AM Modulation Techniques

EEE 309 Communication Theory
Semester: July 2014
D Md
Dr. Md. Farhad
F h d Hossain
H i
Assistant Professor
Department of EEE, BUET
Email: mfarhadhossain@eee.buet.ac.bd
Office: ECE 331, ECE Building
Part 02:
Modulation Techniques
2
Types of Transmission
 Two types:
 Baseband transmission
 Carrier Modulation/Passband transmission
3
Baseband Transmission
 Baseband - frequency band of the original message signal from the source or input
transducer
 Most baseband signals (audio, video) contain significant low-frequency component
 A baseband bandwidth is equal to the highest frequency of a signal or system
 Baseband transmission refers to transmitting the signal directly, without any
modification to the spectral
p content
 Baseband signals have overlapping band - results in severe interference if sharing a
channel
 Cannot be effectively transmitted over the wireless channel
 Can be transmitted with copper or coaxial cable for dedicated transmitter-receiver pair
Spectrum of a signal at baseband

4
Carrier Modulation/Passband Transmission
 Baseband signal is modified with high frequency carrier(s)
 The amplitude, frequency or phase of the carrier(s) is varied according to amplitude
of baseband signal, which is called modulation
 Modulation shifts the baseband signal to a higher frequency range
M d l i (
Modulating (message) Signal
) Si l
Modulated Signal
5
Significance of Modulation (1/2)
 Modulation is a process where some characteristic of a high frequency carrier wave
is varied in accordance with the amplitude of an information-bearing signal
1. To decrease antenna height:
• For transmitting a signal, the antenna height must be of the
order of a wavelength (e.g., λ, λ/2 and λ/4)
• For a signal of 1 Hz (λ=3*10^8 m), antenna height has to be
75 000 K
75,000 Km ((considering
id i λ/4 )!!
• If the same signal is modulated to some high frequency, say
100 MHZ (λ = 3 m), required antenna height is 0.8522 m
2) To increase the operating range:

• Signal requires more energy to travel longer distance
• Planck's
Pl k' formula:
f l E = hν,
h h = Planck’s
Pl k’ constant,
t t ν = frequency
f off
the signal
• As the modulation increases the frequency content of a signal,
it indirectly increases the energy of the signal to enable it to
travel long distance
6
Significance of Modulation (2/2)
3. For efficient utilization of frequency spectrum:
• Use of the available frequency bands
• Simultaneous transmission of multiple users
4. To suite the channel requirement:

Say a channel that essentially acts like a bandpass filter. In such a case, modulation
allows to send a signal by shifting the baseband signal to the bandpass frequency
range
7
Types of Modulation
1. Analog/Continuous Wave Modulation: Analog baseband signal using analog carrier
(bandpass channel)
A. Amplitude Modulation (AM)
B A
B. Angle
l MModulation
d l ti
i) Frequency Modulation (FM)
ii) Phase Modulation (PM)
2. Digital Modulation: Digital bit stream using analog carrier (bandpass channel)
A. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
B. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
C. Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
3. Pulse Modulation: Analog narrowband signal using pulse (wideband baseband channel)
A. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
B. Pulse Time Modulation (PTM)
i) Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) / Pulse Duration Modulation (PDM)
ii) Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
C. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
D. Delta Modulation (DM)
8
Amplitude Modulation (AM) Family
Amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in accordance to the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating (message) signal
 Double‐sideband modulation (DSB)
 Double‐sideband modulation with carrier (DSB‐WC) / AM
 Double‐sideband suppressed‐carrier transmission (DSB‐SC)
 Double‐sideband reduced carrier transmission (DSB‐RC)
 Single‐sideband modulation (SSB)
Single sideband modulation (SSB)
 SSB with carrier (SSB‐WC)
 SSB suppressed carrier modulation (SSB
SSB suppressed carrier modulation (SSB‐SC)
SC)
 Vestigial sideband modulation (VSB)
 Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)
9
Semester: July 2014
D Md
Dr. Md. Farhad
F h d Hossain
H i
Assistant Professor
Part 03:
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Family
y
 Double‐sideband (DSB) modulation
 Double‐sideband with carrier (DSB‐WC) / AM
 Double‐sideband suppressed‐carrier (DSB‐SC)
 Double‐sideband reduced carrier (DSB‐RC)
 Single‐sideband (SSB) modulation
g ( )
 SSB suppressed carrier (SSB‐SC)
 Vestigial sideband (VSB) modulation
Vestigial sideband (VSB) modulation
2
Part 03-1
Double-sideband with Carrier
(DSB WC/AM)
(DSB-WC/AM)
3
DSB-WC / AM (1)
The Carrier Signal: ct   Ac cos c t  Ac cos 2f c t , fc = Carrier frequency (Hz)
The baseband message (modulating) signal: m t 
The AM signal:  AM t   Ac  mt cos c t  Ac cos ct  mt  cos ct

(Carrier)
(Carrier) (Modulated carrier)
(Modulated carrier)
 m t 
 Ac 1   cos ct  Ac 1  ka m t cos ct  1  ka m t c t 
 Ac 
 Thus, we transmit an unmodulated carrier in addition to the modulated carrier
 Ka = 1/Ac: Amplitude sensitivity of the modulator

4
AM (2): Frequency Domain
 The baseband message (modulating) signal:
LSB USB
‐ 2πB 0 2πB
 Amplitude spectrum of AM signal:
A 1
 AM  f   c   f  f c     f  f c    M  f  f c   M  f  f c  
2 2
1
Or,  AM w   Ac  w  wc    w  wc    M w  wc   M w  wc  
2
Carrier
Carrier
USB LSB LSB USB
‐(ωc +2πB) ‐ωc ‐(ωc ‐2πB) ωc ‐2πB ωc ωc +2πB

 Bandwidth of AM signal: BAM = 2B, Hz
5
AM (3)
 Envelope of the modulated carrier: e(t) = [Ac + m(t)]
 Thus, the carrier component oscillates between the envelope |Ac + m(t)| and its
negative image –|Ac + m(t)|
Envelope detection
can be used
Envelope detection
can’t be used
 The envelope is an accurate representation of the message, provided -

a. fc >> B, B is the message bandwidth
b Ac + m(t) > = 0,
b. 0 for all t
 Condition a relates to the overlap of the frequency spectrum components
 Condition b ensures that the message can be recovered from the envelope
6
AM (4): Modulation Index, μ
 max   min φmax = Maximum of φAM(t)
Modulation Index: 
 max   min φmin = Minimum of φAM(t)
Case I: m(t) with zero offset

mp

(i.e., m(t)|max = - m(t)|min = mp): Ac
mt  |max  mt  |min

Case II: m(t) with non-zero offset (rare 
case) (i.e., m(t)|max ≠ - m(t)|min): 2 Ac  mt  |max  mt  |min
 μ < 1: Undermodulation
 μ = 1: 100% modulation
 μ > 1: Overmodulation =>
> Envelope
E l detection
d t ti creates
t distortion
di t ti
An example of over modulation

For envelope detection:
Ac – mp ≥ 0 => 0 ≤ μ ≤ 1
7
AM (5): Example
Example for Single Tone Modulation
Let, mt   Am cos mt
Then,  AM t   Ac 1   cos mt cos c t
50% modulation 100% modulation
 Amplitude spectrum (try yourself – very simple!!)
8
AM (6): Sideband and Carrier Power
Transmitted signal:  AM t   Ac cos ct  mt  cos ct
Ac2
Carrier Power: PC  Sideband power:
2
 Power efficiency:
Special Case: Single Tone Modulation
Ac 
 AM t   Ac cos ct  cosc  m t  cosc  m t 
2
Ac2  2 Ac2  2 Ac2  2
USB power: PUSB  LSB power: PLSB  Total sideband power: PS 
8 8 4
Then This ratio increases monotonically from 0 to 1/3 as μ increases from 0 to 1
This ratio increases monotonically from 0 to 1/3 as μ increases from 0 to 1
 Under the best condition (μ=1):
Thus, for tone modulation, under the best conditions, only one‐third of the power is used for
carrying message, which is even lower (less than 25% or worse) under practical conditions
9
AM (7): Modulation by Practical Speech
Signals
General Case: Modulation by Practical Speech Signals
Message signal: m(t )  A1 cos 1t  A2 cos  2t  A3 cos 3t  ...  An cos  n t
AM signal:  AM (t )  AC cos C t  A1 cos 1t  A2 cos 2t  A3 cos 3t  ...  An cos n t cos C t
 AC 1  1 cos 1t  2 cos 2t  3 cos 3t  ...  n cos n t cos C t
  Ac2 2
2 Ac
Total sideband power: PS        ...  
2
1
2
2
2
3
2
n  T
4 4
 T2 
Total transmitted power: PT  1   Pc
 2 
where T2  12   22  32  ...   n2
Overall modulation index:

T  12   22  32  ...   n2
To prevent overmodulation: μT ≤ 1 μ1 ≤ 1,
1 μ2 ≤ 1,
1 …, μn ≤ 1
10
Generation of AM Signal
Switching Modulator:
Input: Ac cosωct + m(t)

Condition: Ac >> m(t): Thus the switching action of the diode is controlled by {Ac cosωct }
 This switching action results in a multiplication of [Ac cosωct + m(t)] by w(t)
Thus,
and vcc ' t 
11
Demodulation of AM Signals (1)
1. Rectifier Demodulator:
12
2. Envelope Detector:
 For proper operation, the discharge time constant RC
For proper operation, the discharge time constant RC
must be chosen properly
 Difference between the rectifier detector and the envelope detector? (Think first and consult with the text books)
13
3. Synchronous/ Coherent / Homodyne Detector:
p t  d t 
 AM t  LPF &
DC blocking
cos c t
p t    AM t  cos ct  Ac  mt cos2 ct
Aft LPF and
After d DC bl
blocking:
ki
1
 Ac  mt 1  cos 2ct  d t   C mt 
2
A 1 1
 c  mt   Ac  mt cos 2ct
2 2 2
 Phase and frequency of the local carrier have to be same as those of the carrier:
Synchronization required between transmitter and receiver
y q
 More complex and expensive than of an envelop detector
 Rectifier detector is effectively a coherent detector
14
AM: Summary
 Wasteful of transmitted power: power efficiency
very low
 Wasteful of channel bandwidth: twice of the
message bandwidth
 Simpler modulator and demodulator
 Less expensive modulator and demodulator
 Easy to be affected by noise
15
Semester: July 2014
D Md
Dr. Md. Farhad
F h d Hossain
H i
Assistant Professor
Part 03:
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Family
y
 Double‐sideband (DSB) modulation
 Double‐sideband with carrier (DSB‐WC) / AM
 Double‐sideband suppressed‐carrier (DSB‐SC)
 Double‐sideband reduced carrier (DSB‐RC)
 Single‐sideband (SSB) modulation
g ( )
 SSB suppressed carrier (SSB‐SC)
 Vestigial sideband (VSB) modulation
Vestigial sideband (VSB) modulation
2
Part 03-2
Double‐sideband Suppressed‐
Double‐sideband Suppressed‐
Carrier (DSB‐SC)
( )
3
DSB-SC: Principle (1)
 The carrier is suppressed before transmission (not transmitted)
 Power efficiency increases: Transmit power requirement decreases
 Bandwidth requirement: Twice of the bandwidth of the message signal
 E l
Envelope detection can’t be used
d t ti ’t b d
DSB‐SC signal:  DSB  SC t   mt  cos c t
DSB‐SC signal generation:
l
4
DSB-SC: Principle (2)
DSB‐SC demodulation:
Synchronous/ Coherent /
H
Homodyne
d D
Demodulator
d l t
(Detector)
et    DSB  SC t  cos c t  mt  cos 2 c t  mt   mt  cos 2c t

1 1
2 2
After LPF:
5
DSB-SC: Modulators (1)
1. Multiplier Modulator:
2. Non‐linear Modulator:
Characteristics of non‐linear element:
 The carrier signal does not appear at the input of the final BPF
The carrier signal does not appear at the input of the final BPF
 The bridge acts as a balanced bridge for the carrier only
 As the modulator is balanced with respect to one input, it is called single balanced modulator
6
3. Switching Modulators:
 The multiplication operation is replaced by a simpler switching operation
 Multiplication can be achieved multiplying m(t) by any periodic signal φ(t) of the
Multiplication can be achieved multiplying m(t) by any periodic signal φ(t) of the
fundamental frequency ωc
Thus,
7
3. Switching Modulators (contd…)
w(t) as φ(t):
fc ≥ 2B
8
A. Diode-bridge Modulator:
Diode-bridge
Diode bridge works
as a switch
Series-bridge diode modulator Shunt-bridge diode modulator
 When terminal ‘c’ is +ve with respect to terminal ‘d’, all four diodes conduct
 As D1 and D2 are matched, terminal ‘a’ and terminal ‘b’ are short circuited
 When terminal ‘d’
d is +ve with respect to ‘c’
c , all four diodes are open
 Thus, switching of m(t) at a frequency of fc is achieved
 It is a single balanced modulator 9
B. Ring Modulator:
 Positive Half-cycle: D1 and D3 conduct

 Negative Half-cycle: D2 and D4 conduct
(A double-balanced modulator)
10
Semester: July 2014
D Md
Dr. Md. Farhad
F h d Hossain
H i
Assistant Professor
Part 03-3
Single‐sideband Suppressed
Single‐sideband Suppressed
carrier (SSB‐SC) Modulation
( )
2
SSB-SC: Principle (1)
 Either USB or LSB is transmitted
 Required BW: B Hz
 Spectral efficiency (SE) is improved by 100%
Transmitter Side: M( f )
(Frequency Domain)
-B -B f
- fc fc f
- fc fc f
- fc - fc fc f
3
SSB-SC: Principle (2)
Receiver Side (Frequency Domain):
 Can be detected coherently
-ffc fc f
After the multiplication by the carrier
-2fc 2fc f
4
SSB: Time Domain Representation (1)
Hilbert Transform:  x 
xh t   H xt    
1 1
  t   t   j sgn  f 
d  x t * 1
t
X h  f    jX  f sgn  f   H  f X  f 
 j  1.e  j 2 , f  0

Thus, H  f    j sgn  f   
j
 j  1.e 2 , f  0
|H (f)| θh (f)
f f
 If the
th phase
h off every componentt off m(t)
(t) is
i changed
h d by
b π/2,
/2 th
the resulting
lti signal
i l iis mh(t)
 Thus, a Hilbert transformer is an ideal phase shifter that shifts the phase of every spectral
component by -π/2
5
SSB:
M (f)
-B B f
M+ (f)
M   f   M  f u  f   M  f  1  sgn  f 
1
2
 M  f   jM h  f 
1
B f
2
M_ (f)
M   f   M  f u  f   M  f  1  sgn  f 
1
2
 M  f   jM h  f 
1
-B
f 2
6
M- (f+fc) M+ (f-fc)
USB
-ffc fc f
M+ (f+fc) M- (f-fc)
LSB
-fc fc f
USB  f   M   f  f c   M   f  f c 

1
M  f  f c   M  f  f c   1 M h  f  f c   M h  f  f c 
2 2j
Hence,
Similarly,
7
Generation of SSB-SC
Generation of SSB-SC:
1. Phase-shift method: requires ideal Hilbert phase shifter
2. Selective filtering method (most commonly used): requires ideal filter or null
around DC
3. Weaver method: uses two stages of modulation
Q. Study the relative advantages/disadvantages of these methods.

8
SSB-SC: Detection
Demodulation using a coherent detector:
 SSB t .2 cos ct  mt  cos c t  mh t sin c t 2 cos c t

 mt   mt  cos 2c t  mh t sin 2c t 


SSB SC signal with carrier 2c
 A LPF will suppress unwanted SSB terms and produce m(t)

 Any of the synchronous DSB-SC demodulators can be used for demodulating
SSB-SC signal
Q SSB
Q. SSB-WC
WC can be detected using envelope detector
detector. How? Any pre-condition?
pre condition?
9
Comparison between AM, DSB-SC and SSB-SC
AM (DSB‐WC) DSB‐SC SSB‐SC
Modulation Simple Simple Costly and Complex

(difficult to generate)
Demodulation p
Both envelope Coherent detection Coherent detection
detection and => Costly and => Costly and complex
coherent complex (Envelope detection
detection possible for SSB‐WC)
Power Efficiency Max 33 % Better Better
=> Inefficient => Efficient => Efficient
Bandwidth (BW)
Bandwidth (BW) Twice
Twice the
the signal
signal Twice the
Twice the signal
signal Equal to the signal BW
Equal to the signal BW
Requirement BW BW => Efficient
=> Inefficient => Inefficient
10
Quadrature
Q d Amplitude
li d
Modulation (QAM)
Modulation (QAM)
11
QAM: Principle
 SSB signals are difficult to generate
 QAM is an attractive alternative to SSB
 Two base band signals,
g each of bandwidth B Hz, are sent over the same band of
bandwidth 2B Hz (Modulation: DSB –SC)
 The two carriers are of the same frequency with a phase difference of π/2
 QAM is also known as quadrature multiplexing (QM)
Synchronous
detector
12
QAM: Detection (1)
 In-phase (I) Channel
x1 t   2QAM t  cos c t  2m1 t  cos c t  m2 t sin c t cos c t
 m1 t   m1 t  cos 2c t  m2 t sin 2c t
 Quadrature (Q) Channel
x2 t   2QAM t sin c t  2m1 t  cos c t  m2 t sin c t sin c t
 m2 t   m2 t  cos 2c t  m1 t sin 2c t
13
QAM: Detection (2)
 Impact of loss of synchronization
 Loss of power
 interference
Output of the I-channel
Q. Derive the output of the quadrature (Q) channel. 14

Vestigial Sideband (VSB)
i i l Sid b d ( S )
Modulation
15
VSB (1): Principle
 SSB signals are difficult to generate and DSB requires twice the signal bandwidth
 VSB is a compromise between DSB and VSB
 VSB inherits the advantages of DSB and SSB, but avoids their disadvantages at a small cost
 B d idth off VSB is
Bandwidth i littl
little (typically
(t i ll 25%) greater
t than
th SSB
 VSB is also known as asymmetric sideband system
16
VSB(2): Generation and Detection
BPF LPF
Hi(f) Ho(f)
Hi(f) = Vestigial
shaping filter
SSB signal generation:

VSB  f   M  f  f c   M  f  f c H i  f 
Coherent detection:
et   2VSB t  cos c t  VSB  f  f c   VSB  f  f c 

M  f   VSB  f  f c   VSB  f  f c H o  f 
Ho  f  
1
, | f | B
H i  f  fc   H i  f  fc 
17
VSB (3): Example
The carrier frequency is 20 kHz. Baseband signal bandwidth is 6 kHz. Hi(f) is
shown if fig (a). Determine H0(f). H f  i
Solution: H i  f  fc   H i  f  fc 
Ho  f 
18
VSB Application: Broadcast Television
 Video signal:
 large bandwidth (4.5 MHz) – DSB requires 9 MHz
 contains significant low-frequency component – SSB is not feasible
 The demodulation of the TV signal
g must be simple
p and cost effective – envelope
p detector is
preferred
 So, VSB modulation with the carrier is chosen for TV broadcast
DSB Spectrum
Transmitted
Spectrum
19
End of AM
20
Semester: July 2014
D Md
Dr. Md. Farhad
F h d Hossain
H i
Assistant Professor
Part 04
Angle Modulation
Angle Modulation
2
Angle Modulation: Principle (1)
 Angle of the carrier is varied according to the message
 Carrier amplitude remain constant
 Provides better discrimination against noise and interference than AM
 Required higher transmission bandwidth than that for AM
 Trade-off between channel bandwidth and noise performance is possible
Angle modulated wave:
A simple case of an
unmodulated carrier:
Relationship between instantaneous phase and frequency:
3
Two common methods for angle modulation:
kp = Phase sensitivity
1. Phase Modulation (PM): factor (radians/volt)
Phase-modulated signal:
kf = Frequency sensitivity
2. Frequency Modulation (FM): factor (Hz/volt)
Frequency-modulated signal:
4
Angle Modulated Signal: Example 1
Carrier
Message
PM signal
FM signal
i l
5
Angle Modulated Signal: Example 2
Message
PM signal
FM signal
6
Properties of Angle Modulated Signal (1)
Property 1: Constancy of Transmitted Power
Amplitude of PM and FM waves is maintained at a constant value equal to the carrier
amplitude for all time t, irrespective of the sensitivity factors kp and kf
=> Average transmitted power of angle‐modulated waves is a constant
Property 2: Nonlinearity of the Modulation Process

C
Consider
id PM (Prove
(P the
h nonlinearity
li i ffor FM b
by yourself):
lf)
For m(t) = m1(t):
For m(t) = m2(t):
For m(t) = m1(t) + m2(t):
7
Property 3: Irregularity of Zero-Crossings
PM signal
FM signal
=> In angle modulation, the information content of the message signal resides in the
zero crossings of the modulated wave
zero-crossings
8
Property 3: Irregularity of Zero-Crossings (contd. …)
Two special cases:
1. The message signal increases or decreases

1
linearly with time t, in which case fi(t) of the PM
wave changes from the unmodulated carrier
frequency to a new constant value dependent
on the slope of m(t) PM wave
2. The message signal is maintained at some

2
constant value, positive or negative, in which
case fi(t) of the FM wave changes from the
unmodulated carrier frequency to a new FM wave
constant value dependent on the constant
value of m(t)
9
Property 4: Visualization Difficulty of Message Signal
The difficulty in visualizing the message waveform in angle-modulated waves is attributed to the
nonlinear character of angle-modulated waves
AM wave
Easy to visualize the effect
PM wave
Difficult to visualize
10
Property 5: Tradeoff of Increased Transmission Bandwidth for Improved
Noise Performance
 An important
p advantage
g of angle
g modulation over AM is the realization of improved
p
noise performance
 This advantage is due to the fact that the transmission of a message signal by
modulating the angle of a sinusoidal carrier wave is less sensitive to the presence of
additive noise than transmission by modulating the amplitude of the carrier
 The improvement in noise performance is, however, attained at the expense of a

corresponding increase in the transmission bandwidth requirement of angle
modulation
 In other words,
words the use of angle modulation offers the possibility of exchanging an
increase in transmission bandwidth for an improvement in noise performance.
 Such a tradeoff is not possible with amplitude modulation since the transmission
bandwidth of an amplitude-modulated wave is fixed somewhere between the
message bandwidth W and 2W, depending on the type of modulation employed
11
Relationship between PM and FM
PM:
FM:
 PM and FM are uniquely related to each other
 This means that the properties of PM can be deduced from those of FM and vice versa
12
Frequency Modulation (FM) (1)
Consider a case of single-tone modulation:
∆f = Frequency Deviation (Hz)

= Maximum departure of fi of the FM wave from fc
β = Modulation Index (radians)
FM signal:
13
Narrow-band FM (NBFM)
1. NBFM (β is small compared to one radian):
For small β:
14
NBFM (contd…)
Block diagram of an indirect method for generating a narrow-band FM wave
AM signal:
BW of NBFM signal: 2fm

Amplitude of NBFM: Not constant
15
Wide-band FM (WBFM)
2. WBFM (β is large compared to one radian):
Complex Envelope of s(t):
=> a periodic function of time with a fundamental frequency equal to fm
16
WBFM (contd…)
Complex Fourier Coefficient
Jn(β) = nth order Bessel

function of the first kind and
argument β
17
WBFM (contd…)
Thus,
=> S(f) consists of an infinite number of delta functions spaced at f = fc ± nfm, n = 0, 1, 2, …
18
WBFM (contd…)
Properties of FM for arbitrary β:
1. Jn(β) = (-1)n J-n(β) for all n
3.
19
WBFM (contd…)
1. The spectrum of an FM wave contains a carrier component and an infinite set of
side frequencies located symmetrically on either side of the carrier at frequency
separations of fm, 2fm, 3fm, ….
2. For the special case of small β compared with unity, only the Bessel coefficients
J0(β) and J1(β) have significant values, so that the FM wave is effectively
p
composed of a carrier and a single
g p pair of side-frequencies
q at fc±fm. This FM
signal is essentially the NBFM signal.
3. The amplitude of the carrier component varies with β according to J0(β). This
implies that the envelope of an FM wave is constant
constant, so that the average power
of FM signal is constant.
Alternatively: Power of FM signal
20
Spectrum of FM Signals: Example
Case I: fm fixed, Am varies (only positive frequency
part is shown)
21
Spectrum of FM Signals: Example
Case II: fm varies, Am fixed (only positive frequency
part is shown)
22
BW of FM Signals
 Theoretically, BW of FM wave is finite
 BW of FM signals is effectively limited to a finite number of significant side frequencies
Method 1: Carson
Carson’s
s Rule
Single-tone
 1
Multi-tone BT  2f  2W  2f 1   W = BW of m(t)
 D ∆f = kf m(t)|max
Method 2: 1% method
BW of an FM wave is the separation between the two frequencies beyond which none of
the side frequencies is greater than 1% of AC
nmax is the largest value of the integer n that satisfies

BT = 2nmaxfm the requirement: |Jn(β)| > 0.01
23
BW of FM Signals
Method 2: 1% method (contd…)
24
BW of FM Signals
Method 2: 1% method (contd…)
Universal curve for evaluating the 1%
U i l f l ti th 1%
bandwidth of an FM wave
 As β is increased,, the bandwidth occupied

p by y the significant
g side-frequencies
q p toward 2∆ff
drops
 This means that the small values of β are relatively more extravagant in transmission bandwidth
than the larger values of β
25
BW of FM Signals
 In general, Carson’s rule underestimates the required bandwidth for FM
 The universal curve gives more accurate estimation
Example: Commercial FM Broadcasting

In North America, the maximum value of frequency deviation ∆f is fixed at 75 kHz
for commercial FM broadcasting by radio. Assume W = 15 kHz, which is typically
the “maximum”
maximum audio frequency of interest in FM transmission
transmission.
Corresponding value of the deviation ratio D = 75/15 = 5
Carson’s rule: BT = 2∆f + 2D = 180 kHz
Universal Curve: BT = 3.2∆f = 3.2 *75 = 240 kHz
PM Signals
 Practice the related examples from the book of B. P. Lathi

26
Semester: July 2014
Dr. Md. Farhad Hossain

Assistant Professor
Part 06
Pulse Modulation
2
Pulse Modulation
In pulse modulation, various properties of pulse signals are varied according the analog
message signal

C. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

3
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) (1)
 In PAM, the amplitudes of regularly spaced pulses are varied in proportion to the
corresponding sample values of a continuous message signal
 Pulses can be of a rectangular form or some other appropriate shape
Two operations involved in the generation of the PAM

signal:
1. Instantaneous sampling of the message signal
every Ts seconds (sampling rate is chosen in
accordance with the sampling theorem)
2. Lengthening the duration of each sample, so that it

occupies some finite value T
4
Reconstruction:
Reconstruction filter:
Message Spectrum M(f)
PAM introduces amplitude

distortion and delay
Equalizer:
5
Comments on PAM:
1. The transmission of a PAM signal imposes stringent requirements on the amplitude and
phase responses of the channel, because of the relatively short duration of the
transmitted pulses
2. The noise performance of a PAM system can never be better than direct (i.e., base band)
transmission of the message signal
3. Thus, for transmission over long distances, PAM would be used only as a means of
message processing for time-division multiplexing
6
Pulse Time Modulation (1)
Pulse Duration Modulation (PDM)
 The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of the individual pulses
 Also known as as pulse-width modulation (PWM) or pulse-length modulation (PLM)
 PDM is wasteful of power, in that long pulses expend considerable power during the
pulse while bearing no additional information
Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

In PPM, the position of a pulse relative to its unmodulated time of occurrence is varied in
accordance with the message signal
7
Pulse Time Modulation (2)
Message
Pulse carrier
PDM
PPM
8
Semester: January 2017

Associate Professor
Types of Modulation
1. Analog/Continuous Wave Modulation: Analog baseband signal using analog carrier
(bandpass channel)
A. Amplitude Modulation (AM)
B A
B. Angle
l MModulation
d l ti
i) Frequency Modulation (FM)
ii) Phase Modulation (PM)
2. Digital Modulation: Digital bit stream using analog carrier (bandpass channel)
A. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
B. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
C. Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
3. Pulse Modulation: Analog narrowband signal using pulse (wideband baseband channel)
C. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) – digital pulse modulation
2
Part 05
Pulse Code Modulation
Pulse Code Modulation
(PCM)
3
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
In PCM, a message signal is represented by a sequence of coded pulses, which is accomplished
by representing the signal in discrete form in both time and amplitude
Transmitter
Three basic operations in a PCM Transmitter:
‐ Sampling
‐ Quantization
‐ Encoding
Transmission
Path
Receiver
4
Sampling
 Sampling is an operation that is basic to digital signal processing and digital communications
 Through the use of sampling process, an analog signal is converted into a corresponding
sequence of samples that are usually spaced uniformly in time
Two types of practical sampling:

 Natural Sampling
 Flat-top
p sampling
p g
5
Natural Sampling (1)
Message
Sampling Signal

T  f   f s
s    f  nf 
s
n  
Sampled Signal
6
Frequency Domain:
or,
7
fs > 2W:
fs = 2W:
fs < 2W:
Aliasing
8
Sampling Theorem
 Sampling theorem is a fundamental bridge between continuous signals (analog
domain) and discrete signals (digital domain)
 It only applies to a class of mathematical functions whose Fourier transforms are
zero outside of a finite region of frequencies
Nyquist Sampling Theorem / Nyquist-Shanon Sampling Theorem:

A signal whose bandwidth is limited to W Hz can be reconstructed exactly
(without any error) from its samples uniformly taken at a rate fs ≥ 2W Hz
fs = Sampling frequency
fs = 2W: Nyquist frequency / Nyquist rate / Minimum sampling frequency
9
Antialiasing Filter
 All practical signals are time-limited, i.e., non band-limited => Aliasing inevitable
 To limit aliasing
aliasing, use antialiasing filter (LPF) before sampling
Original Antialiasing Reconstruction Reconstructed

Sample
Signal
i l fil
filter Filter
il Signal
i l
10
Reconstruction Filter
fs = 2W:
Ideal LPF
‐ 1/2W 1/2W
characteristic:
(interpolation filter /
interpolation function)
Ts = 1/2W
(interpolation formula)
11
Quantization (1)
It is the process of transforming the sample amplitude m(nTS) of a baseband signal at time t = nTS
into a discrete amplitude v(nTS) taken from a finite set of possible levels
12
Quantization (2)
Quantizer characteristic:
kth interval:
Here, k = 1, 2, 3, … , L
L = Number of representation levels
(Number of intervals)
mk: Decision levels / Decision thresholds
vk: Representation levels / Reconstruction levels / Quantization Levels
Δ=|vk +1 – vk | = |mk +1 – mk|: Step-size / quantum
Quantizer output equals to vk if the input signal sample m belongs to the interval Ik (rounding)
v  vk if m  I k (R di )
(Rounding)
v  vk if vk  m  vk 1 (Truncation)
13
Quantization(3): Two types
Mid‐tread quantization Mid‐rise quantization
Representation/
Reconstruction/
Quantization
Q
levels
Mid‐tread quantizer:
q Mid‐rise quantizer:
Reconstruction value is exactly zero Decision threshold value is exactly zero
Signal Range (Dynamic range) and Quantizer Range: Could be same or different
14
Quantization(4): Example
For the following sequence {1.2, -0.2, -0.5, 0.4, 0.89,1.3} quantize it using a
uniform quantizer of rounding type and write the quantized sequence.
Quantizer range is (-1.5,1.5) with 4 levels.
Solution:
Yellow dots indicate the decision thresholds (boundaries between separate

quantization intervals). Red dots indicate the reconstruction levels (middle of each
interval).
Thus, 1.2 fall between 0.75 and 1.5, and hence is quantized to 1.125.
Quantized sequence:
{1.125, -0.375, -0.375, 0.375, 1.125, 1.125}
15
Quantization(5): Two types
Uniform quantization Non‐uniform quantization 16
Quantization Error for Uniform Quantization (1)
Quantization error (noise)
q = m – v => Q = M – V
 Q is a RV variable of zero mean in the

range [– Δ/2, Δ/2]
 If Δ is sufficientlyy small, Q can be
assumed a uniform RV with zero mean
fQ(q)
1/Δ
Quantization noise power
/2
2
   q f Q q dq 
2
Q
2
– Δ/2 0 Δ/2
 / 2
12
q
P 12 P
12P
Signal-to-nose-ratio (SNR):SNR   P = Average power of m(t)
 Q2 2
17
Quantization Error for Uniform Quantization (2)
Suppose m(t) of continuous amplitude in the range [‐mmax, mmax]:
2mmax 2mmax R = Number of bits for presenting each level (bits/sample)
 
L 2R
 3P  2 R  3P 
SNR   2 2 SNRdB  6.02 R  10 log 2 
 mmax   mmax 
 Each additional bit increases the SNR by 6.02 dB and
a corresponding increase in required channel BW
Special case:
m(t) is a sinusoidal signal with amplitude equal to mmax
3
SNR   2 2 R SNRdB  6 R  1.8
2
18
Non-Uniform Quantization
 SNR of weak signals is much lower than that of strong signal
SNR of weak signals is much lower than that of strong signal
 Instantaneous SNR is also lower for the smaller amplitudes compared to that of the
larger amplitudes
19
‐ Step size increases as the separation from the origin of the input–output amplitude
characteristic is increased
‐ First Compression and then uniform quantization
and then uniform quantization
‐ Achieve more even SNR over the
dynamic range using fewer bits (e.g.,
8 bits instead of 13/14 bits)
Receiver side: Expansion required
Compression + Expansion = Companding
di
Rx
Tx
Original Uniform Original
Compression Reconstruction Expansion
Signal Quantization Signal
20
What is Compression?
 The compression here occurs in the amplitude values
 Compression in amplitudes means that the amplitudes of the compressed signal
are more closelyy spaced
p in comparison
p to the original
g signal
g
 To do so, the compressor boosts the small amplitudes by a large amount. However,
the large amplitude values receive very small gain and the maximum value remains
the same
Compressor Input Compressor Output
21
μ‐Law: Used in North America, Japan (μ = 255 is mostly used)
Compression characteristics  More uniform SNR is achieved over

(first quadrant shown) a larger dynamic range 22
A‐Law: Used in Europe and many other countries
A = 87.6 is mostly used and comparable to μ = 255
23
Encoding
 Each quantized samples is encoded into a code word
 Each element in a code word is called code element
Binary code:
 Each code element is either of two distinct
values, customarily denoted as 0 and 1
 Binary symbol withstands a relatively high
level of noise and also easy to regenerate
 Each binary code word consists of R bits and
hence, this code can represent 2R distinct
numbers (i.e.,
(i e at best R bit quantizer can be
used)
24
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
In PCM, a message signal is represented by a sequence of coded pulses, which is accomplished
by representing the signal in discrete form in both time and amplitude
Transmitter
Three basic operations in a PCM Transmitter:
‐ Sampling
‐ Quantization
‐ Encoding
Transmission
Path
Receiver
25
Differential PCM (DPCM)
 When a signal is sampled at a rate slightly higher than the Nyquist rate, there exists a
high degree correlation between adjacent samples, i.e., in an average sense, the signal
does not change rapidly from one sample to the next
 When these highly correlated samples are encoded as in a standard PCM system
system, the
resulting encoded signal contains redundant information implying that symbols that are not
absolutely essential to the transmission of information are generated
 DPCM removes this redundancy y before encodingg byy taking
g the difference between the
actual sample m(nTS) and its predicted value m̂nTS 
 The quantized version of the prediction error e(nTS) are encoded instead of encoding
the samples of the original signal
 This will result in much smaller quantization intervals leading to less quantization noise
and much higher SNR
Transmitter
Prediction error
enTS   mnTS   mˆ nTS 
26
Predictor for DPCM:
Liner predictor of order p:
Transversal filter (tapped-delay-line filter) used as a linear predictor
p Past p samples
mnTS    wk mq n  k TS 
m̂
k 1
27
Differential PCM (DPCM)
T
Transmitter
itt
eq nTS 
m' nTS 
Receiver
m̂nTS  m ' nnTS   mˆ nnTS   eq nnTS 
Reconstruction error  mnTS   m ' nTS   enTS   eq nTS   qnTS 

= Quantization error
28
Delta Modulation (DM) … (1)
 DM encodes the difference between the current sample and the previous sample using just one bit
 Correlation between samples are increased by oversampling (i.e., at a rate much higher, typically 4 times
higher than the Nyquist rate)
 DM involves the generation of the staircase approximation of the oversampled version of message
DM involves the generation of the staircase approximation of the oversampled version of message
 The difference between the input and the approximation is quantized into only two levels:  
 1‐bit version of DPCM (i.e., 2‐level quantization) requiring less bandwidth than that of DPCM and PCM
29
Delta Modulation (DM)…(2)
Transmitter
 
Receiver
‐ Digital equivalent of integration
30
Predictor for DPCM and DM
DM
DPCM
Note:
(1) DPCM uses a higher order filter.
(2) DM uses a 1st order (p=1) predictor with w1 = 1. Thus, the predicted output is the previous sample.
31
Delta Modulation (DM)…(3)
Two types of quantization error:
(1) Slope overload distortion/noise (2) Granular noise
mq(t)
eq(nTS)
Comments:
(1) For avoiding slope overload distortion: larger Δ is desired
(2) For avoiding granular noise: smaller Δ is desired
 An optimal step size (Δ) has to be chosen for minimum overall noise
Example: Avoiding slope overload 
mt   Am cos m t | m t  |max  m Am    f s  Am max   f s
Ts m
 fs
 A    r  2  800
r
m max Voice
32
Line Coding (1)
 PCM, DPCM and DM are different strategies for source
encoding, which converts an analog signal into digital form
 Once a binary sequence of 1s and 0s is produced, the

sequence is transformed into electrical pulses or
waveforms for transmission over a channel and this is
known as line coding
 Multi-level line coding is possible
Or NRZ-L
Various line coding
(binary) methods:
Or RZ-AMI
(f) Split-phase
or Manchester
(0 means transition)
33
Line Coding (2)
Book:
Polar NRZ / Digital Communications:
Fundamentals and Applications
- Bernard Sklar
Bipolar NRZ
Applications:
 Polar NRZ / NRZ-L: Digital
g logic
g circuits
 NRZ-M/NRZ-S: Magnetic tap recording
 RZ line codes: Base band transmission and magnetic recording (e.g., Bipolar RZ / RZ-AMI
is used for telephone system)
 Manchester Coding: Magnetic recording, optical communications and satellite telemetry
34
Line Coding (3)
35
Line Coding (4)
Desired properties (i.e., design criteria) for line coding:
 Transmission bandwidth: should be as small as possible
 Noise immunity: should be immune to noise
 Power efficiency: for a given bandwidth and given error probability, transmission power
requirement should be as small as possible
 Error detection and correction capability: should be possible to detect and correct errors
 Favorable power spectral density (PSD): should have zero PSD at zero (i.e., DC)
frequency, otherwise the ac coupling and the transformers used in communication systems
would block the DC component
 Adequate timing information / self-clocking: should carry the timing or clock information
which can be used for self-synchronization
 Transparency: should be possible to transmit a digital signal correctly regardless of the
patterns of 1’s and 0’s (by preventing long string of 0s and 1s)
36
Semester: January 2017

Associate Professor
Part 07
Digital Modulation / Digital
g / g
Bandpass Modulation
2
Digital Modulation
Digital bit stream is transmitted using analog carrier (bandpass channel) – Digital-to-
analog conversion
Various Forms:
A. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) / On-Off Keying (OOK): BASK, MASK
B. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): BFSK, MSK, MFSK
C. Phase Shift Keying (PSK): BPSK, MPSK, DPSK, QPSK, OQPSK
D. Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) = ASK+PSK: MQAM
Can also be categorized as:

1. Binary modulation: BASK, BFSK, BPSK
2. M-ary modulation: MASK, MFSK, MPSK, MQAM
3
Advantages of Digital Communication
 Digital systems are less sensitive to noise and signal distortion. For long transmission line, the signal
may be regenerated effectively error‐free at different points along the path.
 With digital systems, it is easier to integrate different services, e.g., video and the accompanying
soundtrack into the same transmission scheme
soundtrack, into the same transmission scheme.
 The transmission scheme can be relatively independent of the source
 Circuitry for digital signals is easier to repeat and digital circuits are less sensitive to physical effects
such as vibration and temperature
p
 Digital signals are simpler to characterize and typically do not have the same amplitude range and
variability as analog signals. This makes the associated hardware design easier.
 Various media sharing strategies (known as multiplexing) are more easily implemented with digital
t
transmission strategies
i i t t i
 Source coding techniques can be used for removing redundancy from digital transmission
 Error‐control coding can be used for adding redundancy, which can be used to detect and correct
errors at the receiver side
errors at the receiver side
 Digital communication systems can be made highly secure by exploiting powerful encryption algorithms
 Digital communication systems are inherently more efficient than analog communication systems in
the tradeoff between transmission bandwidth and signal‐to‐noise ratio
 Various channel compensation techniques, such as, channel estimation and equalization, are easier to
implement
4
BASK, BFSK, BPSK
Bit
sequence
q
BASK/
OOK
BPSK
BFSK
5
BASK / OOK (1)
Generation:
For OOK, A0 = 0
OOK
Detection:
- Both envelope detection and coherent detection (same as AM)
Envelope detector
6
BASK / OOK (2)
s(t)
s(t)
OOK
Amplitude Spectrum:
Advantage: Simplicity
Disadvantage: ASK is very susceptible to noise interference
7
BFSK (1)
Generation:
 AC cos2f1t , for 1
s t   
 AC cos2f 0t , for 0
Amplitude Spectrum:
Advantage: FSK is less susceptible to noise than ASK

Disadvantage: Bandwidth twice that of ASK
8
BFSK (2)
Detection:
- Both envelope detection and coherent detection
s(t)
Envelope
p (noncoherent)
( ) detection
s(t)
Coherent detection
9
BPSK (1)
 AC cos2f C t ,
Generation:
for 1
s t   
 AC cos2f C t      AC cos2f C t , for 0
(Polar NRZ / NRZ-L)
AC cos2f C t 
Amplitude Spectrum:
10
BPSK (2)
Detection:
- Only coherent detection
Advantage:
 Less susceptible to errors than ASK requiring the same bandwidth
 Less bandwidth requirement than that of FSK
Di d
Disadvantage:
t
More complex signal detection / recovery process than in ASK and FSK
11
DPSK (1)
(For this example: 0 means
transition: Logic network
performs XNOR operation)
performs XNOR operation)
Generation:
Detection by Envelope Detector:
Advantage: Envelope detection can be used

12
DPSK (2)
Q. Design a DPSK system (transmitter and receiver) assuming ‘1’ means transition
i phase.
in h
13
QPSK: Principle (1)
Scheme 1: Bits Phase 01 11
 AC cos2f C t   / 4, binary 11 11 π/4
 A cos2f t  3 / 4 , binary 01
 C
s t    01 3 /4
3π/4
C
 AC cos2f C t  5 / 4 , binary 00 00 5π/4

 AC cos2f C t  7 / 4 , binary10 00
10 7π/4 10
Constellation diagram
 QPSK uses phase shifts of 90o ⇒ 4 different signals, each

representing
ti 2 bits
bit
That is 2 bits are mapped onto one signal element (i.e., symbol)
Scheme 2:
Bit
Bits Ph
Phase
 AC cos2f C t , binary 00 00 0
 A cos2f t   / 2, binary 01
 C
s t    01 π/2
C
 AC cos2f C t   , binary10 10 π
 AC cos2f C t  3 / 2 , binary11
11 3π/2
14
QPSK : Principle
 In QPSK, every two incoming bits are
split up into two streams and each stream
generates own PSK signal by modulating
own carrier frequency a1 t 
 Phase difference between the two cosc t 
carriers is 90o (in quadrature)
 The two PSK signals are then added (or

subtracted) to produce one of the 4 QPSK
signal
g elements
a2 t 
sin c t 
5π/4 7π/4 3π/4 π/4
For Scheme 1 15
QPSK Transmitter
 In QPSK, every two incoming bits are split up into two streams and each stream generates
own PSK signal by modulating own carrier frequency
 Phase difference between the two carriers is 90o (in quadrature)
 The two PSK signals are then added to produce one of 4 signal elements, i.e., QPSK signal
AC sin 2f C t 
For Scheme 1
16
QPSK Receiver: Coherent Detection
i 2f C t 
AC sin
17
QPSK
Advantage:
Higher data rate than in PSK (2 bits per symbol interval), while bandwidth occupancy
remains
i ththe same
• Drawback:
Higher rate PSK schemes are limited by the ability of equipment to distinguish small
differences in phase
18
Semester: July 2014

Assistant Professor
Part 08
Multiplexing and
Multiple Access
Techniques
2
Multiplexing and Multiple Access
 Multiple cars are sharing the same road

 Requires proper traffic management
policies
 Improper traffic management:

accidents, traffic jam, delay,
inefficient utilization of resources
3
Multiplexing and Multiple Access (MA)
Multiple users under a

 Multiple users shares the same channel single base station
Multiplexing: How can multiple users communicate simultaneously without interfering each
other?
 Multiplexing technique combine signals from several sources
 Thus allows one channel to be used by multiple sources to send multiple messages
Multiple Access (MA):

Decides on - who will transmit? whom to transmit? when to transmit? How to transmit?
 MA techniques are channel access methods based on some principles
 Allocates channels to different users and also handles the situation when there are more
message sources than available channels (usually No. of Channels < No. of Users)
4
Multiplexing Techniques
 Multiplexing techniques allow sharing a channel by keeping the transmitted
signals from various sources separate so that they do not interfere with one another
 This separation is accomplished by making the signals orthogonal to one another
in the dimensions of frequency, time, code, space, etc.
Various types:
 Time division multiplexing (TDM)
 Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)
 Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)
 Code division multiplexing (CDM)
 Space division multiplexing (SDM)
 Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM): a variety of FDM
 Polarization division multiplexing (PDM)
5
FDM
t
P
3D view
User 1 User 2 User N
f
Sub-channel 1 Sub-channel 2 Sub-channel N
Channel
2D view
 Available bandwidth of the common channel is divided into bands

 Signals are orthogonal (separated) in frequency domain
 Requires guard bands to avoid adjacent-channel interference

 Requires filtering to minimize adjacent channel interference: costly
6
FDM (2)
Block Diagram of an
FDM System
7
TDM (1)
 A digital transmission technology

 Transmission time is divided into time-slots and unique time slot(s) are allocated to
each user
 Different users can transmit or receive messages, one after the next in the same
bandwidth but in different time slots: Orthogonal in time-domain
8
TDM (2)
Block Diagram of a TDM System
 Increases the transmission efficiency (i.e., better resource utilization)

 Permits the utilization of all the advantages of digital techniques: digital speech interpolation,
source coding, channel coding, error correction, bit interleaving, etc.
 Suitable for asymmetric (i.e., unequal uplink and downlink data rate) data rate
 Equipment is becoming increasingly cheaper
 Requires a significant amount of signal processing for synchronization as the transmission of

all users must be exactly synchronized
 Requires guard times between time slots to reduce clock instabilities and transmission time
delay
9
TDM (3)
One TDMA Frame
Preamble Information Message Trail Bits
Slot 1 Slot 2 Slot 3 … Slot N
Trail Bits Sync. Bits Information Data Guard Bits
A typical TDMA frame formation

10
Joint TDM and FDM
For certain applications, such as synchronous optical network (SONET) or synchronous
digital hierarchy (SDH), both TDM and FDM can be employed simultaneously
11
WDM
Block Diagram of an
WDM System
 Conceptually same as FDM, except that multiplexing and demultiplexing involves light signals
transmitted through fibre-optic channels
 Combines different frequency signals (same as FDM). However, the frequencies are very high.
 WDM is designed to utilize the high data rate capability of fibre-optic cable
12
Multiple Access (MA) Techniques
Decides on - who will transmit? whom to transmit? when to transmit? How to transmit?
Random access (contention methods): No station is superior to another station and none is
assigned the control over another. No station permits, or does not permit, another station to
send.
Controlled access: The stations consult one another to find which station has the right to send.
A station cannot send unless it has been authorized by other stations.
Channelization techniques: The available bandwidth of a link is shared in time, frequency, or
through code, between different stations. Usually, it is controlled by a system administrator.
13
Multiple Access (MA) Techniques
Various forms of channelization techniques:
 Frequency division multiple access (FDMA): e.g., 1G cellular system
 Time division multiple access (TDMA) : e.g., 2G GSM system
 Wavelength division multiple access (WDMA)
 Code division multiple access (CDMA): e.g., 2G CDMA, 3G UMTS system
 Orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDMA): e.g., LTE, WiMAX
 Space division multiple access (SDMA)
These techniques can be used in combination
14
Example: GSM TDMA Frames
15
CDMA
 A spread spectrum (SS) multiple access technique, which allows multiple signals occupying
the same bandwidth to be transmitted simultaneously without interfering with one another
 In a CDMA system, each user is assigned a particular code, named as pseudo-noise (PN)
code, which are ideally supposed to be unique for each user
 This unique code enables the desired message to be extracted at the receiver
 The transmissions from other users looks like interference
What is a spread spectrum (SS) system?

 Spreads a narrowband communication signal over a Power
Narrowband
wide range of frequencies (High Peak Power)
 Signal spreading is done before transmission by using
a spreading sequence Spread Spectrum
(Low Peak Power)
 De-spreads it into the original data bandwidth at the
receiver
 Same sequence is used at the receiver to retrieve the Frequency
signal
16
FDMA, TDMA and CDMA
17
CDMA: Principle (1)
Two types:
 Direct sequence CDMA (DS-CDMA)
 Frequency hoping CDMA (FH-CDMA)
Symbol Bit duration
Duration TS Ts
DS-CDMA System: Data
Data
d(t) 1 0 1
b(t)
PNPN
Sequence
sequence
a(t)
c(t)
Power
Narrowband
b(t) d(t)c(t)
b(t)a(t)
Spread Spectrum
b(t)a(t) Time
Chip Duration TC
Frequency Processing gain, G = No. of chips per bit = Ts/Tc

18
CDMA System
Spreaded signal for
user 1, bS1
Data of Modulator
user 1, b1 Transmitted signal
PN 1 of user 1, TX1
PN code of Input Signal of
User 1
Receiver 1 before
Despreading, bS1'
bS2
Despreading
Demodulator
Output of
Data of Modulator
Transmitted signal Receiver 1, b1'
user 2, b2
PN 2 of user 2, TX2 PN 1
PN code of PN code of
User 2 User 1
bSK Receiver
Data of Modulator
user 2, bK
Transmitted signal
PN N of user K, TXK
PN code of
User K
Transmitter
19
CDMA: Principle (2)
20
CDMA: Principle (3)
PN code
21
CDMA: Principle (4)
22
CDMA: Principle (5)
Detection by receiver (station) 2:
23
CDMA System with Multi-User (1)
Spreaded signal for
user 1, bS1
Data of Modulator
user 1, b1 Transmitted signal
PN 1 of user 1, TX1
PN code of Input Signal of
User 1
Receiver 1 before
Despreading, bS1'
bS2
Despreading
Demodulator
Output of
Data of Modulator
Transmitted signal Receiver 1, b1'
user 2, b2
PN 2 of user 2, TX2 PN 1
PN code of PN code of
User 2 User 1
bSK Receiver
Data of Modulator
user 2, bK
Transmitted signal
PN N of user K, TXK
PN code of
User K
Transmitter
24
CDMA System with Multi-User (2)
Data of User 1, b1
Spreaded Signal for

Spreading User 1, bS1
- 2fs - fs 0 fs 2fs - fC 0 fC f
f
Input signal of Total

receiver 1 before Output of
despreading, bS1' User K Receiver 1, b1'
User 1
User 3 User 3
User 2 User 2
Despreading
User 1 User K
- fC 0 fC f - fC - fs 0 fs fC f
25
CDMA with Narrowband Interference
Spreading Despreading
Channel
TXb RXb
Input Data, Output Data,
bt(t) PNt br(t)
PNr
PN PN
Code Narrowband / Code
Wideband
Interference
|Bt(f)|
|RXb(f)| Narrowband
Interference
Data Signal
Spreading DS-CDMA Signal
(spread)
f
|Br(f)|
DS-CDMA Signal
(despread) Despreading
Whitened
Interference
- fc - fs 0 fs fc f
26
CDMA with Wideband Interference
|Bt(f)|
|RXb(f)| Wideband
Data Signal
DS-CDMA Signal Interference
of User 1
User 1 (spread) of User 2
Spreading
f
|Br(f)| DS-CDMA signal of

User 1
Wideband (despread) Despreading
Interference
of User 2
- fc - fs 0 fs fc f
27
PN Sequence Generation
 M-sequence
 Gold sequence
 Walsh code
 Kasami sequence
Gold sequence generator
28
FH-CDMA (1)
Transmitter
29
FH-CDMA (2)
30
FH Spread Spectrum: Invention
Invention (1941): For the sake of national defense, government did not allow publication of its details
US patent: August 1942
First implementation (modified form): 1962, US Defense
Award: Pioneer Awards, Electronic Frontier Foundation, 1997
George Antheil:
Composer, pianist, author,
Actress and inventor and inventor 31
CDMA: Advantages
Some of the advantages:
 Hard to intercept: secure communications
 Difficult to jam
 Improved interference rejection and suppression
 No guard-band like FDMA or guard-time like TDMA
 Easy addition of more users
 Can accommodate more users than TDMA and FDMA
 Improved multi-path mitigation
 Graceful degradation of performance as the number of simultaneous
users increases
 Less susceptible to effects induced from a changing environment
32
CDMA: Drawbacks
 Requires high bandwidth
 Self-jamming problem due to spreading sequences not being exactly
orthogonal
 Power control necessary for mitigating near-far problem
 Inappropriate for ultra high rate wireless access because
 Tremendous width of BW necessary
 Hardware complexity
 Synchronization problem
33
Duplexing
Duplexing refers to the technique of separating the transmitting and receiving
channels
Communication Systems: Simplex, Half-duplex, Full-duplex
FDD TDD
Frequency-division duplexing (FDD): Time-division duplexing (FDD):

Transmitter and receiver operate at Transmitter and receiver operate at
different carrier frequencies same carrier frequencies, but through
different time-slots 34
MA and Duplexing Schemes in Use
(Don’t need to memorize all of these)
System Multiple Access
Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) FDMA/FDD

2G Global System for Mobile (GSM) TDMA/FDD
US Digital Cellular (USDC) TDMA/FDD
Digital European Cordless Telephone (DECT) FDMA/TDD
US Narrowband Spread Spectrum (IS-95) CDMA/FDD
Satellite Communication TDMA, FDMA, CDMA
3G WCDMA/FDD
LTE OFDMA/FDD or TDD
WiMax OFDMA/FDD or TDD
35
OFDM
 OFDM dates back to the 1960’s, whereas its implementation in commercial silicon only
became possible in the late 1990’s
 A variant of FDM: Sub-carriers are orthogonal to each other requiring no guard-band
Applications of
OFDM/OFDMA:
LTE
WiMAX
DSL
ADSL
PLC
Digital TV
WLAN
36
OFDM System
37

AM Modulation Techniques

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AM Modulation Techniques

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EEE 309 Communication Theory

Semester: July 2014

Spectrum of a signal at baseband

2) To increase the operating range:

4. To suite the channel requirement:

The AM signal:  AM t   Ac  mt cos c t  Ac cos ct  mt  cos ct

 Thus, we transmit an unmodulated carrier in addition to the modulated carrier

 Ka = 1/Ac: Amplitude sensitivity of the modulator

USB LSB LSB USB

‐(ωc +2πB) ‐ωc ‐(ωc ‐2πB) ωc ‐2πB ωc ωc +2πB

 The envelope is an accurate representation of the message, provided -

Case I: m(t) with zero offset

mt  |max  mt  |min

An example of over modulation

Then,  AM t   Ac 1   cos mt cos c t

Message signal: m(t )  A1 cos 1t  A2 cos  2t  A3 cos 3t  ...  An cos  n t

Overall modulation index:

Input: Ac cosωct + m(t)

 This switching action results in a multiplication of [Ac cosωct + m(t)] by w(t)

and vcc ' t 

DSB‐SC signal:  DSB  SC t   mt  cos c t

et    DSB  SC t  cos c t  mt  cos 2 c t  mt   mt  cos 2c t

Series-bridge diode modulator Shunt-bridge diode modulator

 Positive Half-cycle: D1 and D3 conduct

 Can be detected coherently

1. Phase-shift method: requires ideal Hilbert phase shifter

Q. Study the relative advantages/disadvantages of these methods.

 SSB t .2 cos ct  mt  cos c t  mh t sin c t 2 cos c t

 A LPF will suppress unwanted SSB terms and produce m(t)

AM (DSB‐WC) DSB‐SC SSB‐SC

Modulation Simple Simple Costly and Complex

Output of the I-channel

Q. Derive the output of the quadrature (Q) channel. 14

SSB signal generation:

et   2VSB t  cos c t  VSB  f  f c   VSB  f  f c 

Angle modulated wave:

Relationship between instantaneous phase and frequency:

Property 2: Nonlinearity of the Modulation Process

For m(t) = m1(t):

For m(t) = m2(t):

For m(t) = m1(t) + m2(t):

1. The message signal increases or decreases

2. The message signal is maintained at some

 The improvement in noise performance is, however, attained at the expense of a

∆f = Frequency Deviation (Hz)

β = Modulation Index (radians)

Block diagram of an indirect method for generating a narrow-band FM wave

BW of NBFM signal: 2fm

Complex Envelope of s(t):

=> a periodic function of time with a fundamental frequency equal to fm

Jn(β) = nth order Bessel

=> S(f) consists of an infinite number of delta functions spaced at f = fc ± nfm, n = 0, 1, 2, …

Alternatively: Power of FM signal

nmax is the largest value of the integer n that satisfies

 As β is increased,, the bandwidth occupied

Example: Commercial FM Broadcasting

Corresponding value of the deviation ratio D = 75/15 = 5

Carson’s rule: BT = 2∆f + 2D = 180 kHz

Universal Curve: BT = 3.2∆f = 3.2 *75 = 240 kHz

 Practice the related examples from the book of B. P. Lathi

Dr. Md. Farhad Hossain

A. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)