A.

Educational Orientations/ Paradigms/ Broad Educational Theories

1. Behaviorism
Educational Theories 3
2. Cognitivism
3. Constructivism
4. Social Constructivism
5. Humanist
B. Theories Derived from Educational Orientations/ Paradigms/ Broad Educational Theories
C. Principles of Learning

A. EDUCATIONAL ORIENTATIONS / 1. BEHAVIORISM

APPROACHES / PARADIGMS OF LEARNING
THEORIES
How do we learn & teach?
Educational theory
An Educational theory fulfills following criteria
x widely accepted, general explanation of
teaching and learning
x explains how we learn / teach.
x predicts future behavior that learning of
students will or will not occur if teachers
taught in this way.
a. Approach: teacher-centered.
b. Based on: behavior (observable) & environment
c. Locus of control of learning: in environment.
d. Important are: Teacher and stimulus provided by the
teacher in the environment
e. Process:
a. Teacher manipulate the environment by providing a
stimulus to elicit specific response
b. Repeatedly provides the stimulus to elicit specific
response
c. Specific response becomes automatic

Advantages of understanding educational f. Educational implication: In absence of reinforcing

theories stimulus, the desired behavior is likely to disappear
g. Useful:
1. Helping the teachers to derive principles of a. when developing learning objectives or designing
teaching. competency-based curricula.
2. When a teacher does not know how to teach b. development and evaluation of clinical skills
in a particular teaching session, thinking of instruction and simulated case scenarios
principles helps in making a plan to teach
h. Examples:
effectively.
a. Stimulus Response Theory
BROAD EDUCATIONAL THEORY b. Learning by Association
1. Comprehensive educational theory that 2. COGNITIVISM
encompasses multiple theories. a. Approach:teacher-centered.
2. Synonyms:
b. Based on: Mental Processes (Memory System),
a. Educational Orientation
Beliefs etc
b. Educational Approaches
c. Educational Paradigms c. Locus of control of learning: internal to learner
d. Important are: Teacher and mental processes
3. Different types:
(memory system) of the student
a. Behaviorism
e. Process:
b. Cognitivism
a. The teacher provides knowledge (information)
c. Constructivism
according to the principles derived from mental
d. Social Constructivism processes such as how knowledge is organized, stored
e. Humanistic and recalled.
4. Instructional theory b. it is student responsibility to understand and stored
Adding the instructional methods to a information in an organized way according to mental
prevailing learning theory makes it an processes (memory system)
instructional theory. f. Focuses on:
Information processing system (memory system). The
information can be stored and retrieved from the
memory by the student, using his memory system
effectively, to solve the problem.
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f. Educational implication: Promotes
dependence on the teachers
g. Example:
a. Information Processing Theory
b. Cognitive Load theory
3. CONSTRUCTIVISM
a. Approach:student-centered and less
teacher-centered
b. Based on: behavior (observable) &
environment
c. Locus of control of learning: internal to
learner
d. Important are:
a. learners construct their own knowledge
based on what they already know.
b. Learning is active not passive
c. Teacher transmits the knowledge AND
facilitates in conceptual change
e. Focuses on:
a. teacher should engage students in their
learning by involving them in doing
something.
b. sufficient time must be provided for in-
depth reflection on new learning experience
f. Process:
a. previous knowledge of student is activated.
b. new knowledge is provided to the student
c. the student constructs learning by doing or
reflective thinking.
g. Educational implication:
student becomes less dependent on teacher
h. Examples:
a. Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory
b. Schon Reflection on Action / in Action.
4. SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
a. Approach:student-centered and less
teacher-centered
b. Based on: Participative (Social &
collaborative) metaphor of learning instead of
individual acquisition.
c. Locus of control of learning: internal to
learner
d. Important is:
learning is located through co-participation
rather in individual’s head
e. Focuses on: learning as social activity
f. Educational implication:
a. Stretching beyond what we can do on our own
with the help of others
b. Can be seen in observation, doing, modeling and
peer learning
SHUKR`S ESSENTIALS OF MEDICAL EDUCATION
Section 1: Educational theories - CHAPTER 3
e. Examples:
a. Zone Proximal Development (ZPD)
b. Scaffolding
c. Communities of Practice (CoP)
5. HUMANISTIC
a. Approach: Student-centered with the goal for the
learner to become autonomous and self-directed.
b. Based on: Within the humanist framework
c. Locus of control of learning: internal to learner
d. Important: learning relates to the needs of the person
e. Focuses on: a personal act necessary to achieve the
learner’s full potential.
f. Educational implication:
facilitate the growth and development of the overall
person.
B. EDUCATIONALTHEORIES (EXAMPLES):
1. STIMULUS-RESPONSE THEORY (SRT)
a. Explains that behavior can be learned or unlearned
based on the response it generates to a provided stimulus
b. Using both positive and negative reinforcers (stimuli)
can be used to change behavior
c. Responses not reinforced (extinction) not likely to be
repeated
d. Responses allowing escape from undesirable situations
(Punishment) likely to be repeated
e. Response of a teacher to behaviour shown by a student
influences the student's learning.
f. A teacher can enhance the Learning of a student by:
i. Adding a pleasant stimulus (Positive
Reinforcement). Example, verbally rewarding students for
their effort and hard work.
ii. Removing an aversive stimulus (Negative
Reinforcement). Example, excusing to do extra work that
a class is doing when a student does a good job.
g. A teacher can deter undesired behaviour by:
i. Adding an aversive stimulus (Positive
Punishment). Example, punishing a student not doing a
job.
ii. Removing a pleasant stimulus (Negative
Punishment) . Example, Not allowing a student to break at
the break-time for not doing work.
2. COGNITIVE LOAD THEORY (CLT)
a. “Cognitive load" relates to the amount of information
that working memory can hold at one time.
b. since working memory has a limited capacity,
instructional methods should avoid overloading it.
3. INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY/MODEL
a. The teaching should be done to optimally store the
information in Long Term Memory and retrieve the
stored data by using the processes of the memory
system effectively.
10

b. teaching should involve:
(1) activating prior knowledge
(2) repeating important information
(3) periodic reviewing of old concepts
(4) showing logical sequencings of concepts
(5) moving from simple to complex tasks
(6) using techniques to place information in long term
memory and retrieve it to solve a problem
4. SCHON REFLECTION IN ACTION & ON ACTION
a. Reflection in action is reflecting as something
happens. It consists of:
(1) Considering the situation
(2) Deciding how to act
(3) Acting immediately.
a. Reflection on action is reflecting after something
happens. It consists of:
(1) Reconsidering the situation
(2) Thinking about what needs changing in future
5. EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY/MODEL
a. It describes how learners learn from experience
through steps.
b. There are four steps:
(1) the learner has a concrete experience
(2) the learner observes and reflects on this experience
(3) the learner forms abstract concepts about the
experience
(4) the learner tests the concepts in new situations
c. Learning is a four-step cyclical (or spiral) process:
feeling, thinking, watching and doing.
d. Experiential learning can begin at any of the four steps.
e. Each step allows a learner to reflect and form new
principles and theories to guide future situations.
f. Concrete experience is used to test ideas and these
are modified through feedback.
6. ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD)
Defined as the space between what a learner can do
without assistance and what a learner can do with adult
guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.
7. SCAFFOLDING
a. Closely related to the ZPD
b. Process through which a teacher or more competent
peer gives help to the student in her or his ZPD as
necessary and then gradually reduces the help as the
student becomes more competent
8. COMMUNITIES OF PRACTICE (CoP)
a. A community of practice is defined as a "set of
relations among persons, activity, and world, over time
and in relation with other tangential and overlapping
communities of practice"
b. A CoP is a persistent, sustaining social network of
individuals who share and develop an overlapping
knowledge base, and focus on a common practice and/or
mutual enterprise.
c. Within this context, learning can be conceived as a
path in which learners move from ‘legitimate peripheral
participant’ to core participant of the CoP.
SHUKR`S ESSENTIALS OF MEDICAL EDUCATION
Section 1: Educational theories - CHAPTER 3
C. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
What are the principles of learning and
teaching?
EDUCATION PRINCIPLE
x ‘If-then’ statement.
x Ensures and predicts that if teaching is
done in this way, then students will learn.
1. EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES DERIVED
FROM BEHAVIORISM
x Constructive feedback on performance
improves motivation of students to learn. x The
students' learning can be programmed
in response to a stimulus given by a teacher, x Using
learning outcomes in educational
program.
x Teaching and learning skills.
2. EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES DERIVED
FROM COGNITIVISM
x Attention is must for learning.
x Teachers limit learning by increasing mental
load
(mental load could be due to the complexity
of information being taught (intrinsic load),
mental work required by the teaching and
learning activities (relevant load), or
anything that diverts attention of the
students (extraneous load).
x Teachers transmit knowledge to students.
x It is students’ responsibility to master what
was taught.
x Feedback is important to correct schema by
telling students what wrong they have
learned and correcting it.
x Strong guidance and instruction is required
from the teachers.
x Meaningful information is easier to
remember.
x Providing students an opportunity to
practice.
x Teacher should give information in an
organized way.
x Repetition and elaboration benefits learning.
x Mnemonics are helpful to learn.
x It is easier to remember information at the
start and end.
Methods to store information in long term
memory (LTM)
x Rehearsal. Conscious repetition of
information over time to increase the length
of time it stays in memory.
x Elaboration. Processing the information by
finding meaning and understanding it.
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 Section 1: Educational theories - CHAPTER 3

x Chunking. Organizing large amount of

information into more manageable and
meaningful units that can be remembered.
x Imagery. Visualizing the information.
x Mnemonics. Using acronyms and rhymes
to assist remembering.
x Constructing new knowledge on
foundation of previous knowledge by doing
reflective thinking, problem solving or
performing tasks in real setting.
3. EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES DERIVED
FROM SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
1. Students construct their own knowledge.
3. Learning is an active process.
4. Learning should be situated in real setting.
5. better learning occurs in groups.
D. TERMS USED TO EXPLAIN INFORMATION
PROCESSING (MEMORY)
Encoding is the process by which information gets stored
in memory.
Automaticity refers to the ability to process information
with little or no effort.
Attention is the focusing of mental resources.
Metacognition is awareness or analysis of one’s own of
information over time.
Chunking is a beneficial organizational memory strategy
tha t involves grouping, or “packing,” information into
“higher-order” units that can be remembered as single
units.
Working memory is a three-part system that temporarily
holds information as people perform tasks. STM, LTM,
Retreival
Short-term memory is a limited-capacity memory sy
stem in which information is retained at least 30 sec onds
unless it is rehearsed or otherwise processed
Long-term memory is a type of memory that holds
enormous amounts of information for a long period of
time in a relatively permanent fashion.
learning and thinking processes.
Memory is the retention of information overtime and
retrieving the information.

SHUKR`S ESSENTIALS OF MEDICAL EDUCATION 12

 Test Your Knowledge.
MCQ
Attempt the following MCQ
i. An anatomy teacher brings a patient with goiter to the second year MBBS class when
teaching the topic ‘Thyroid gland’.
Which of the following strategies is he effectively using to save the information in the
students’ long term memory?
a. Schemas
b. Cues
c. Rehearsal
d. Self-regulation

ii. You are delivering a lecture to a group of 150 students. At the start of the lecture, you
give a short MCQs test to the students to refresh their previous knowledge on the topic.
Which of the following paradigms of educational psychology are you applying?
a. Behaviorism
b. Constructivism
c. Cognitivism
d. Humanism

iii. A student comes to you to discuss his learning issues. He says that he memorizes well
but he forgets the memorized information during an exam.
Which learning process of the student needs attention?
a. Activating the reticular system
b. Auditory perception
c. Information coding
d. Information retrieval

iv. While giving feedback the teacher remarks, “good! Good! You have done well in the
paper”
The remark of the teacher shows application of learning theory?
a. Behaviorism
b. Cognitivism
c. Constructivism
d. Social

v. Assoc Prof Furqan has increased the number of practical sessions during the academic
year.
He is improving student’s learning using which learning approach?
a. Behaviorism
b. Cognitivism
c. Constructivism
d. Scaffolding

SHUKR`S ESSENTIALS OF MEDICAL EDUCATION 13 Answer: Correct option - (i) b , (ii) b, (iii) d, (iv) a, (v) c
SHUKR`S ESSENTIALS OF MEDICAL EDUCATION 14