy
; hj fyq;fs; • kpd;tha; xd;wpd; kpd;tha; mOj;jk; vd;Dk; 15
• kpd;dpurhadf; fyq;fs; gjj;ij tpgupg;ghu;
• fyj;jhf;f q;f s; • epak Ijurd; kpd;thia xU khw;Nww;W
• xUfyj;jpd; kpd;d paf;f kpd;thahf (Reference electrocle) mwpKfg;
tpir gLj;Jthu;.
62
• xU kpd;thapd; epak kpd;tha; mOj;jj;ij
• kpd;tha; mOj;jk; (E)
tiuaWg;ghu;
• epak kpd;tha; mOj;jk;
• xU kpd;thapd; epak kpd;tha; mOj;jj;ij
(E0) vt;thW mstplyhk; vd tpsf;Fthu;.
• kpd;dpurhadf; fyq;fs; • kpd;tha; mOj;jj;ij ghjpf;Fk;
• fyj;j hf;f q;f s; fhuzpfisfr; $Wthu;
• xU kpd;fyj;jpd; • nts; s p - nts; s p FNshiul; L kw; W k;
kpd;,af;ftpir fNyhky; kpd;thia gupNrhjid uPjpapyhd
E0Cell =E0(fNjhl;L)-E0(mNdhl;L) khw; N ww; W (Practial reference electrocles)
(Nernst rkd;ghL mtrpa kpd;tha;fshf $Wthu;.
kw;wJ) • kpd; ,urhad fyq;fSf;fhd cjhuzj;ij
• ntt;NtW tifahd tiuglq;fSld; nfhLg;ghu;.
nra;Kiwf; fyq;fs; • epak tpjpfSld; kpd;dpurhadf; fyj;jpd;
• lhdpay; fyk; tof; f khd FwpaP L fis (conventional
• kpd; ,urhadj; njhlu; notations) Kd;itg;ghu;
• %yfq;fspd; ,ay;Gfs;> • vspa kpd;dpurhadf; fyq;fSf;fhd kpd;
kpd; ,urhadj; njhlup tha;j; jhf;fq;fis vOJthu;.
Ys;s mjd; miktplj; • kpd;dpaf;ftpir vd;Dk; gjj;ij
Jld;/ epiyAld; njhlu;G tiuaWg;ghu;
ilaJ • kpd;dpaf;ftpir njhlu;ghd vspa fzpg;Gf;
• kpd;dpurhad njhlupy; fisj; jPu;g;ghu;.
cNyhfq; fspd; • kpd;dpaf;f tpiria ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfis
miktplj;jpw;Fk;> tpgupg;ghu;.
mtw;wpd; ,Uf;iff;Fk;> • md;whl tho;fi ; fapy; gad;gLk; fyq;fisg;
gpupj;njLg;gpw;Fk; ngauply; (,yf;fpshQ;rpf; fyk;
,ilapyhd njhlu;G. <aNrkpg;Gf;fyk;)
• kpd; ,urhad njhlupy; • lhdpay; fyj;jpd; glj;ij tiuthu;
rhjhuzkhf / nghJthff; • epak kpd;tha; mOj;jq;fis cgNahfpj;J
fpilf;ff;$ba cNyhfq; kpd; ,urhadj; njhliuf; fl;bnaOg;Gtu;.
fspd; rhu;epiyia gup
Nrhjid uPjpahfj; Jzpjy;.
63
• epak Ag(s), AgCl(s)/Cl-(aq) • cNyhfq; f spd; ,Uf; i f> gpupj; n jLg; G
kpd;thiaj; jahupj;jy;. Kiw> ,urhad ,ay;Gfs; vd;gdtw;iw
kpd; ,urha dj; njhlupy; mtw; w pd;
epiyfSld; njhlu;G gLj;jp tpgupg;ghu;
• kpd; d purhadj; njhlupy; rhjhuzkhf
(nghJthf) fpilf;ff;$ba cNyhfq;fspd;
rhu;epiyia gupNrhjid uPjpahfj; Jzpthu;
• Ma;T$lj;jpy; epak Ag(s), AgCl(s) / Cl-(aq)
kpd;thia jahupg;ghu;
13.4 kpd;gFg;ig Nkw; • kpd;gFg;ig tiuaWg;ghu;. 08

n f h s ; Sk ; N gh J • kpd;gFg;gpd; jj;Jtq;fis tpgupg;ghu;.
g+u;j;jp nra;a • vspa kpdg ; Fg;Gj;njhFjpfspd; tpisTfis
Ntz;ba • kpd;gFg;gpd; jj;Jtq;fs; vjpu;T $Wthu;.
Njitfis • ePupd; kpd;gFg;G • guNlapd; khwpypia mbg; g ilahff;
,dq;fhZthu; • nrg; G kpd; t hia gad; nfhz;l vspa fzpg;Gf;fisj; jPu;g;ghu;.
mj;Jld; guNlapd; gLj;jp CuSO4 / CuCl2 ePu;f;
khwpypia fiuriy kpd;gFj;jy;.
cgNahfpj;J • Pt kpdt; hia cgNahfpjJ ;
fzpj;jy;f is CuSO4 ePu;f;fiuriy kpd;
Nkw;nfhs;Sthu; gFj;jy;.
• fhgd; kpd;tha;fis cg
Nahfpj;J NaCl / Na2SO4
fiuriy kpd;gFj;jy;.
• cUfpa NaCl I kpd;gFj;
jy;. (jj;Jtq;fs; kl;Lk;)
• kpd;dpurhadf;
fzpg;Gfspw; F guNlapd;
khwpypapd; gpuNahfk;
64
myF 14: njhopw;rhiyfSk; khrhf;fKk;
• xU ,urhad ifj;njhopy; khztu;fshy; ntspgg ; Lj;jg;gl Ntz;bad
1 4 . 0 Nju; e ; n jLf; 14.1 s njhFg;G %yfq; 13
rhiyia tbtikg;gjw;F • Xu; ,urhadf; ifj;njhopiy tbtikg;
fg;gl;l ifj; fis nfhz;l
Njitahd mbg;gil gjw;F Njitahd mbg;gilf; fhuzpfis
njhopy; f spd; Nru;itfspd; cw;
fhuzpfisf; ftdj;jpw; gl;baw;gLj;Jthu;.
gpuNahfq;fis gj; j p> gad; f s;
nfhs;Sjy;. • xU ifj;njhopypy; ,aw;ifahf mikAk;
tpsq;FtJld;> vd;gtw;iw
• %yg;nghUl;fisj; njupT %yg;nghUl;fis njupT nra;Ak; nghOJ
mt w;wp d; EZfpaha;thu;
nra;jy;. ftdj;jpw; nfhs;s Ntz;ba fhuzpfis
jj; J tq;
• cw;gj;jp tpgupg;ghu;.
fis EZfp
• kf;dPrpak;(gpw;wd; • Mg, NaOH (nkd;rt;T fyKiw)> rtu;f;fhuk;
Muha ; j Yld ;
fiurypypUe;J DOG Na2CO 3 (Nrhy; N t Kiw) Mfpatw; w pd;
ifj;njhopy;
Kiw) cw;gj;jp> cgNahfq;fs;> mt;KiwfSld;
khrhf;fpfisAk;
• NaOH(nkd;rt;T fyKiw) njhlu;ghd ngsjPf ,urhad jj;Jtq;fs;
,dq;fhz;ghu;.
• rtu;f;fhuk; ahtw;iwAk; tpgupg;ghu;.
• Na2CO3 (Nrhy;Nt Kiw) • rtu;ff
; hu khjpupfis Ma;T$lj;jpy; jahupgg;
• Ma;T$lj; jahupg;G - Jld; mjd; juj;ij vt;thW Nkk;gLj;jyhk;
rtu;f;fhuk; vdTk; tpgupg;ghu;
• cw; g j; j pAk; cgNahfq; • mNkhdpah> iej;jpupf; mkpyk;> ry;g+upf;
14.2 p F O % y f q ; 08
fSk; mkpyk; Mfpatw;wpd; cw;gj;jpapy; mlq;fp
fis nfhz;l
• mNkhdpah (Vgu; Kiw) As; s Kiwfis tpgupg; g hu; . mtw; w py;
Nru;itfspd; cw;
• iej;jpupf;mkpyk; mlq;fp As;s ngsjPf ,urhadj;
gj;jp Kiwfis
(x];thy;l; Kiw) jhf;fq;fisAk; ,dq;fhz;ghu;.
EZfpaha;thu;
• ry;g+upfm
; kpyk; (njhLif • mtw;wpd; gad;fisf; $Wthu;.
Kiw)
• cw; gj; jpAk; > cgNahfq; • ijj;Njdpak; xl;irl;L gpupj;njLg;ig

14.3 d F O % y f q ; 04
fSk; tpgupg;ghu;. ,k;Kiwfspy; fhzg;gLk;
fspd; Nru;itfsp
c&j;ijapypUe;J ngsjPf ,urhad jj;Jtq;fis
dJk; cw;gj;jpia
ijj;Njdpak; xl;irl;L ,dq;fhz;ghu;.
Ak; cgNahfq;
(FNshiul;L; Kiw) • ijj; N jdpak; xl; i rl; b d; ; gad; f is
fisAk; EZfp
tpgupg;ghu;.
aha;thu;
65
• CJiy Kiwapy; ,Uk;G • CJiyKiw ,Uk;G gpupj;njLg;gpy; mjd;
cw;gj;jpAk; mjd; cw;gj;jpf;fhd ngsjpf ,urhad
cgNahfq;fSk; jj;Jtq;fis tpgupg;ghu;
14.4 gy;gFjpa gjhu;j; • $l;lw;> xLq;fw; gy;gFjp • gy;gFjpaq;fs;> xUgFjpaq;fs;> kPz;LtUk;

jq;fspd; ,urha aq;fSk; gy;gFjpahf;fy; myFfs; (repeating units) Mfpatw; i w
dj;ij EZfp nrad;KiwfSk; mwpKfg; gLj;Jthu;.
aha;thu; • nghypj;jd P ; • cjhuzq;fSld; gy;gFjpaq;fis
nghypitidy; FNsh ,aw; i fg; gy; g Fjpak; > njhFg; G f; F upa
iul;L (PVC) gy;gFjpak; vd g;ghFgLj;Jthu;. 08
nghyp]i ; uwPd>; nug;Nyhd; • gy;gFjpaq;fis mit cUthFk; gy;gFjp
(Teflon) aj; jhf;f mbg;gilapy; ghFgLj;Jthu;.
• nghyp];ju;> ieNyhd; • fl;likg;Gfs; (xUgFjpak;> gy;gFjpak;>
• Ngf;iyl;L kPzL; tUk; myFfs;)>; ,ay;Gfs;> cgNahfq;
• gpsh];upf; Nru;f;iffs; fs; Mfpatw;iw jug;gl;l
(Plastic) cjhuzq;fspy; ,dq;fhz;ghu;.
• ,aw;if gy;gFjpaq;fs; • gpsh];upf; Nru;f;iffspd; (Plastic additires)
• ,aw;if wg;gu; (NR) fl;l tiffis tpgupj; J > #oy; tpisit
ikg;G ,ay;Gfs;> cgNah (environmental effect) f;$Wthu;.
fq;fs; • ,aw;if wg;gupd; fl;likg;G> ,ay;Gfs; cg
• wg;gu;ghy; xUq;nfhl;lYk;> Nahfq;fis tpgupg;ghu;.
(jpusy;) xUq;nfhl;Ljiy • wg;gupd; ty;fidRg;gLj;jiy tpgupg;ghu;.
jLj;jYk;. • wg;gu;ghy; xUq;nfhl;ly; nrad;Kiwia
• NR ty;fidRg;gLj;Jif tpgupj;J> mjid vt;thW jLf;fyhk; vd
tpsf;F thu;.
66
14.5 jhtug; • rpy jhtuq;fis • jhtuq;fs; GJg;gpf;f$ba %yg;nghUl;fs;
gFjpfis mbg;gil ahf nfhz;l vd tpgupg;ghu;. 15
mbg;gilahff; ifj;njhopy; fis • FSf; N fhrpypUe; J vjNdhy; > tpdhfpup
nfhz;l ,urhad vjNdhy;> tpdhfpup capu; Mfpatw;wpd; cw;gj;jpf;fhd jhf;fq;fis
ifj;njhopy;fs; Bry; (Biodiesel) tpgupg;ghu;.
rpytw;iw EZfp • j h t u q ; f s p y p U e ; J
• capu; Bry; (Biodiesel) cw;gj;jpia tpgupgg
; hu;.
Muha;thu; Nru;it fis • rhwWj;ijyq;fis jhtuq;fspd;
gpupj;njLj;iy> Mtpg;gwg;Gf; $Wfspd; rpf;fyhd fyit
Ntwhf;fiy(rhw;Wj;ijyk;)> vd tpgupg;ghu;.
nfhjpePuhtp fha;r;rp tbg;• rhwWj;ijyj;ijg; gpupj;njLg;gjw;F
ghy;; Nkw;nfhs;tu;;. gad;gLk; nfhjpePuhtp fha;r;rp tbg;gpd;
(Fwpj;j Nru;itfspd; fl;l jj;Jtq;fis tpsf;Fthu;.
• vjNdhy;> tpdhfpup> rhwWj;ijyk;> capu; Bry;;
ikg; G f; f s; guP l ; r pfg; g l
khl;lhJ) (Biodiesel) Mfpatw;wpd; gad;fis ,dq;
• vjNdhy;> tpdhfpup> rhw;Wj; fhz;ghu;.
ijyk;(Easential oil) capu;
• Ma;T$lj;jpy; fWth ,iyapypUe;J fWth
Bry; (Biodiesel) Mfpatw; ijyj;ijg; gpupj;njLg;ghu;.
wpd; gad;fs;. • kuf;fwp vz;nzapypUe;J capu; vupnghUis
• ePuhtp fha;r;rp tbg;gpd; Ma;T$lj;jpy; jahupg;ghu;
%yk; fWth ,iyfsp • Ma;T$lj; jpy; tpdhfpupapYs;s mrw;wpf;
ypUe;J fWth ijyj;ij mkpyj;jpd; rjtPjj;ijj; Jzpthu;.
gpupj;njLj;j y;.
• capu;Bry; (Biodiesel)
jahupj;jy;.
• tpdhfpup / mrw;wpf; mkpyj;
jpd; rjtPjj;ij Jzpjy;.
67
14.6 nghJthd ifj; • tspapd; gz;gwp uPjpahd • tspapd; gz;gwp uPjpahd gukhdq;fis
njhopy; k hrhf; f p gukhdq; f s; ; (air quality (COx, NOx, SOx, CxHy msT) tpsf;Fthu;
ntspNaw;wq;fshy; parameters) (tspapy; COx, • mkpy kioapd; ,urhadj;ijAk;> #oypy;
tsp khrhf;fj;jpd; NOx, SOx, CxHy Fwpj;j rlg; mjd; tpisitAk; tpgupg;ghu;.
06
,urhadk; nghUs;fspd; kl;lk;) • xsp ,urhad Gfhupd; ,urhadj;ijAk;>
• mkpy kio #oypy; mjd; tpisitAk; tpsf;Fthu;.
• xsp ,urhad Gfhu; • XNrhd; gil eyptiljypd; ,urhadj;ij
• XNrhd; gil eyptiljy; Ak; #oypy; mjd; tpisitAk;
• g+Nfhs ntg;gkhjy; tpsf;F thu;.
• gr;ir tPlL ; tpistpd; ,urhadj;ijAk;>
g+Nfhsntg;gkhjy;> mtw;wpd; #oy; kPjhd
tpisT Mfpatw;iw tpsf;Fthu;.
• tsp khrhf;fj;ij ,opthf;Ftjw;fhd Kd;
ndr;rupf;if mstPLfis tpgupg;ghu;.
14.7 ifj;njhopy; • ePupd; gz;Gg; gukhdq;fs;; • jug;gl;l ePu; khjpupapdJ gz;gwpuPjpahd

khrhf;fpntspNaw; (Qualityparameters) ( pH, gukhdq;fs; pH, ntg;gepiy> flj;Jjpwd;>
wq;fshy; ePu; ntg;gepiy> ePupy; fyq;fy; jd;ik> td;ik> ePupy; fiue;Js;s
khrhf;fj;jpd; fiue;Js;s xl;rprd; (DO) xl;rprd; (DO), COD (,urhad Njitf;Fupa
,urhadk; flj;Jjpwd;> fyq; f y; xl;rprd;) vdg; ngaupLtu;
jd;ik> ePupd; • jug; g l;l khrhf; f g; gl; l eP u ; khjpupapdJ
td;ik>COD (,urhad ngsjpf gukhdq; f s; pH, ntg; g epiy>
Njitf;Fupa xl;rprd;)) flj; J j; j pwd; > fyq; f y; j d; i k> td; i k
06
• mjpfsthd tskhf;fp Nghd;wtw;iw gjpT nra;tu;.
fis gad;gLj;Jtjhy;> • NO 3 -, PO 4 3- M f p a t w ; w p d h y ; V w ; g L k ;
gpujhdkhf NO3-, PO43- ew; N ghrizahf; f k; ; > mJ njhlu; g hd
My; ew;Nghrizahf;fk; tpisTfisAk; (Eutophication) tpsf;Fthu;
epfo;jy;. • Nrjd khrhf;fpfspdhy; cz;lhFk; ghjpg;G
fis ,dq;fhz;ghu;.
• ePu; khrhf;fj;jpw;F fhuzkhd nghJthf
68
• ifj;njhopw;rhiyfsp ghu cNyhfq;fisAk;> #oypd; kPJ
ypUe;J ntspNaWk; fop mtw;wpd; jhf;fj;ijAk; ,dq;fhz;ghu;.
tpy; fiue;Js;s Nrjd • DO, COD Nghd;w ,urhad gukhdq;fisg;
Nru;itfs; (c-k;: ,wg;gu; gad; g Lj; j p vt; t hW eP u pd; khrhf; f iy 07
ghy;; (Latex) gjdpLk; ,dq;fhzyhk; vd tpgupg;ghu;
njhopw;rhiy • eP u pd; khrhf; f j; i j mkpyj; j d; i k /
• ghukhd cNyhf mad; %yj;jd;ik> ntg;g khrhf;fk;>
fs; (Cd, As, Pb, Hg) fyq; f y; j d; i k> eP u pd; td; i k Nghd; w
• ,urhad xl;rprd; Njit ngsjpf gukhdq;fis nfhz;L tpsf;Fthu;
(COD)1 fiue;Js;s xl;rp • njhopwr ; hiy ntspaL P fshy; Vw;gLk; khrhf;
rd; (DO) fj;ijAk; ,opthf;Fk; Kd;ndr;rupf;if
• ntg;g khrhf;fk; mstPLfis tpgupg;ghu;.
• mkpyjd;ik/ %yjd;ik • ePupy; (ed;dPupy;) fiue;Js;s xl;rprdpd;
• ePupd; fyq;fy; jd;ikAk;> msitg; gupNrhjid uPjpahf Jzpthu;.
ePupd; td;ikAk;.
• tpq; y upd; Kiwahy;
(Winkler’s Method) ePupy;
fiue;J s;s xl;r prdpd;
m s T k l ; l j ; i j
Jzpjy; .
69

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fy;tpg; nghJj; juhjug;gj;jpuk;

,g;ghlj;jpl;lk; nfhz;Ls;s 14 myFfSk; fw;gpj;jypd;NghJ gpd;gw;Wtjw;Fg; nghUj;jkhd njhlu;tupirapy; (fl;lhakhdjd;W)

xt;nthU cgmyfpd; KbtpYk; rupntOj;Jf;fshy; (italics) Fwpg;gplg;gl;Ls;s gupNrhjidfs; ghlj;jpl;lj;jpd; Kf;fpa

Gjpa ghlj;j pl;l j; j pYs;s khw; w q;f s;

• myF 01 topKiw cs;slf;fk; kPs xOq;fhf;fg;gl;Ls;sJld;  fjpu;g;Gfspd; tpupthd ,ay;Gfs;ePf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.

• myF 02,d; ghl cs;slf;fk; njhlu;ghd vy;iyfs; Fwpg;gplg;gl;L kPs;xOq;fhf;fg;gl;Ls;sJld;> Nju;e;njLf;fg;gl;l

• myF 05 ,y; khw;wkpy;iy

• myF 06 khw;wg;gl;L kPs;fl;bnaOg;gg;gl;Ls;sJ

• gpd;tUk; gupNrhjidr; nraw;ghLfs; myF 6 ,y; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.

• gupNrhjid uPjpahf tspapy; iejurd; gpurd;dj;ijf; fhl;Lthu;

• KIO3 IAk; KI Ak; gad;gLj;jp jNahry;Ngw;W fiuriy epakpg;ghu;.

• Fe2+madpd; nrwpit> epak mkpy KMnO4 fiuriy gad;gLj;jpj; jPu;khdpg;ghu;

• Ke;jpa ghlj;jpl;lj;jpy; cs;s rpy gupNrhjidr; nraw;ghLfs; ePf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.

• fe;jfj;jpd; GwjpUg;gq;fisj; jahupj;jy;

• fe;jftPnuhl;irl;L jahupj;jYk; > mjd; ,ay;Gfisg; guPl;rpj;jYk;

• myF 11 ghl cs;slf;fj;jpy; vt;tpj khw;wKkpy;yhky; kPs; xOq;fhf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.

• myF 12 ,d; ghl cs;slf;fj; njhlu;tupir kPs;xOq;fhf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.

Njrpa fy;tp KiwikahdJ jdp egu;fF

Njrpa fy;tp Mizf;F Otpd; mwpf;i f (2003)

i. njhlu;g hly; gw;w pa Nju;r ;r pfs;

,j;jifikfspd; Kjw;njhFjp ehd;F Jizj; njhFjpfshy; mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.

jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;gj; Nju;r;rpfs;

ii. MSik tpUj;jp njhlu;ghd Nju;r;rpfs;

iii. #oy; njhlu;ghd Nju;r;rpfs;

iv cyfNtiyia jahupj;jy; njhlu;g hd Nju;r ;r pfs;

v xOf;fhw;W> rkak; vd;gd njhlu;ghd Nju;r ;r pfs;

2. ,urhadj; Njhw;wg;ghLfSf;fhf ,urhadj;jpYs;s vz;zf;fUf;fisAk; mwpitAk; fw;gid uPjpahfTk; ju;f;fkhfTk; gpuNahfpj;J

myF jiyg;G ghlNtisfs;

myF 02 fl;likg;Gk; gpizg;Gk; 35

myF 03 ,urhadf; fzpj;jy;fs; 37

myF 04 rlg;nghUspd; thA epiy 32

myF 06 s, p,d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; ,urhadk; 65

myF 07 Nrjd ,urhadj;jpd; mbg;gil vz;zf;fUf;fs; 18

myF 08 IjNuhfhgd;fSk; myrNdw;wg;gl;l IjNuhfhgd;fSk; 46

myF 09 xl;rpridf; nfhz;Ls;s Nrjdr; Nru;itfs; 45

myF 10 iejuridf; nfhz;Ls;s Nrjdr; Nru;itfs; 13

myF 11 ,urhad ,af;ftpay; 44

myF 14 ifj;njhopy; ,urhadKk; #oy; khrhf;fKk; 67

juk; juk; Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fs;

Kjyhk; jtiz 1.1 ,Ue;J 3.3 tiu ( 11 Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fs;)

juk;-12 ,uz;lhk; jtiz 4.1 ,Ue;J 6.6 tiu ( 15 Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fs;)

%d;whk; jtiz 7.1 ,Ue;J 10.3 tiu ( 20 Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fs;)

Kjyhk; jtiz 11.1 ,Ue;J 12.2 tiu ( 7 Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fs;)

juk;-13 ,uz;lhk; jtiz 12.3 ,Ue;J 13.4 tiu ( 8 Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fs;)

%d;whk; jtiz 14.1 ,Ue;J 14.8 tiu ( 8 Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fs;)

• Jizapil <u;g;Gfs;; • nghUj;jkhd cjhuzq;fis cgNahfpj;J

4.5 ,yl;rpa thAr; • mKf;fg;gLk; jfTf;fhuzp • mKf;fg;gLk; jfTf; fhuzpia tiuaWg;ghu

•  G ck; S ck; xd;wpize;j njhifahf

7.4 xNu %yf;$w;Wr; • rkgFjpr;Nru;T

• ghFgLj;j y; • mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fis Kjy;> top> Gil

11.4 jhf;ftPjj;jpy; • jhf;f tPjj;jpy; ngsjpf • x U j p z ; k j ; j h f ; f p a p d ; N k w ; g u g ; G

13.4 kpd;gFg;ig Nkw; • kpd;gFg;ig tiuaWg;ghu;. 08

• cw; gj; jpAk; > cgNahfq; • ijj;Njdpak; xl;irl;L gpupj;njLg;ig

14.4 gy;gFjpa gjhu;j; • $l;lw;> xLq;fw; gy;gFjp • gy;gFjpaq;fs;> xUgFjpaq;fs;> kPz;LtUk;

14.7 ifj;njhopy; • ePupd; gz;Gg; gukhdq;fs;; • jug;gl;l ePu; khjpupapdJ gz;gwpuPjpahd

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