Acp CBLM New

UC 1- PERFORM NURSERY OPERATIONS
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Information Sheet 1.1-1
Different kinds of tools, farm implements and simple equipment
Learning Objective:
After reading this information sheet, you must be able to determine the
kinds of tools, farm implements and simple equipment for agricultural crops.
In determining on how to prepare tools, farm implements and simple
equipment for agricultural crop operations, the trainees must be developing
skills on this.
Basic Gardening Tools
There are many different types of gardening tools available, both

hand and power operated. You don't have to buy the most
expensive tools available when starting to garden; if you find
later that you either don't need a specific tool, or don't care for
gardening as an activity, you will not have lost a large investment. Later you
can upgrade to the better quality tools, if desired.
Handles:
 Long-handled tools usually offer greater leverage

and reach, and often allow working from a
standing position. The handle may be either
straight or have a D-shaped hand grip on the end. With some tools, such
as long-handled pruners, handle extensions may be available.
 Short-handled tools are lighter in weight,

usually less expensive, more compact to
store than the long-handled varieties, and
allow one to work efficiently in confined
spaces or while kneeling. Common short-handled tools include hand
pruners and clippers, hoes, garden trowels, and cultivators.
 Handles are commonly constructed of wood (requires some additional

maintenance to keep splinter-free), fiberglass or plastic (check for
cracks), and sometimes metal (check for corrosion and cracks).
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 If a handle or any other part of the tool is damaged or loose, it
should be repaired or replaced immediately. Pay particular attention
to where the handle fits into the tool for looseness or damage.
Hand Tools:
In no particular order, some of the more common hand gardening tools are
listed below (the same tool may have several different common names). This is
only a basic list, for there are many styles and variations of these and other
tools available to the home gardener.
 Spading Fork. These have heavy, flat tines and

often a D-shaped handle. They are used to open up the ground, dig
bulbs, incorporate soil amendments, and turn compost.
 Hoe. A hoe is used for weeding and scraping

the surface of the soil. Garden hoes include
the traditional flat scraping/chopping types,
along with the newer loop, scuffle or stirrup
styles.
Pitchfork/Manure Fork. Pitchforks and manure


forks have long, thin tines which are not as heavy
as those on a spading fork. They are used for
picking up and moving loose materials.
 Round-nosed Shovel. Used for heavy digging

and mixing, such as when incorporating soil
amendments or preparing planting holes.
 Square-nosed Shovel. The flat blade allows it to be

used to scoop up materials, level high spots in the
soil, and cut straight lines through sod and soil.
Mattock/Pickaxe. The mattock is a heavy,

flat-bladed tool designed to dig or grub in the
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soil. The pickaxe, with its sharp points, is used to break up heavy or
rocky soils. Often a combination tool is found, which has a mattock on
one end of the tool head, and a pickaxe on the other end.
 Bow or Garden Rake. This is a heavy rake

with short, stiff tines supported by a flat or
bow-shaped metal frame. It is used for raking
heavy materials, removing rocks and other debris from the soil, and
smoothing the soil in preparation for planting.
 Leaf Rake. A light rake with long, thin,

flexible tines designed to gather leaves or
other light materials
Cultivator. A tool with heavy


curved or bent tines, or sometimes
multiple spinning blades, designed
to open up and aerate the soil. The cultivator styles with tines are also
used to mix materials and to effectively loosen weed roots.
 Hand Pruner. Used for removing

flowers, light-weight foliage, and
small branches. They may have
either anvil or bypass blades.
Long-handled Pruner/Lopper.

These are long-handled versions
of hand pruners, and provide
greater reach and leverage, allowing for larger items to be cut. They may
have either anvil or bypass blades, and some of the heavy-duty versions
have ratchet mechanisms for additional power.
Pruning Saw. These are hand saws


designed for efficient garden pruning.
They may be either a single blade
with a handle, or utilize a metal or wood frame. Pruning saws may also
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be mounted on long handles which allows higher branches to be cut
from the ground (these styles often have a rope-controlled lopper in
addition to the saw).
Garden Knife. Useful for cutting


twine and plant ties, opening bags,
plant propagation, opening up
plant root balls, and general
garden use. The safest styles have a sturdy fixed blade (often with
serrations) which will not collapse on your fingers during use.
 Axe/Hatchet. Axes and hatchets are

used to do rough chopping. Some axes
have a double blade, others a flat end
on the head which is used to carefully
drive wooden stakes (not metal, which might make the tempered axe
head chip), while others have a flat, transverse grubbing blade on the
head for the removal of roots (these are called a Pulaski, garden or
grubbing axe). Hatchets are smaller, short-handled versions of axes.
 Clipper/Shears. These are used to remove a

layer of vegetation from the surface of a
planting, hedge, or turf grass. Grass clippers
trim turf grass, and hedge shears are used to shape hedges and shrubs.
 Sickles. A curved, hand-held agricultural tool

typically used for harvesting cereal crops or
cutting grass for hay. The inside of the curve is
the cutting edge, and is serrated.
Wheelbarrow/Garden Cart. These are not

only used to move heavy and/or bulky
materials such as soil, garden debris,
compost and plants, but also as portable mixing containers for materials
such as soil amendments and even concrete.
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 Garden Hose. Used to provide
supplemental water to your plants, clean
items, and sometimes to assist in applying
fertilizers or pesticides.
 Watering Can. No home or garden would be complete

without a high quality watering can. Perfect for watering
indoor plants and window boxes as well as hard to reach outdoor plants
and flower bed.
Power Tools:
When using power tools read and follow all use and safety instructions, keep
them in good working condition, and remember that hot surfaces, spinning
blades, excessive noise, and thrown material may cause serious injury to the
operator and those nearby. Use eye and ear protection, and be sure to keep
children, other persons, and pets away from these tools when in use. With
electric tools be careful not to damage the cord or get things wet, and always
use and store gasoline and other liquid fuels in a safe location and manner.
 Lawn Mower. These are used to

cut turf grass. Walk-behind
mowers may be powered by
gasoline or electricity; some power
mowers may be
 Either self-propelled or riding mowers. Power mowers often can be

configured to mulch or "grasscycle" clippings (returning the clippings to
the lawn). Large wheel, heavy-duty versions are available for cutting
weeds.
 Tiller/Cultivator. These are used to

break up large areas of compacted
soil and to quickly incorporate soil
amendments. They may also be used
to loosen the soil prior to grading.
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 Lawn Edger. These are used to trim the edge of a lawn or bed.
 String Trimmer. These devices use a heavy

string (usually plastic) on a revolving head to
trim grass and light plant material.
 Leaf Blower. Gasoline or electric, these

use forced air to push light material.
 Electric Clipper/Trimmer/Shears. These

are often used to trim turf grass, hedges and
shrubs. They may use a cord or battery.
General Suggestions:
Here are some general suggestions to consider when purchasing and using
garden tools:
 Use the correct tool for the job. Using the wrong tool for a task is not
only inefficient, but may damage the tool and endanger the user. For
example, most shovels are designed for digging, but if you use one for
prying it may fail, causing an injury.
 Try to select tools that not only fit the task, but also feel good in
your hands. You may be using these tools for a long time, and a tool that
feels good will make your gardening experience more enjoyable.
 Tools should be kept clean. Dirty tools are harder to hold and use, are
less safe, may deteriorate faster, make it more difficult to see any tool
damage, bring dirt into your tool storage area, and may transmit
diseases and pests to other parts of your garden. Often a quick wipe
down or rinse with a garden hose will remove most of the grime.
Remember to disinfect your tools after working with diseased plants or
soils (see below).
 Edged tools should be kept sharp. Sharp tools require less effort to use,
making them both safer and more efficient. However, don't make your
tools razor-sharp, for too fine of an edge will chip or dull quickly under
heavy use. Edged tools include axes, hoes, shears, saws, mowers, garden
knives, and shovels (shovels "cut" into the soil).
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 Protect your tools. Rain, sun, chemicals, impacts and excessive
temperatures can damage your tools. Keep them in a protected location
and maintain them properly.
 Keep your garden tools away from children and pets. Many garden
tools are sharp, pointed and/or heavy, and children may hurt themselves
if they handle these tools without supervision. Pets may also be harmed
by sharp tools, and may chew on hoses and handles.
 Be aware of your surroundings when using tools. Remember that

others may be working nearby or walk up unexpectantly, there may be
overhead wires or other obstructions, and there may also be
underground utilities or other items buried in the ground.
 When you set your tools down, do so in a place and manner that will
prevent accidental injury or damage.
 Purchase and use appropriate personal protective equipment, such

as gloves, sun protection, eye and ear protection, work shoes, knee pads,
and back braces for use in heavy lifting. Avoid loose-fitting clothing and
dangling hair when working around power tools.
 Disinfect tools and equipment after working with diseased plants.

Diseases may be transmitted to uninfected plants via contaminated
garden tools and equipment. Disinfect your tools by first washing them
with soap and water, then wiping them down with either rubbing alcohol
or a freshly-mixed 10% bleach solution in water.
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Self-check 1.1-1
True or False: Write the word True if the statement is correct and write False
If the statement is wrong. Write your answers on your answer sheet.
1. A cultivator is a tool with heavy curved or bent tines, or sometimes

multiple spinning blades, designed to open up and aerate the soil.
2. Axes and hatchets are used to do rough chopping.
3. Shovels are designed for digging, but if you use one for prying it may fail,
causing an injury.
4. A clipper/shear is a curved, hand-held agricultural tool typically used for
harvesting cereal crops or cutting grass for hay.
5. Rain, sun, chemicals, impacts and excessive temperatures can damage
your tools.
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Answer’s key
1. True
2. True
3. True
4. False
5. True
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Information Sheet 1.1-1A
Be Good to Your Garden Tools and They’ll Be Good to You
We all know how important it is to have the right tool for the job, but many of
us don’t realize how important it is to take proper care of the tool so that it
continues to perform at its peak. This holds true for all tools... especially
garden tools.
Garden tools are probably the most neglected tools. We use them, abuse them,
and put them away dirty and wet only to see them rust and lose their
effectiveness over time. But with proper maintenance and a little time spent,
your tools can last and be effective for many years to come.
Proper Tool Storage
When storing your tools, keep them off the ground so they’re not
exposed to moisture on your garage or shed floor. Hanging racks
like the one pictured are a convenient way to hang several long-
handled tools in one small area. They also help prevent damage
to sharpened edges. For smaller tools, try using a pegboard
system to hang your tools. Not only will it keep your tools off the
ground, but it will help you with good tool organization. If each
tool has a space, it’s more likely that the tool will get put away
after use. A pegboard system also helps you identify if you have
any missing tools. If a peg is empty, you know to take another jog around the
yard before calling it a night.
Clean and Dry Tools
Because most garden tools are exposed to dirt and moisture, this is the first
place to start when it comes time for tool maintenance. Cleaning and drying
your garden tools will keep them in good working order. For shovels, rakes and
trowels that come in contact with soil, wash the dirt off with the strong spray
from your hose. If the dirt is caked on, keep a brush nearby for a good
scrubbing. Most importantly, dry your tools thoroughly before putting them
away. I installed a hook in my garage near my garden tools so I could keep an
old towel handy for drying.
You’ll also want to be sure to wipe down smaller tools, like pruners and shears,
before putting them away. This will help you remove any moisture, as well as
sap, from the blades. Turpentine is an effective solvent for removing stubborn
sap. Remember, be careful as you wipe the blades as they are very sharp. And
once again, be sure to properly dry your tool before storing.
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Prevent Rust
While proper storing, cleaning and drying are important to the

condition of your tool, it’s still important to prevent rust. The
most effective way to prevent rust is to provide some type of protective coating
to the surface. Given the high cost of quality garden tools, it’s important to take
this step to ensure many productive hours in the garden. You can use
Boeshield T-9, a convenient aerosol spray or Bull Frog Rust Blocker which is
non-polluting and biodegradable.
General Tool Maintenance
Some general maintenance is also handy for keeping your garden tools in good
shape. There are several tips we recommend: First, for wood-handled tools,
sand the handle if it becomes rough. This will help prevent splinters. And for
all wood-handled tools, apply a light coating of boiled linseed oil to help prevent
the wood from drying out and cracking.
Second, you will want to apply some type of lubricant like Boeshield T-9 to
your pruners, loppers, and similar tools. This will ensure smooth operation of
moving parts and will also help prevent rust from forming.
Third, remove rust that has already formed. Because many of

us have not practiced proper tool maintenance, we’re probably
facing a garage full of rusty tools. If that’s the case for you, do
not worry, there is still hope. There are several types of rust
removal products available. Evapo-Rust is a safe and easy-to
use on items that can be soaked. Bull Frog Rust Remover is
an organic, non-toxic gel that also protects the tool against future rust
formation. It works particularly well in household applications as it does not
contain any harsh chemicals or emit strong odors.
Keep Your Tools Sharp
Another key to garden tool maintenance is keeping your tools sharp.

Sharp tools not only are more effective, but they reduce your frustration. A
sharp pruner will cut through a branch with ease, and a sharp shovel will dig
into hard clay soils. Sharpening garden tools requires just a two simple tools, a
mill file and a small handheld sharpener.
The bigger tools like shovels, spades and hoes only require the use of a
mill file. Mill files are available in bastard, second, and smooth cut. The
bastard cut is the most aggressive while the smooth cut leaves the finest finish.
Each cut is available in different sizes. Because larger files are cut coarser, we
recommend a 10” second cut or an 8” bastard cut for garden tools. Another
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vital piece of a file is the handle. These are sold separately but
make the sharpening process much easier and safer.
Before you use the file, secure your tool so you do not have to
chase it around while you are trying to sharpen it. Once secured, find the angle
where the tool was previously sharpened. Now use your mill file held at that
angle and push the tool across the edge. Do not push the file back and forth on
the tool! Files were meant to cut on the push stroke, and pulling will only serve
to dull the file. Continue this process until the entire edge of your tool is
sharpened. You will know it is sharpened when the entire edge looks like
bright, shiny metal.
The smaller tools like pruners, loppers, and shears require a keener edge
to perform their duties, so we recommend a small diamond stone for
sharpening. If you sharpen a variety of garden tools, we have found that the
DMT Double Sided Diafold works effectively. With a coarse and a fine grit, it
will quickly sharpen dull tools on the coarse side, and put a nicely honed edge
on the tool on the fine side. If you sharpen mostly pruners and loppers,
another alternative is the DMT Mini-Hone. These are small enough to sharpen
pruners and loppers while the blade is still in the tool.
Sharpening using a diamond stone is much like a file. Secure the blade
of your tool; a small vise works well if you have one. Next find the angle where
your tool was previously sharpened. If you have trouble finding the angle try
this trick: Use a permanent marker and apply the marker to the blade edge.
Rub your stone across the edge at your selected angle. If you removed the
marker behind the blade edge, you need to sharpen at a steeper angle, if you
only removed the marker from the front edge you need to reduce the angle.
Once you’ve found a good angle just rub the diamond stone back and
forth with your coarse side until all your edge is uniformly sharp. Now switch
to your fine side and sharpen using the same angle. Your edge is now ready for
use. If you feel the edge starting to get dull again, you can skip the coarse grit
and just use a few strokes with the fine stone to keep your tool in excellent
shape.
With a little effort and time your garden tools will be tip-top shape for
years to come. Even tools that have been neglected can be nursed back into
shape. Proper storage, cleaning and drying, general maintenance, and
sharpening will result in more effective tools and more productive time in the
garden.
Self-check 1.1-1A
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1. Garden tools are probably the most neglected tools.

2. Another key to garden tool maintenance is keeping your tools
sharp.
3. Cleaning and drying your garden tools will keep them in good
working order.
4. When storing your tools, keep them off the ground so they’re not
exposed to moisture on your garage or shed floor.
5. While proper storing, cleaning and drying are important to the
condition of your tool, still it’s not important to prevent rust.
Answer’s Key
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1. True
2. True
3. True
4. True
5. False

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Nursery Establishment (jcl 2016)
Factors to consider in nursery site selection
1. Area should be flat

The area for establishment of plant nursery is very
Critical considering that hilly area or the slope of the area can
greatly affect the growth of the crop and even to the operation of
the nursery.
2. Area should have a good drainage
Stagnant water can deter the growth or worst wither
the young plants in the nursery, hence good drainage is required
for the establishment of nursery.
3. Area should have access to water source
Water is very important to the growth and
development of the plant especially young.
4. Area should be accessible for transportation
Disposition or marketing of young plantable plants is
difficult if there is no accessible road for transport.
5. Nursery should be near to platation or production area
Distance between the nursery and the plantation or

production area must be tolerable for easy delivery of seedlings
during planting or re-planting.
Materials needed for the construction of Nursery shed
1. post
2. smaller wooden or steel materials for beams
3. coconut leaves for temporary shade
4. fish nets for more improved shade
5. plastic sheets for green house
6. strings for lay-outs
7. steel or wooden benches to hold the seeding trays.

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Characteristics of Good Seeds
Learning Objective:
different characteristics of a good seeds.
Seed Propagation is an easy and cheap method of multiplying plants.

Many horticultural plants are commercially propagated by seeds.
Structure of Seeds
A seed is a mature ovule. It consists of an embryo, its food reserves

(endosperm, cotyledon) and the seed covering called testa or seed coat.
Factors to be considered in seed selection:
1. high yielding for economic onsideration;

2. high quality in terms of nutrient composition and eating quality;
3. resistant to insect pests and diseases;
4. adapted to the local conditions;
5. viable (high percentage germination); and
6. genetically pure.
Types of Seeds
1. Orthodox - seeds that could be kept for longer periods compared with
others under the same environmental conditions, provided they are
properly dried and stored, e.g. okra, eggplant, all legumes, etc.
2. Recalcitrant – seeds which cannot withstand drying and should not be

permitted to dry out before planting.
Characteristics of a Good Seeds
1. seeds must be true to its type i.e. genetically pure, free from admixture
and should belong to the proper variety or strain of the crop and their
duration should be according to agro climatic and cropping system of the
locality.
2. Seed should be pure, viable, vigorous and have high yielding potential.
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3. Seed should be free from seed borne diseases and pest infection.
4. Seed should be clean, free from weed seeds and any inert material.
5. Seed should be in whole and not broken or damage.
6. Seed should be fresh as possible or of proper age.
7. Seed should contain optimum amount of moisture (8-12%).
8. Seed should have high germination percentage (more than 80%).
9. Seed should germinate rapidly and uniformly.
Why are seeds certified?

The purpose of seed certification is to maintain and make available to
farmers high-quality and genetically pure seeds of superior cultivars. Certified
seed is high in genetic purity, high in germination and vigor, and of good
quality (i.e., free from disease and from damaged or immature seed).
Classes of seeds
Breeder seed - this is the seed of a new variety that has the highest purity and
is produced, developed, controlled, and provided directly by breeders or their
institutions for further multiplication.
Foundation seed - this is the progeny of the breeder seed, produced by

trained officers of an agricultural station in conformity with regulated national
standards and handled to maintain genetic purity and identity of the variety.
Registered seed - this is the progeny of the foundation seed grown by selected
farmers, handled to maintain genetic purity and identity, and has undergone
field and seed inspections to ensure conformity with standards.
Certified seed - this is the progeny of foundation, registered, or certified seeds,

handled to maintain sufficient varietal identity and purity, grown by selected
farmers under prescribed conditions of culture and isolation, and subjected to
field and seed inspections prior to approval by the certifying agency. Harvest
from this class is used for commercial planting.
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Official standards for seed certification in Philippines
Factor Breeder Foundation Registered Certified

98 98 98 97
Pure seed (%)
0 2 5 10
Other varieties (grains/500 g)
0 0 0.05 0.1
Weed & other crop seed (%)
2 2 2 3
Inert matter (%)
0 0 1 2
Red rice (grains/500 g)
80 80 80 80
Germination (% minimum)
14 14 14 14
Moisture content (%)
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Self-check 1.1-3
If the statement is wrong. Write your answers on your answer sheet
1. Good seed should be fresh as possible or of proper age.
2. A seed is a mature fruit.
3. The purpose of seed certification is to maintain and make available to

farmers high-quality and genetically pure seeds of superior cultivars.
4. Recalcitrant are seeds which cannot withstand drying and should not be
permitted to dry out before planting.
5. Seed propagation is an easy and cheap method of multiplying plants.
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Answers Key 1.1-3
1. True
2. False
3. True
4. True
5. True

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Seed testing
What is seed testing?
 Seed testing is an analysis of some physical parameters and the physi-

ological quality of a seed lot, based on a small representative sample.
Methods of seed testing
 Ragdoll method – use of a piece of

cloth as big as a handkerchief. The
seeds are placed in ten (10) rows with
at least ten (10) seeds/row.
 Seedbox method – one hundred seeds

(100) will be sown in rows in a
seedbox containing a sterile medium
composed of sand, compost and
ordinary garden soil (1:1:1 ratio)
 Petri-dish or filter paper method – ten

seeds (10) will be sown in each of ten
petri-dishes lined with moistened filter
paper.
What is seed germination?
 the transition of seeds from a dormant state to intensive vital activity, as a result of which
the embryo begins growing and a sprout is formed from which a young plant develops;
the initial stage of plant ontogeny.
Calculating Percent Germination
To get the percent germination of the test seed it is better to determine

the number of seeds to be sown. You may follow the given formula in
determining the percent germination.
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% germination = No. of seed germinated x 100
No. of seed sown
Example: you have sown 100 eggplant seeds and only 85 had germinated. You
can determine the percent germination of your eggplant by substituting the
formula with your values.
Therefore, percent germination will be:
% germination = 85 x 100
100
% germination = 85
A good seed should have at least 80% germination.
Methods of Breaking Seed Dormancy
Various methods have been used by seed scientist and technologists to break
the dormancy of seed.
Simple and widely used methods are
A. Scarification:
Any treatment i.e. physical or chemical that weakness the seed coat, is known
as scarification.
Scarification method is applied, when dormancy is imposed by hard seen coat

e. g. in legumes- cajanuscajan, (tur), gram etc.
In this method there are various way to break hard seed coat such as:
1. Seeds are either rubbed on a sand paper manually. At the time of

rubbing care should be taken that not to damage the axis of the seed e.g.
Green gram &subabool.
2. When seed coat is too hard i.e. of woody nature, the seed coat has to be
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removing completely by breaking it. E.g. Rubber (Havea app) seed India
teak wood seed.
3. Soaking treatment: Soaking hard seed coat in concentrated or diluted
solution of sulphuric acid for 1 to 60 minutes, it remove seed coat
impermeability. E. g. cotton seeds, India teak wood seeds etc.
B. Temperature Treatments:
1. When the dormancy is due to embryo factor i.e. the seed is incubating at
low temp. (0- 5o C) over a substratum for 3 to 10 days placing it at
optimum temp. Required for germination. E.g. mustard. – (Brassica
campestrits)
2. Some seeds required a brief period of incubation (from a few hours to one
to five days) at 40 to 50 oC before germinating at required temp. ( in this
method care should be taken that moisture content of the seed is not
more than 15% e.g. paddy (Oryza Sativa)
3. Hot water treatment is also an effective method of breaking hard- seed
ness in legumes. In this method the seeds are soaked in water at 80oC
temp. For 1 – 5 minutes (depending up on the type of seed) before
putting for germination.
C. Light Treatments:
Same seeds do not germinate in dark thus it provides continuous or periodic

exposure of light is essential e. g. Lettuce (Lactuca Sativa) required red light
(660nm) or white light is essential for germination to occur.
D. Treatments with growth regulators & other Chemicals:
Endogenous dormancy may be due to presence of germination inhibitors.

Application of low level of growth regulators (i.e. Gibberellins, Cytokinins and
Ethylene etc) may break the seed dormancy.
Most widely used growth regulators are gibberellins and kinetics e.g. seeds of
sorghum crop presoaking seed treatment with GA3 at the conc. Of 100 ppm
have been used for breaking seed dormancy
Among other chemicals potassium nitrate (0.2%) and thio – urea (0.5 to 3%)
are widely used for breaking seed dormancy in oat (Avena Sativa), barley
(Hordeumvulgare), tomato (Lycopersiconspp).
(For prepare 100 ppm solution of GA3, weigh 100 mg of GA3 & dissolve in a
few drops of alcohol and make up the final volume (1000 ml) by adding distilled
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water).
(50 ppm kinetin 5 mg dissolved in few drops of alkaline made with sodium
hydroxide and makes the final volume 100ml it gives to final conc. Of 50 ppm)
http://www.agriinfo.in/?page=topic&superid=3&topicid=81
Self-check 1.1-4
If the statement is wrong. Write your answers on your answer sheet
1. Seed testing is an analysis of some physical parameters and the

physiological quality of a seed lot, based on a small representative
sample.
2. Petri dish method is using a piece of cloth as big as a handkerchief.
3. To get the percent germination of the test seed it is better to determine

the number of seeds to be sown.
2. Seedbox method is using one hundred seeds (100) that sown in rows
in a seedbox containing a sterile medium composed of sand, compost
and ordinary garden soil (1:1:1 ratio).
3. A good seed should have at least 80% germination.
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Answers Key 1.1-4
1. True
2. False
3. True
4. True
5. True
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Task sheet 1.1-4
Title: Conduct seed testing
Performance objective: With your gained knowledge in this module, you must be able to
conduct seed testing using different methods and determine the percent germination of your
seeds.
Steps/procedure: Prepare your materials and conduct seed testing using different methods
based on your module. List down the important information about your
activities. After which, present your output to your trainer.
 Type of seed/s:
 Producer:
 Address:
 Contact #
 Storability date:
 Number of seed sown:

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 Number of seed germinated:
 Percent Germination:
 Solve the Percent Germination Using the Formula:
Assessment Method: Portfolio
CREATING MEDIA COMPONENTS AND MIXES
Growing Media Components and Mixes
Growing
Media
Photo Advantages Disadvantages
Components
and Mixes
Holds nutrients and May be strongly acidic.

Peat Moss
water. May contain weeds.
28
Fresh manure is high in
Good source if organic
Manure ammonia and can burn.
matter. Usually
Compost Variable in composition.
available free
May contain excess salt.
Relatively inexpensive.
Improves drainages. Low nutrients – and
Sand
(Medium to coarse water-holding capacity
grades are best)
Holds nutrients and

water. Supplies
Vermiculite Compacts when too wet
potassium. Provides
aeration. Light-weight.
Heavy, often contains
Relatively inexpensive. pathogen. Clay soils
Field Soil Holds water and usually drain poorly and
nutrients are variable in fertility.
Will crust.
Provides aeration. Low nutrients – and
Light-weight, sterile, water holding capacity.
Perlite
and neutral in pH. Floats to surface of
Does not decay. container.
Soil-based Growing Mixes
Advantages:
 Generally plant nutrition is easier because if the nutrients retained

by the soil
 Minor element deficiencies are rare because of minor elements are
on the soil exchange sites.
Disadvantages:
 Difficulty in obtaining good quality soil.

 Soil is best stores dry then steam pasteurized before it is used.
 Continuity of soil supply
 Soil based mixes are heavy to handle
29
 Soil based mixes may be more expensive to prepare properly.
Organic Media Components
Peat
Peat is usually included in a mix to increase the water-holding capacity or to

decrease the weight. Peats are classifies into three types:
1. Moss peat – more often called peat moss, is the most common form used
in the industry and is derived mostly from sphagnum moss. Peat moss is
the least decomposed form of the peat types, is typically light tan to
brown in color, lightweight (6.5 lbs/yd3), high in moisture-holding
capacity and very acid (pH 3.8 to 4.3).
 Light in weight
 High water holding capacity
 Cation exchange capacity is high on a mass basis, but not
on a volume basis
 Physical and chemical properties of peat moss can vary
significantly for different sources
 Strongly acidic
2. Reed-sedge – peat is derived from the moderately decomposed remains if
rushes, coarse grasses, sedges, reed and similar plants.
3. Peat Humus – is usually derived from reed-sedge or hypnum moss peat
and represents an advances stage of decomposition. This type of peat is
usually dark brown to black and has a low moisture-retention capacity
Inorganic Media components
Perlite
Perlite is produced by heating igneous rock under high temperatures (1,100 to

1,600⁰F). Perlite is a light-weight, sterile, expanded volcanic rock. Unlike
vermiculite, it provides no nutrients for plant growth, but it does provide
aeration.
 A very dense aluminum silicate formed when volcanic magma cools

rapidly
 Processed at high temperature to expand and to form white,
lightweight particles.
 Chemically inert (pH 7.0-8.5)
 Low cation exchange capacity
 Low water holding capacity
30
Mixing Growing Media
Steps in mixing growing media
1. The most popular is a combination of sand, soil, ricehull and compost

in equal proportion. (1:1:1 ration)
2. Prepare the tools and materials needed.
3. Wear Personal Protective Equipment.
4. Measure growing media component in equal proportion.
5. Mix one part of sand, one part of soil, one part of ricehull and one part
of compost in equal proportion.
UC 2 – PLANT CROPS
31
MODULE CONTENT
UNIT OF COMPETENCY : Plant Crop
MODULE (1) TITLE : Preparing land for planting
MODULE DESCRIPTOR :This module covers collecting, conducting and

interpreting soil analysis and choosing,
using farms implements, tools and
equipment in land preparation.
LEARNING OUTCOME #1
Collect Soil Samples For Soil Analysis
CONTENT:
1. Procedure in collecting soil samples
2. Importance of collecting soil samples
3. Guidelines in preparing soil samples
32
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:
1. Ten soil samples are randomly collected in the area.
2. Observe proper depth of at least 30 cm. And 4 cm. wide
3. Soil samples are properly air dried
CONDITIONS:
Students/trainees must be provided with the following:
1. Drying oven
2. Soil auger
3. Shovel
4. Digging bar
5. Pale/container
ASSESSMENT METHODS:
1. Direct observation
2. Oral questioning
3. Practical demonstration
NOMINAL DURATION : hrs

Procedure in Collecting Soil Samples
Learning Objective:
procedure and Importance of soil sampling.
Soil
Sampling
Environmental concerns have brought nutrient management in

agriculture under increased scrutiny. A goal of sound nutrient management is
to maximize the proportion of applied nutrients that is used by the crop
(nutrient use efficiency). Soil sampling is a best management practice (BMP) for
33
fertilizer management that will help improve nutrient use efficiency and protect
the environment.
Soil sampling is also one of the most important steps in a sound crop
fertilization program. Poor soil sampling procedures account for more than 90
percent of all errors in fertilizer recommendations based on soil tests. Soil test
results are only as good as the soil sample. Once you take a good sample, you
must also handle it properly for it to remain a good sample.
A good soil testing program can be divided into four operations:

1. taking the sample
2. analyzing the sample
3. interpreting the sample analyses
4. making the fertilizer recommendations
Soil Sampling Methodology

Individual grab soil samples should be collected at locations throughout the hot
spot site. If possible, these should be randomly selected and equally paced.
However, the presence of notable differences in physical soil qualities (such as
staining) may necessitate the preferential selection of a sub-set of sampling
locations.
Soil samples should be collected using a stainless trowel or shovel, and

be collected from the top 30 cm depth (surface soils). Samples will be
deposited into a stainless steel tray and will be stirred into a homogenous
mixture. Samples will then be placed into one or more 125 ml or 250 ml glass
jars.
Pre-sample Preparations
 Identify/Locate Soil Sampling Sites

 Fill out field data sheet
 Prepare sampling jars
Clean Soil Sampling Equipment
 Put on gloves, rinse gloves with clean water

 First scrub equipment with sparkleen
 Rinse with clean water (3×)
 Rinse with acetone
 Rinse with hexane
Soil Sampling Steps
34
Fill in the “Location Information” box on the Field Data
Form
Thoroughly clean all sampling equipment (dredge, mixing

tray, spoon, etc.) with metals-free soap and de-ionized
water prior to sampling at each site. Where analyses
require, use chemical solvents such as hexane and
acetone to ensure all residues are dissolved from
equipment surfaces.
Soil samples should be collected using a stainless steel

core sampler, trowel or shovel.
Collect ten sub-samples between 1 and 30cm below

surface.
Samples are collected in a stainless steel tray and stirred

into a homogenous mixture.
Samples are then placed into one or more separate glass

jars.
Ensure the waterproof label on the container includes the

sampling site number, date of sampling, type of sample
(soil), and name of project. Also ensure that the label is
securely fastened to the jar.
Complete a final check to ensure that the data sheet has

been completed and that all required samples have been
collected and are properly labeled.
Immediately place collected sediment samples in a cold,

dark cooler.
35
Final Checks
Ensure that the field data sheet has been completed.
Laboratory Activities after soil sampling (jcl 2016)
1. Air drying
After collection from the field air dry the soil samples to reduce the
moisture content (MC). Avoid sun drying that may alter the nutrient
content of the sample particularly nitrogen.
2. soil pulverizing
Pulverize the soil samples after air drying for easy dilution during
analysis.
3. soil sieving
Sieve the soil samples to eliminate foreign materials.
4. Packaging of material
Packed soil samples with thicker plastic bag or preferably polyethylene

material.
5. Labelling
Label each samples for easy identification and make sure that the label
is water proof.
36
Self-check 2.1-1
1. Soil sampling is one of the most important steps in a sound crop

fertilization program.
2. Taking the sample is one among the good soil testing program.
3. Put on gloves, rinse gloves with clean water are among soil
sampling steps.
4. Fill out field data sheet is a pre-sampling preparations.
5. Ensure that the field data sheet has been completed is the final
check in soil sampling.
37
Answers Key 2.1-1
1. True
2. True
3. False
4. True
5. True
38
TASK SHEET 2.1-1
Soil Collection Field Data Sheet
Performance objective: With your gained knowledge, you must be able to
conduct soil sampling and input data in the table base on your experience.
Farm/project name: Date of Collection: Time Start:
Time End:
Address:
Collected By(Name and Signature):
Sampling Tools:
Collection Orientation/Scheme: Composite/Sample Depth
(# = ) (cm= )
Soil texture(sandy, rocky, clayey or silty) and color:
39
Description of the site (Slope, Hilly, Alluvial, Including existing Vegetation)
Location /Site Map
Assessment criteria: portfolio

LEARNING OUTCOME #2
Clear, Plow and Harrow the Area
CONTENT:
1. Importance of land preparation & tillage
2. Common method and tillage for lowland & upland
3. Land preparation procedure
4. Seedbed/seedplot preparation
5. Operation on Farm equipment
40
1. Soil moisture range is determined before primary & secondary tillage
2. The field is 100% plowed cleared and proper mowing equipment are selected ready for
tillage operation
3. The field is 100% plowed with alternate harrowing prior to final leveling
4. Seedbed/seedplot are constructed ready for planting/ transplanting
CONDITIONS:
1. 4-wheeled tractor
2. Moisture meter
3. Drying meter
4. Mower (grass cutter)
5. Plow
6. Harrow
7. Shovel
8. Digging bar
9. Bolos
10. pick mattock
11. Light Hoe
12. Farm/field
ASSESSMENT METHODS:
1. Direct observation
2. Oral questioning
3. Practical demonstration

Importance of Land Preparation and Tillage
Learning Objective:
importance of land preparation and tillage.
41
Land Preparation - includes steps that make the soil ready for planting.
Importance of Land Preparation
1. kills and controls a great number of weeds;

2. kills hibernating pests;
3. promotes better soil aeration;
4. improves the water holding capacity of the soil
5. incorporates organic matter;
6. enhances the germination of seeds; and
7. improves the tilt of the land.
Steps in Land Preparation
1. Clearing - this is done by cutting all vegetation present in the area.

Gathering all plant stumps.
2. Plowing - this is done by stirring the soil to make it more friable. It is

carried out with the use of a disc or mold board plow.
3. Harrowing - this is done in alternation with plowing to improve soil tilth.
4. Furrowing – this activity is done to facilitate the planting rows of the crop.
5. Digging of Holes – this is done to facilitate the planting of seedlings which

are good for transplanting as in plantation crops and other selected
vegetable transplants. This is also applicable for direct seeded plant which
requires individual planting.
The following are samples for transplanted plants:
1. tomato
2. mango
3. coffee
4. eggplant
5. lettuce
6. pechay
7. durian
42
8. santol
9. pepper
10. rice
The following are samples for direct seeded plants:
1. radish
2. polesitao
3. corn
4. ampalaya
5. squash
6. cucumber
7. upo
8. patola
9. carrots
10. peanuts
Soil land preparation for transplanting needs not be as intensive as for

seeding, but the finer the preparation the easier will be the subsequent
operations such as weeding. Prior to transplanting recommended fertilizers are
placed in a band along the rows and covered with soil. In this way, the plants
will be readily provided with an available source of nutrients.
43
Other tools for land preparation
Garden hoe round nose shovel
Square nose shovel mattock/pick axe
44
Fig 2.Harrowing a field.
Fig 3.Furrowingfollowing the contour of the land.
Factors affecting proper land preparation

1. existing vegetation
2. soil type
3. resources
4. climate
5. topography/location
Soil tillage
Soil tillage is a method of soil preparation for seedbed preparation,

sowing or transplanting, and for crops' growth.
Types of soil tillage
Conventional tillage
The cultivation of the soil using plow, harrow and other farm tools or
mechanical implements to prepare the field for crop production.
Advantages
1. Destroys pests' shelters and disrupts their lifecycles

45
2. Exposes pests to predators and unfavorable conditions
3. Distributes soil nutrients throughout the soil
4. Aerates the soil
5. Controls weeds
6. Makes other farm cultural practices easier to undertake
Disadvantages
1. Destroys the soil cover and its structure

2. Enhances soil erosion
3. High moisture loss
4. Disrupts the lifecycle of beneficial soil organisms
5. Needs more labor cost for the soil preparation
Conservation tillage
The planting or sowing in the previous crop's residues that are purposely
left on the soil surface.
Advantages
2. Conserves water. The mulch reduces water to evaporate.

3. Reduces erosion because the topsoil is protected.
4. Reduces soil compaction.
5. Protects impact from rain and wind.
6. Improves the soil condition with the increased organic matter content.
7. Natural enemies have places to stay.
8. Lessens the overall production cost.
Disadvantages
1. Needs a thorough understanding of the concept and requires careful

farm management practices to be successful.
2. Most soil pests populations are increased.
3. Weeds compete with the main crops.
4. High tendency of a carryover of the insect pests and diseases from the
crop residues.
5. Organic matters are not evenly distributed or are concentrated at the
topsoil.
6. It needs patience and waits a longer time to have an excellent soil.
Methods of conservation tillage
 Zero tillage (no-till, minimum tillage, or direct seeding). A system where

the soil is not disturbed between harvesting one crop and planting the
46
next. It is a crop production where the soil is not traditionally tilled or
cultivated although sticks or other planting equipments are used to
make the openings for seeds.
 Ridge tillage. A specific form of no-till wherein a new crop is planted on
pre-formed ridges or hills or bunds from those of the previous crop. After
harvest, the crop residues are left until the planting time. The seeds are
sown along the ridges. Sticks or other farms tools are used to make the
openings for seeds.
 Mulch tillage (stubble mulch tillage). Any system that ensures a
maximum retention of crop residues (30% or more) on the soil surface.
The soil is prepared in such a way that plant residues or other mulching
materials are specifically left on or near the surface of the farm.
47
Self-check 2.1-2
Multiple choice: Write the letter of the correct answer on your answer sheet.
1. It includes steps that make the soil ready for planting.
A. Conservation tillage
B. Conventional tillage
C. Harrowing
D. Land preparation
E. Soil tillage
2. This is done in alternation with plowing to improve soil tilth.
C. Harrowing
D. Land preparation
E. Soil tillage
3. Planting or sowing in the previous crop's residues that are purposely left
on the soil surface.
C. Harrowing
D. Land preparation
E. Soil tillage
4. Method of soil preparation for seedbed preparation, sowing or
transplanting, and for crops' growth.
C. Harrowing
D. Land preparation
E. Soil tillage
5. cultivation of the soil using plow, harrow and other farm tools or
mechanical implements to prepare the field for crop production.
C. Harrowing
D. Land preparation
E. Soil tillage
48
Answers Key 2.1-2
1. D
2. C
3. A
4. E
5. B
49
Orchard Establishment
Establishment of an orchard is a long term investment and deserves a

very critical planning. The selection of proper location and site, planting system
and planting distance, choosing the varieties and the nursery plants have to be
considered carefully to ensure maximum production.
Planning of an orchard
A careful plan of the orchard is necessary for the most efficient and
economic management. The following points should be borne in mind in
preparing the plan.
1. Optimum spacing to accommodate maximum number of trees per unit area.

2. Stores and office building in the orchard should be constructed at the
centre for proper supervision. .
3. Wells should be located at convenient places in different parts at the rate of
one well for 2 to 4 hectares.
4.Each kind of fruit should be assigned in a separate block.
5.Fruits ripening at the same time should be grouped together.
6. Pollinators should be provided in deciduous fruits. In deciduous fruit trees,
there are some varieties which require pollen from another variety to set
fruits in them, otherwise, they will be barren. Such pollen donors are
known as pollinators..Every third tree in every third row should be
planted with a pollinator.
7. Irrigation channels should be laid along the gradients for most economical
conduct of water. For every 30m length of channel, 7.5 cm slope should
be given.
8. Roads should occupy minimum space for the economy of transport. The
clearance between wind break and first row of trees is advantageous for
the road.
9. Short growing trees should be allotted at the front and tall at the back for
easy watching and to improve the appearance.
10. Evergreen trees should be in the front and deciduous ones behind.
11. Fruits attracting birds and animals should be close to the watchman's
shed.
12. A good fence is essential. Live fencing is economic and cheap to other kind
of fences. The plants suitable for live fencing should be drought
resistant, easy to propagate from seed, quick growing, have dense foliage,
should stand severe pruning and should be thorny. Agave,
Prosopisjuliflora, Pithecolobiumdulceand Thevetiaif closely planted in 3 rows
would serve as a good live fencing.
50
13. Wind breaks, rows of tall trees planted close together around the orchard,
are essential to resist velocity of wind which cause severe ill-effects
particularly moisture evaporation from the soil. Since the wind breaks
are very effective in reducing the wind velocity and minimizing the
damage to the fruit trees and to other crops, their presence in regions
where strong winds prevail is of paramount importance. A wind break
ordinarily has its maximum effectiveness for a distance about four times
as great as its height but has some effect over twice about that distance.
The most effective windbreak is a double row of tall trees alternately

placed. There should be at least as much as space between the
windbreak and the first row of the fruit trees as between fruit trees. It is
preferable to dig a trench of 90 cm deep at a distance of 3m from the
windbreak trees and prune and cut all the roots exposed and again fill
up the trenches. This may be repeated for every 3 or 4 years in order to
avoid the compe1ition between the wind breaks and fruit trees for
moisture and nutrition.
Trees suitable for windbreak should be erect, tall and quick growing,
hardy and drought resistant and mechanically strong and dense to offer
maximum resistance to wind. The trees which are suitable for growing as
wind breaks are Casuarinaequisetifolia, Pterospermumacerifolium,
Polyalthialongifolia, Eucalyptus globulus, Grevillearobusta, Azadirachta
indicaetc.
Laying out of orchards
Any method of layout should aim at providing maximum number of

trees per hectare, adequate space for proper development of the trees and
ensuring convenience in orchard cultural practices. The system of layout can
be grouped under two broad categories viz. (a) vertical row planting pattern and
(b) alternate row planting pattern. In the former planting pattern (e.g. square
system, rectangular system), the trees set in a row is exactly perpendicular to
those. trees set in their adjacent rows. In the latter planting pattern (i.e.
Hexagonal, Quincunx and Triangular), the trees in the adjacent rows are not
exactly vertical instead the trees in the even rows are midway between those in
the odd rows.
The various layout systems used are the following:
a) Vertical row planting pattern
1. Square system: In this system, trees are planted on each comer of a square
whatever may be the planting distance. This is the most commonly followed
system and is very easy to layout. The central place between four trees may be
51
advantageously used to raise short lived filler trees. This system permits inter
cropping and cultivation in two directions.
2. Rectangular system: In this system, trees are planted on each corner of a

rectangle. As the distance between anytwo rows is more than the distance
between any two trees in a row, there is no equal distribution of space per tree.
The wider alley spaces available between rows of trees permit easy intercultural
operations and even the use of mechanical operations.
b) Alternate row planting pattern
3. Hexagonal System: In this method, the trees are planted in each comer of
an equilateral triangle. This way six trees form a hexagon with the seventh tree
in the centre. Therefore this system is also called as 'septule' as a seventh tree
is accommodated in the centre of hexagon. This system provides equal spacing
but it is difficult to layout. The perpendicular distance between any two
adjacent rows is equal to the product of 0.866 x the distance between any
two trees. As the perpendicular distance between any two row is less than
unity, this system accommodates 15% more trees than the square system. The
limitations of this system are that it is difficult to layout and the cultivation is
not so easily done as in the square system.
4. Diagonal or quincunx system:This is the square method but with one

more plant in the centre of the square. This will accommodate double the
number of plants, but does not provide equal spacing. The central (filler) tree
chosen may be a short lived one. This system can be followed when the
distance between the permanent trees is more than 10m. As there will be
competition between permanent and filler trees, the filler trees should be
removed after a few years when main trees come to bearing.
5. Triangular system: The trees are planted as in square system but the
difference being that those in the even numbered rows are midway between
those in the odd rows instead of opposite to them. Triangular system is based
on the principle of isolateral triangle. The distance between any two adjacent
trees in a row is equal to the perpendicular distance between any two adjacent
rows. However, the vertical distance, between immediate two trees in the
adjacent rows, is equal to the product of (1.118 x distance between two trees in
a row). When compared to square system, each tree occupies more area and
hence it accommodates few trees per hectare than the square system.
6. Contour system:It is generally followed on the hills where the plants are
planted along the contour across the slope. It particularly suits to land with
undulated topography, wh~re there is greater danger of erosion and irrigation
52
of the orchard is difficult. The main purpose of this system is to minimize land
erosion and to conserve soil moisture so as to make the slope fit for growing
fruits and plantation crops. The contour line is so designed and graded in such
a way that the flow of water in the irrigation channel becomes slow and thus
finds time to penetrate into the, soil without causing erosion. Terrace system
on the other hand refers to planting in flat strip of land formed across a sloping
side of a hill, lying level along the contours. Terraced fields rise in steps one
above the other and help to bring more area into productive use and also to
prevent soil erosion. The width of the contour terrace varies according to the
nature of the slope. If the slope becomes stiff, the width of terrace is narrower
and vice-versa. The planting distance under the contour system may not be
uniform.
Sample Problems and Solutions regarding Planting systems
1. Using a 9m x 9m planting distance, how many coconut seedlings can be planted in a5-
hectare area (500m long and 100m wide) using the (a) square system? (b)quincunx system?
Which system will have more population per hectare?Given:L =500m W = 100m PD = 9m (l)
x 9m (w)Solution:


Square Method
= A/S2
= (500m) (100m) / (9m) (9m)
= 50, 000m2/ 81m2
= 617.28
617 coconut seedlings

Quincunx Method
= A/S2+ [(L/l) –1] [(W/w) –1]
= 617.28 + [(500m/9m) –1] [(100m/9m) –1]
= 617.28 + (54.56) (10.11)= 617.28 + 551.66= 1168.94
1169 coconut seedlings
The Quincunx System has the more plant population per hectare.2.
How many suckers of ‘ Lacatan’ banana will Mang Abe need to plant in his 5-hectare
area that is 500m long and 100m wide, if the seed pieces are to be planted 2-mapart each
away?Given:L =500m W = 100mPD = 2m (l) x 2m (w)
2 Solution:
53

Square Method
= A/S2
= [(500m) (100m)] / [(2m) (2m)]
= 50, 000m2/ 4m2
= 12, 500 suckers3.
AlingKrapsay would want to use the hexagonal system in planting ‘Cardaba’
bananaseed pieces at the same planting distance (2m x 2m) in her 5-hectare are. Will
sheneed more or less seed pieces than MangAbe?Given:L =500m W = 100mPD = 2m (l) x
2m (w)Solution:

Hexagonal Method
= A/S2
(0.866)= (500m x 100m) / [(2m x 2m) x (0.866)]
= (50, 000m2) / [4 x 0.866]
= (50, 000m2) / [3.464m2]
= 14, 434 suckers
AlingKrapsay will need more seed pieces than Mang Abe (14, 434 > 12,500)
Planting distance
The minimum vertical distance between any two trees or plants is

referred as the planting distance and this varies depending upon many factors.
The principles in deciding the planting distances are the following.
1. Trees when fully grown, the fringes of trees should touch each other but
the branches should not interlock.
2. Trees root will spread over a much larger area than top and there should
be proper room for the roots to feed without competition.
Factors which decide the planting distance are the following.
1. Kind of fruit trees - mangoes are planted at a distance of 10m x 10m,

guavas at a distance of 5m x 5m whilepapayas are planted at a distance
of 2m x 2m.
2. Rainfall - wider spacing should be given in low rainfall areas than the
high rainfall areas for a kind of tree.
3. Soil type and soil fertility - in heavy soils less spacing should be given
because the top and root growth are limited.
54
4. Rootstocks - trees of the same variety grafted on different root stocks will
grow to different sizes and as suchrequire different planting distances.
eg. Apple
5. Pruning and training - trees trained on head system requires closer
spacing than the other type of training system.
6. Irrigation system
In general, if the spacing is too wide, it is obvious that the yield per unit
area would be greatly reduced. Only in very, exceptional cases would this
be justifiable. Ordinarily it is more profitable to plant the trees closer
together and supply the needed water and food materials. If the trees are
too close together, the trees grow tall rendering pruning,
spraying and harvesting difficult. There is root competition and
inadequate nutrition and the trees as such give less yield and produce
smaller fruits of poor colour. Cultivation also becomes difficult in the
closely planted orchards. Close planting results in a greater yield per
unit area in the early life of the tree but less in the more important later
years. Close planting .is therefore a false economy.
The total number of trees per hectare for various important horticultural crops
under a) square b) hexagonal and c) triangular system of planting are given
below:
Crop Planting distance No. of trees per hectare

(in m) Square Hexagonal Triangular
system system system
Mango 10 x 10 100 115 89
Sapota 8x8 156 118 139
Clove 6x6 277 320 248
Acid lime 5x5 400 461 357
Coconut 7.5 x 7.5 177 205 159
It may be seen that hexagonal accommodates 15% more number of plants

while triangular system accommodates 11% lesser number of plants. The
calculation of the number of trees per hectare when planted under square or
rectangular system is very easy, and is obtained by dividing the total area 'by
the area occupied by each tree (a x a in square system or l x b in rectangular
system). The theoretical and the actual number of possible trees which can be
planted in an orchard depends upon the shape of the field. In practice, in large
fields, the percentage difference between the theoretical number and the actual
number possible will be less.
Simple reminder on laying out

The most accurate way to lay out an orchard is with a surveyor’s transit
and compass. The next best way is to prepare a cord or rope with markers (e.g.
55
colored tape) every l5-20 feet depending on plant/row spacing. DO NOT USE
NYLON CORD - it has too much “give.”Lay out the long outside row first,
marking where each holly will go with flags or stakes. Then lay out the short
rows at right angles to the long row. Consider leaving the stakes or flags in
place for a year or two to held locate plants when mowing, fertilizing or
spraying.
Planting system Spacing

1 Triangular 7.6m
2 Square 7.6x7.6m, 8x8m, 9x9 m
3 Single 6.5m in rows - 9m between rows
4 Double Hedge 6.5 to 6.5m in rows - 9m between pairs of rows
56
Methods of Fertilizer Application
What is fertilizer?
 Fertilizer (or fertiliser) is any organic or inorganic material of natural or
synthetic origin (other than liming materials) that is added to a soil to
supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants.
METHODS OF FERTILIZER APPLICATION
The different methods of fertilizer application are as follows:
a) Broadcasting
1. It refers to spreading fertilizers uniformly all over the field.

2. Suitable for crops with dense stand, the plant roots permeate the whole
volume of the soil, large doses of fertilizers are applied and insoluble
phosphatic fertilizers such as rock phosphate are used.
Broadcasting of fertilizers is of two types.
i) Broadcasting at sowing or planting (Basal application)
The main objectives of broadcasting the fertilizers at sowing time are to

uniformly distribute the fertilizer over the entire field and to mix it with soil.
ii) Top dressing
57
It is the broadcasting of fertilizers particularly nitrogenous fertilizers in closely
sown crops like paddy and wheat, with the objective of supplying nitrogen in
readily available form to growing plants.
Disadvantages of broadcasting
The main disadvantages of application of fertilizers through broadcasting are:

i) Nutrients cannot be fully utilized by plant roots as they move laterally over
longdistances.
ii)The weed growth is stimulated all over the field.
iii) Nutrients are fixed in the soil as they come in contact with a large mass of
soil.
b) Placement
1. It refers to the placement of fertilizers in soil at a specific place with or

without reference to the position of the seed.
2. Placement of fertilizers is normally recommended when the quantity of
fertilizers to apply is small, development of the root system is poor, soil
have a low level of fertility and to apply phosphatic and potassic fertilizer.
The most common methods of placement are as follows:
i) Plough sole placement
1. In this method, fertilizer is placed at the bottom of the plough furrow in a

continuous band during the process of ploughing.
2. Every band is covered as the next furrow is turned.
3. This method is suitable for areas where soil becomes quite dry upto few
cm below the soil surface and soils having a heavy clay pan just below
the plough sole layer.
ii) Deep placement
It is the placement of ammoniacal nitrogenous fertilizers in the reduction zone

of soil particularly in paddy fields, where ammoniacal nitrogen remains
available to the crop. This method ensures better distribution of fertilizer in the
root zone soil and prevents loss of nutrients by run-off.
iii) Localized placement
It refers to the application of fertilizers into the soil close to the seed or plant in
order to supply the nutrients in adequate amounts to the roots of growing
plants. The common methods to place fertilizers close to the seed or plant are
as follows:
58
a) Drilling
In this method, the fertilizer is applied at the time of sowing by means of a

seed-cum-fertilizer drill. This places fertilizer and the seed in the same row but
at different depths. Although this method has been found suitable for the
application of phosphatic and potassic fertilizers in cereal crops, but
sometimes germination of seeds and young plants may get damaged due to
higher concentration of soluble salts.
b) Side dressing
It refers to the spread of fertilizer in between the rows and around the plants.
The common methods of side-dressing are
1. Placement of nitrogenous fertilizers by hand in between the rows of crops

like maize, sugarcane, cotton etc., to apply additional doses of nitrogen
to the growing crops and
2. Placement of fertilizers around the trees like mango, apple, grapes,
papaya etc.
c) Band placement
If refers to the placement of fertilizer in bands.
Band placement is of two types.
i) Hill placement
It is practiced for the application of fertilizers in orchards. In this method,

fertilizers are placed close to the plant in bands on one or both sides of the
plant. The length and depth of the band varies with the nature of the crop.
ii) Row placement
When the crops like sugarcane, potato, maize, cereals etc., are sown close
together in rows, the fertilizer is applied in continuous bands on one or both
sides of the row, which is known as row placement.
Row placement
59
d) Pellet application
1. It refers to the placement of nitrogenous fertilizer in the form of pellets

2.5 to 5 cm deep between the rows of the paddy crop.
2. The fertilizer is mixed with the soil in the ratio of 1:10 and made small
pellets of convenient size to deposit in the mud of paddy fields.
Advantages of placement of fertilizers
The main advantages are as follows:

i) When the fertilizer is placed, there is minimum contact between the soil
and the fertilizer, and thus fixation of nutrients is greatly reduced.
ii) The weeds all over the field can not make use of the fertilizers.
iii) Residual response of fertilizers is usually higher.
iv) Utilization of fertilizers by the plants is higher.
v) Loss of nitrogen by leaching is reduced.
vi) Being immobile, phosphates are better utilized when placed.
Following are the common methods of applying liquid fertilizers
a) Starter solutions
It refers to the application of solution of N, P2O5 and K2O in the ratio of 1:2:1
and 1:1:2 to young plants at the time of transplanting, particularly for
vegetables.
Starter solution helps in rapid establishment and quick growth of seedlings.
The disadvantages of starter solutions are
(i) Extra labouris required, and
(ii) the fixation of phosphate is higher.
b) Foliar application
1. It refers to the spraying of fertilizer solutions containing one or more

nutrients on the foliage of growing plants.
60
2. Several nutrient elements are readily absorbed by leaves when they are
dissolved in water and sprayed on them.
3. The concentration of the spray solution has to be controlled, otherwise
serious damage may result due to scorching of the leaves.
4. Foliar application is effective for the application of minor nutrients like
iron, copper, boron, zinc and manganese. Sometimes insecticides are
also applied along with fertilizers.
c) Application through irrigation water (Fertigation)
1. It refers to the application of water soluble fertilizers through irrigation

water.
2. The nutrients are thus carried into the soil in solution.
3. Generally nitrogenous fertilizers are applied through irrigation water.
d) Injection into soil
1. Liquid fertilizers for injection into the soil may be of either pressure or
non-pressure types.
2. Non-pressure solutions may be applied either on the surface or in
furrows without appreciable loss of plant nutrients under most
conditions.
3. Anhydrous ammonia must be placed in narrow furrows at a depth of 12-
15 cm and covered immediately to prevent loss of ammonia.
e) Aerial application.
In areas where ground application is not practicable, the fertilizer solutions are
applied by aircraft particularly in hilly areas, in forest lands, in grass lands or
in sugarcane fields etc.
Self-check 2.1-4
61
1. Broadcasting refers to spreading fertilizers uniformly all over the field.
2. Placement refers to the placement of fertilizers in soil at a specific place

with or without reference to the position of the seed.
3. Starter solution helps in rapid establishment and quick growth of

seedlings.
4. Foliar application refers to the application of water soluble fertilizers

through irrigation water.
5. Hill placement is practiced for the application of fertilizers in orchards.
Answers Key 2.1-4
62
1. True
2. True
3. True
4. False
5. True
63
UC 3 – CARE AND MAINTAIN CROPS
Conducting field suvey

64
What is a pest?
The Oxford English Dictionary uses archaic definitions that state pests cause
deadly epidemics or disease or plague, or are anything or persons that is
noxious, destructive or troublesome. Webster’s states that pests refer to
anything that destruct the proper growth and development of the vegetable
crop. This can be identified through the degree of their infestation.
Accordingly,as defined, pest includes the following categories of organisms:
Crops need to be protected from a variety of different pests, organisms that

present a threat to the crop. While we often think of pests as insects, a pest
can also be a weed, a disease or an animal (such as a rat) or even bacteria.
Pest includes all the following categories of organisms:
 Pathogens- includes fungi,bacteria, mollecutes, and viruses.

 Weeds – includes all vascular plants.
 Nematodes – roundworms
 Mollusks –slugs and snails
 Vertebrates – includes amphibians, retiles, birds and mammals
 Arthropods– includes insects, mites, crustaceans, and other joint legged
invertebrates.
 Insects - belongs to class Insecta a six legged animals which considered
as the biggest class among the animal kingdom.
 Man– is considered as distinct among pests of vegetables because of the
potential knowledge of doing what is right or wrong. He is considered
pests when he destruct lives and properties.
 Animals –are considered pest when they are astray and destruct the
crops.
 Birds – belongs to class Avis among the animal kingdom and considered
pests for they feed on the different parts of the vegetable crops.
 Rats and Rodents - are among the vertebrates and considered as one of
the destructive pests of vegetables.
 Slugs and Snails –are mollusks which destruct the vegetable crops in all
stage of growth.
TIME
The Pest Tetrahedron
65
CROP
PEST ENVIRONMENT
The Tetrahedron of pest concept of integrating the effects of pest organism,

environment, host and time, as determinants of the status of the organism as
pests.
Pest organism – categorized as pathogens, weeds, mollusks, nematodes,

arthropods, and vertebrates.
Crop (Host plant) – the plants in the manage ecosystem determines the pest
status of an organism in several ways. All categories of animal pests and plant
pathogens can be further classified into two major types,depending on which
the plant parts injured.
Environment – can alter the status of an organism from pests to non-

pests.Humidity and temperature regulate the ability of many pathogens to
attack the crops.
Time – is significant in relation to pest population development . Many

organisms can be present in low numbers and not result i sufficient impact on
human activities to reach pests status.
Importance of pests
All organisms within each category of pests are not equally important in
relation to human activities.
Categories of Pests
1. Major or key pests - these pests occur routinely and will typically
influence the crop yield.
66
2. Minor pests – these pests occurs routinely but usually only caused minor
damaged to crops and hence insignificant yield losses.
3. Secondary pests – these pests have the potential to cause serious
damage but they are usually under adequate control by the natural
enemies
4. Occasional pests – these pests organism are not always present,but can
occur as the problem from time to time,applies only to pests that are
mobile or that die out at the end of the season.
5. Potential pests – these are similar to secondary pests in that they are not
typically not a problem,but if the condition change they can become a
problem.
6. Migrant pests – these pests are highly mobile and can infest crops for a
short periods of time through movements
7. Nonpests – This designation includes organisms that never achieves
status of being a problem to humans , many are considered beneficial.
Beneficial Insects
Beneficial insects (sometimes called beneficial bugs) are any of a number of

species of insects that perform valued services like pollination and pest control.
The concept of beneficial is subjective and only arises in light of desired
outcomes from a human perspective. In farming and agriculture, where the
goal is to raise selected crops, insects that hinder the production process are
classified as pests, while insects that assist production are considered
beneficial. In horticulture and gardening; pest control, habitat integration, and
'natural vitality' aesthetics are the desired outcome with beneficial insects.
Encouraging beneficial insects, by providing suitable living conditions, is a pest

control strategy, often used in organic farming, organic gardening or Integrated
Pest Management. Companies specializing in biological pest control sell many
types of beneficial insects, particularly for use in enclosed areas, like
greenhouses.
Data Collection
Records provide the historical data that can help a pest manager evaluate
control techniques over time. In IPM programs, the pest manager collects data
through monitoring and scouting activities, and keeps records on:
 Pests that are encountered

 Control strategies used, including pesticides and non-chemical controls
 The effectiveness of control methods
67
Records must include site-specific details, such as the size of the pest-infected
area and its exact location, population estimates, damage amounts, symptoms,
dates, and where appropriate, weather conditions leading up to pest
infestation. Records maintained during previous years allow pest managers to
make informed, science-based decisions when planning strategies for future
monitoring, scouting, and control activities.
Thorough record keeping provides critical information that can be used to

make future pest-management decisions.
When information about pesticide applications is combined with data on pest

activity levels, the true success and duration of pest suppression can be
measured. This information should always be used as a basis on which to
make future pest management decisions.
What Records Should Pest Managers Keep?
With so much information to keep track of, pest managers need a way to
organize the information that they collect. They do this through various reports
and logs. Depending on the situation, pest managers will prepare and maintain
the following:
 Inspection reports
 Pest-sighting logs
 Pest monitoring logs
 Pesticide application records
Inspection Reports
Pest managers generally conduct detailed inspections at the start of an IPM

program and continue to provide monitoring throughout the program. Pest
managers use inspection reports to document the results of these site
inspections and to inform clients about the presence of pests or pest-conducive
conditions. The inspection report is a thorough, room-by-room, plant-by-plant,
or field-by-field assessment of the building, landscape, crop, or other site being
evaluated.
In many cases, inspection reports include specific recommendations about how

to correct a problem.
Arthropods and Methods of Control Pest
68
Arthropod
An invertebrate animal with jointed appendages; a member of the phylum
arthropoda.
Metamorphosis of Arthropods
1. No methamorphosis Model- Ametabolous Development

Eggs- Juviniles- Adult
-Wingless [Subclass Apterygota]
-Transition from first juvenile to adult in gradual
-During the life cycle, juvenile appear very similar to the adult differ only
in body size and lacking functional gestation.
-Juvenile feeds similarly to the adults.
-Female inseminated several times during the life cycle.
Eg.Springtails, silverfish and firebrate.
2. Gradual-metamorphosis model- Paurometabulous Development

-Three major stages, egg, nymph, and adult.
-Nymph resembles adult but lacks fully formed wings and external genetalia
-Nymphs and adult feed similarly.
e.g. grasshoppers, bugs, cockroaches, and crickets.
3. Incomplete-metamorphosis model- Hemimetabolous Development

-immatures may or may not resemble adults
-immature have external wing pods and may have tracheal gills.
Eggs are found in or near the water.
-immature[naiads] feed and develop in water.
-immature and adult spread most of their time in different habitats and feed
quite differently.
e.g. dragonflies
-egg, naiads and adult
4. Complete methamorphosis model- holometabolous development

-life stages; Egg, larva, pupa and adult.
69
A composite image shows part of the metamorphosis of a monarch butterfly
Importance of knowing insects

1. insects have unsurpassed diversity and niches
Classes of Arthropod
Crustacea
- Two parts of antennae, are pair maybe greatly reduced.
- Antennce either absent 1 pair
- First pair of legs similar to others; gills maybe present; spiracles
absent.
Arachnida
- Antennae absent and 4 pairs of walking legs present

- One pair of antennae; by numbers variable but not 4 pairs
e.g. scorpion, pseudoscorpion, spider, tick, etc.
Insecta.
- Many pairs of legs; body divided into head and segmented trunk
- Only 3 pairs of ambulatory legs present; body divided into head,
Thorax, abdomen wings may be present.
Diplopoda
-Most trunk segments with 2 pairs of legs
-Each trunk segment with 1 pair of legs
Importance of Insects
Insecta [insects] –are arthropods that as adults, have three body regions
terms, three pairs of thoracic legs, and a pair of antennae, and they feed by
mandibles.
- the number of body segments consist of from 19 to 20 in most
species.
- The only invertebrates with wings.
- Most successful among the class of arthropods.
Major reasons why they become successful

70
1. Their small size
2. Modification and exploitation of appendages into the many types of
mouth parts and locomotion-food gathering legs.
3. Extensive development of complete metamorphosis in which the
immature and adults have evolved to feed on different foods and
hence ephemeral sources can be exploited with little competition
among individuals of the same species.
4. Rapid life cycles where in mutations can be rapidly selected for and
incorporated into the population gene pool.
5. The many different species-isolating mechanisms involving genital,
hormonal, and behavioral modifications.
6. Seasonal variations where in one generation can vary from another.
7. Possession of rings during the adult reproductive stage, particularly
the type that can be folded (flexed ) when not in use.
Six major categories of insect
1. Chewing type
- thebast specialized and is considered to be the basic insect type.
- Also the most common and is found in most immature stages.
2.Cutting-sponging
-is restricted to a limited number of adult flies feeding as parasites
upon blood from mammal hosts.
e.g. horse flies
3. Sponging
- only adults of more specialized flies.
e.g. horse flies
4. Siphoning
- observed on butterfly or moth
5. Piercing-sucking
- observed on herbivores such as cicada, parasites such as fleas
and mosquitoes, and carnivores such as assassin bugs.
6. Chewing-lapping
-adult honeybees and bumblebees
-mandible do not function directly in feeding but are to cut flower
corolla to access with nectar.
71
Methods of insect pest control
1. Natural control- reduction of insect population by the forces of nature.

a. Climatic factors-weather conditions, especially temperature, affect
insects directly and may govern the number of pest generations in
a given season.
b. topographic factors- mountain ranges and large water bodies act
as barriers to the spread of insects.
c. natural enemies- birds, small animals and disease organisms.
2. biological control- is the reduction of the insect population by means of

living organisms. The control of insects through the use of parasites and
predators if successful is permanent especially on the low value crops where
complete control may not be required or where chemicals are not
recommended.
Disadvantages
A. it takes time to produce the parasites:

B. insufficient knowledge of which parasites or predators to introduce
and how to eliminate the secondary parasites that prey on the
beneficial form;
C. and a secondary pest comes in because sometimes the parasite is
well favored by the new environment.
3. cultural method- reduction of insect pest population through the

utilization of agricultural practices.
-making environment unfavorable for pests;
-this method aimed more at prevention than cure.
A. crop rotation- insects with long life cycle, limited host range and immobile in
some stages of development are greatly affected because rotation of crop
isolates pest from food supplies and habitat.
B. location- careful choice of crops to be planted may help reduce insect
damage. Similar crops may be attacked by the same pest as one crop may
be attacked by a pest which later moves on to the adjacent field.
C. trap crop- small plantings of susceptible or preferred crop is treated
With insecticides, plowed under or both.
D. tillage- this reduces the soil-inhabiting insects through mechanical
damage. Burying exposing a stage in the life cycle of insects, eliminating
the host plant or hastening the vigor of the crops.
E. clean culture-removal of crop residue, disposal of volunteer crops, etc.
Are effective against hibernating insect pests.
F. Timing- changes in planting or harvesting time is effective to keep the
72
destructive stage of the pest separated from the susceptible stage of the
host .
G. planting resistant varieties- insect preference for a certain host is related to
color, light reflection, physical structure of the surface and chemical stimuli
(taste and odor).
4. Mechanical control- reduction of insect population by means of devices

which affect them directly or which radically alter their physical
environment examples: hand picking, trapping, screen, barriers, etc.
5. Chemical control- reduction of insect population or prevention of insect

injury by the use of materials that poison them, or repel them from specified
areas.
Types of Insecticide
A. Contact poison- kills insect on contact.
B. Systemic insecticides- chemicals that are absorbed by plants and kill insects
as they eat the plants.
C. Repellant- they attract insects and once they are there it is easy to kill them.
6. Integrated Pest Management- this is the combination of one or two

methods resulting in a better control of insects.
Self-check 3.1-2
73
1. Arthropod is an invertebrate animal with jointed appendages; a member

of the phylum arthropoda.
Major reasons why they become successful
2. Their small size is one among Major reasons why insects become
successful
3. Biological control is the reduction of the insect population by means of

non-living organisms.
4. Cultural method is the reduction of insect pest population through the

utilization of agricultural practices.
5. Integrated Pest Management is the combination of one or two methods
resulting in a better control of insects.
Answer’s Key 3.1-2
74
1. True
2. True
3. False
4. True
5. True
75
Parasitoid, Predators and its Host
Braconid
Common Name: Bracon
Scientific name: Bracon spp.
Type
Eggs, larvae, pupae, and adult parasitoid
Hosts
Ants, aphids, armyworms, beetle's larvae, bollworms, cabbageworms,
caterpillars, codling moths, corn borers, cutworms, imported tent caterpillars,
leafhoppers, leafminers, maggots, midges, plant bugs, scales, tomato
hornworms, weevils
Cotesia
Common name: Cotesia wasp, Cotesia

Scientific name: Cotesia spp.
Hymenoptera:Braconidae
Type
Larva parasitiods
Hosts
Armyworm, bollworm, cabbage looper, cabbageworm, celery looper, corn
earworm, cutworm, diamondback moth, gypsy moth, hornworm, stem borer,
tobacco budworm, webworm.
76
Photo courtesy of Cornell University
Diadegma
Common name: Diadegma wasp, Diadegma

Scientific name: Diadegmasemiclausum, D.insulare, D. mollipla, D. fenestral
Hymenoptera:Ichneumonidae
Type
Larva parasitioids
Hosts
Cabbage diamondback moth, potato tuber moth, cabbage webworm
Source: Mark Hoddle, University of California

Encarsia
Common Name: Encarsia, Whitefly parasite

Scientific name: Encarsia spp.
Hymenoptera:Aphelinidae
Type
Larva parasitoids
Hosts
Various whitefly species
Photo courtesy of IRRI & University of Queensland

Tachinid fly
77
Common Name: Diptera
Scientific name:Bombyliopsisabrupta, Lixophaga sp.
Diptera:Tachinidae
Type
Larvae and adult parasitoid
Hosts
Aphids, armyworm, beetles, bollworm, bugs, cabbage looper, cotton stainer,
cutworm, grasshoppers, hornworm, leafhoppers, mole crickets, moths,
sawflies, scale insects, stem borers, stick insects (CABI, 2000).
Photo courtesy of Sylvie Chenus,

Cornell University
Trichogramma
Common Name: Trichogramma, Tricon

Scientific name: Trichogramma spp.
Hymenoptera:Trichogrammatidae
Type
Egg parasites
Hosts
Trichogramma species parasitize eggs of over 200 species of moth and
caterpillars. Among these are; the rice and corn stem borer, cabbageworm,
tomato hornworm, Heliotis and Helicoverpa species, codling moth, cutworm,
armyworm, webworm, cabbage looper, fruit worms, and sugarcane borer.
IMAGES OF SOME PREDATORS

78
Damselfly
Common Names: Bog dancer, Damselfly, Damsel, Narrow wing

Scientific name: Agriocnemisfeminafemina, A. pygmaea
Odonata:Calyopterygidae
Type
Generalist predators
Hosts
Leafhoppers, moths and butterflies, plant hoppers (Shepard; Barrion; Litsinger,
1987: p. 127)

Ground beetle
Common name: Carabid

Scientific name: Calosoma spp., Cicindela spp., Megacephala spp.,
Ophioneanigrofasciata, Pterostichus spp. Coleoptera:Carabidae
Type
Generalist predator
Hosts
Cabbage root maggots, cutworms, snails, slugs, (Ellis; Bradley, 1996: pp. 294-
295), leaffolder and planthoppers larvae (Rice IPM, 2001).
79
Photo courtesy of Clemsom University-
Department of Entomology
Lacewing
Common Name: Brown lacewing, Green lacewing, Aphid lion

Scientific name: Chrysoperlacarnea, Chrysoparufilabris
Neuroptera:Chrysopidae
Type
Generalist predator
Hosts
Aphids, leafminer, mealybugs, thrips, whitefly (Ellis; Bradley, 1996: p. 449),
armyworms, bollworms, cabbage worm, codling moths, corn borer, cutworm,
DBM, fruitworm, leafhopper nymphs and eggs, potato beetle, scale insects,
spider mites, and caterpillars of most pest moths. If given the chance, they can
also prey on adult pests.
Photo courtesy of L. T. Kok

Ladybird beetles
Common names: Ladybird beetles, Ladybugs, Lady beetles, Coccinellid,

Coccinellid beetles
Scientific names: Harmoniaconformis, H. axyridis, Hippodamiaconvegens
Coleoptera:Coccinellidae
Type
Generalist predators
Hosts
Aphids, leaffolders, leafhoppers, mealybugs, planthoppers, scales, spider mites,
whiteflies, and other leaf feeding insects.
80
Photo courtesy of Department of Entomology,
Texas A&M University.
Minute pirate bug
Common Name: Minute pirate bugs, Insidious flower bugs

Scientific name: Oriustristicolor, O. insidiosus
Hemiptera:Anthocoridae
Type
Generalist predator
Hosts
Aphids, bollworm, potato leafhopper nymphs, spider mites, scale insects, insect
eggs, small corn borers' larvae, thrips, other small caterpillars, whiteflies
Photo courtesy of R. Bessin,

University of Kentucky
Praying mantis
Common name: Praying mantids (plural)

Mantodea:Mantidae
Type
Predator
Hosts
Aphids, fruit flies, grasshoppers, caterpillars, and they eat each other when no
food is available.
Photo courtesy of Jim Kalisch& Barry Pawson,

UNL Entomology.
Rove beetles
81
Common Name: Staphylinid
Scientific name: Aleocharabilineata
Coleoptera:Staphylinidae
Type
Rove beetle larvae are maggots and pupae parasites when they are about to
pupate, but both adult and larva are generalist predators
Hosts
Both adults and larvae are predators of root maggots' eggs and larvae, mites,
worms, nematodes, and other small insects. Adults tend to be cannibalistic,
eating their own eggs and attacking other adults when food supply is low.

Spider
Arachnida:Araneae
Type
Generalist predator
Hosts
Brown planthoppers, stem borers, leafhoppers, moths, flies, and other
agricultural pests they can catch.
Self-check 3.1-2
82
Matching Type: Match the item in column A with its corresponding answer in
Column B.
Column A Column B
 Braconid a. Staphylinid
 Encarsia b. Larva parasitoids
3. Trichogramma c. Ladybugs
1. Ladybird beetles d. Egg parasites
5. Rove beetles e. Eggs, larvae, pupae, and adult parasitoid

83
1. E.
2. B.
3. D.
4. C.
5. A.

84
Plant Diseases and Weeds
Plant pathology. Is the study of the living entities and the environmental
condition that cause disease in plants.
 Study of the mechanics by which these factors produce
disease in plants.
 Study of the interaction between the disease-causing
agents and the diseased plant.
 Study of the methods of preventing or controlling disease
and alleviating the damage it causes.
Plant pathologist – a person who study diseases caused by fungi, bacteria,

mycoplasmas, parasitic higher plants, viruses, viriods,
nematodes, and protozoa.
- study plant disorders caused by excess, imbalance, or lack of
such physical or chemical factors as moisture, temperature, and
nutrients.
Disease. Any malfunctioning of host cells and tissues that results from
continuos irritation by a pathogenic agent or environmental factor
and leads to development symptoms.
Primary causes of disease
1.pathogenic living organisms (pathogens)

2.factor in the physical environment
Pathogens can caused disease in plants by:
1. Weakening the host by continually absorbing food from the host cell for their
own use.
2. Killing or disturbing the metabolism of host cells through toxins, enzymes,
or growth regulating substances they secrets.
3. Blocking the transportation, of food, mineral nutrients, and water through
the conductive tissues.
4. Consuming the contents of host cells upon contact.
Disease cause by environmental factors
85
1. Result from extremes in the condition supporting life (temperature,
moisture, light, and so on).
2.Excessive or deficient amounts of chemicals absorbed or required by plants.
Classification of plant diseases
A. Infection, or biotic plant diseases

1. diseases caused by fungi
2. diseases caused by prokaryotes (bacteria and mycoplasmas)
3. diseases caused by parasitic higher plants
4. diseases caused by viruses and viroids
5. diseases caused by nematodes
6. diseases caused by protozoa
B. Non-infection, or abiotic, tissues are diseases caused by:

1. too low or to high temperature
2. lack or excess soil moisture
3. lack or excess of light
4. lack of oxygen
5. air pollution
6. nutrient deficient
7. mineral toxicities
8. soil acidity or alkalinity (PH)
9. toxicity of pesticides
10. improper cultural practices
COMMON FUNGAL DISEASES

IN
SOME COMMODITIES
Sclerotinia rot
Sclerotinia rot
The typical white mould visible

on a carrot infected with
sclerotinia rot
86
(Sclerotiniasclerotiorum)
Scientific Classification
Kingdom: Fungi
Phylum: Ascomycota
Class: Leotiomycetes
Subclass: Leotiomycetidae
Order: Helotiales
Family: Sclerotiniaceae
Genus: Sclerotinia
Sclerotiniasclerotioru
Species:
m
Synonyms
Blossom blight
Cottony rot
Drop
Pink rot
Sclerotinia stem rot
Water soft rot
White mold
Hymenoscyphussclerotiorum (Lib.)
W. Phillips, (1887)
Pezizasclerotiorum Lib., (1837)
SclerotinialibertianaFuckel, (1870)
Sclerotiumvarium Pers., (1801)
Whetzeliniasclerotiorum (Lib.)
Korf& Dumont, (1972)
Sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia spp.), also known as Blossom blight, Cottony rot,
Crown rot, Drop, Pink rot, Water soft rot, White mold. And is very similar to
Onion white rot or Mouldy nose (Sclerotiumcepivorum) in alliums
Symptoms
Symptoms can depend on the plant infected and the mechanism of infection.
Common symptoms include water-soaked spots on fruits, stems, or leaves,
petioles with altered morphology. The watery spots enlarge and develop a
cottony white mass that converts the plant to a slimy, wet mass that produces
abundant sclerotia. Symptoms appear like Pythium, but occur in dry weather.
In some plants, the symptoms are described as dry. The plant develops brown
lesions that coalesce and circle the plant. Everything above the lesion wilts and
dies.
Alliums
The first visible symptom is the wilting and yellowing of the foliage, most likely
during dry weather. If the weather is wetter the foliage may not wilt, but the
plant will become loose in the soil. Under the soil a white, fluffy fungus grows
87
on the base of and invades the bulb. Later this mould becomes covered in
small, round, black structures.
Treatment
If attacks are seen in the garden, water healthy plants with Cheshunt
Compound after removing diseased plants immediately.
There are some fungi that are parasitic on Sclerotinia and that can be used to
control it. The most effective of these is Coniothyriumminitans, but none have
been turned into a practical treatment.
Chemical control can include soil fumigation, which is considered an effective
control method. Some fungicides, including benomyl, are effective in some
crops, but not all.
Prevention
Good cultural practices are necessary to avoid attacks such as taking care to
avoid planting susceptible crops in poorly drained soils, low planting densities
and weeding between crop rows. Infected fields should be planted with non-
susceptible crops, such as cereals for at least three years.
Hosts
Potential hosts of sclerotinia rot include:
 Alliums
 Aubergine
 Beans
 Cabbage
 Carrot
 Citrus fruit
 Celery
 Coriander
 Cucumber
 Lettuce
 Melon
 Squash
 Soybean
 Sunflower
 Tomato
88
COMMON MOSAIC DISEASE
IN
SOME COMMODITIES
French bean(bean common mosaic virus) French bean(bean common mosaic virus)
Cabbage (Turnip yellow mosaic virus) Cabbage (Turnip yellow mosaic virus)
Celery (cucumber mosaic virus) Cucumber mosaic virus
Cucurbit/squash (cucumber mosaic virus) Parsley ( celery mosaic virus)
89
Sweet pepper (cucumber mosaic virus) Raspberry ( Arabis mosaic virus)
Squash (squash mosaic virus) Sweet corn (Maise dwarf mosaic virus)
Tomato mosaic virus (ToMV).
DISEASE: Tobacco mosaic
PATHOGEN: Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)
HOSTS: Tobacco, tomato, and other solanaceous plants
Mosaic viruses are plant viruses that cause the leaves to have a speckled
appearance. It attacks mainly plants in the Solanaceae and Cucurbit families.
Mosaic virus is not a single unit of organisms. Mosaic virus may refer to:
 Alfalfa mosaic virus
 Arabis mosaic virus
 Beet mosaik virus
 Bean common mosaic virus (in the potyvirus genus)
 Cassava mosaic virus (in the begomovirus genus)
 Celery mosaic virus (in the potyvirus genus)
 Cucumber mosaic virus
 Maize dwarf mosaic virus (in the potyvirus genus)
 Panicum mosaic satellite virus
 Plum pox virus (in the potyvirus genus)
 Squash mosaic virus (in the comovirus genus)
 Tobacco mosaic virus (in the tobamovirus genus)
 Tomato mosaic virus (in the tobamovirus genus)
 Tulip breaking virus
 Turnip yellow mosaic virus
90
Symptoms
Leaves are mottled with yellow areas and become distorted. Different varieties
of mosaic virus have different symptoms, but all cause similarly yellowed
leaves.
Bean common mosaic virus

Leaf cupping and mosaic markings
Treatment
None. Plants with mosaic virus can survive, but will suffer a reduced crop.
Mosaic virus is transmitted by insects and humans alike. If you choose to keep
your infected plant(s) ensure you wash your hands after handling one to
reduce the risk of contamination. Remove yellow leaves and burn. Do not leave
any signs of infected leaves on the soil. If you prefer not to take the risk; uproot
infected plants and burn.
Prevention
Do not plant at-risk varieties in areas previously infected the following season.
If growing in a greenhouse; replace the top soil. Increasing the temperature to
24°C (75°F) reduces the risk of mosaic virus.
WEEDS
-weeds are plants growing where they are not wanted.
Effects of weeds
-weed infestations primarily constrain rice production by reducing yield. In

rice yield reductions caused by uncontrolled weed growth throughout a crop
season have been estimated to be from 44 to 96%, depending on the culture.
WEED CONTROL
CONTROL METHODS
Weed control methods can be grouped into cultural, manual,
mechanical, chemical, and biological techniques. Each control method has
advantages and disadvantages, and a single method is rarely adequate for
effective and economical control.
Cultural methods
A basic principle of cultural control is to increase the competitive ability
of crop and enable it to suppress weed growth. In this method it includes the
prevention of weed introduction, land preparation, crop rotation, cultivar
91
selection, planting method, plant population, fertilizer application, and water
management.
Manual methods
Manual weed control includes burning, hand pulling, and mechanical
hand weeding. These labor intensive methods are the oldest and in many
cases, the farmer’s only means of controlling weeds in crops, and are highly
effective.
Mechanical methods
Weeding by machine involves the use of hand-pushed or powered
weeders, and is feasible only where crop is planted in straight rows.
Biological methods
Several biological agents, such as insects, mites, and fungi, have been
used successfully to control rice weeds. Biological agents are selective in their
control action and their activity may be restricted to a single weed.
Chemical methods
Herbicide use is one of the most labor-saving innovations that have been
introduced in farming. For successful and economical use, it is important to
understand how these chemicals work and their limitations.
Integrated weed management

Integrated weed management is the rational use of direct and indirect
control methods to provide cost-effective weed control. A further refinement in
the terms integrated weed management and integrated pest management (IPM),
is that, whenever possible, weed control should be integrated with measures
that further protect crops from insects, diseases, nematodes, and other
injurious organisms, and should be practice with an understanding of the
interrelationships between weed populations and those organisms.
Economics of control
The economic benefit of weed control must exceed the cost. The primary
aim of rotational farmer is to optimize profits. One way to achieve that is to
reduce weed control costs. It is logical, therefore, that where one or a
combination of methods exists, and both are equally effective, the farmer will
choose the least costly.
PRINCIPLES OF HERBICIDE USE
Herbicides are chemical substances or cultured biological organisms that

kill or suppress plant growth by affecting one or more of the processes- cell
division, tissue development, chlorophyll formation, photosynthesis,
respiration, nitrogen metabolism, enzyme activity- that are vital to plant
92
survival. In general, herbicides applied at high rates kill all plants. At low rates,
some herbicides kill some plants without damaging other plants. Herbicides
with such an ability are said to be selective.
Types of herbicide
contact
translocated
Contact herbicides
Contact herbicides control weeds by killing the tissues in direct contact
with the herbicide. They are normally applied to leaves and stems. Because
they affect only the plant parts they come into contact with, they are less
effective on perennial weeds than on annual weeds. Thorough coverage of the
plant is essential for contact herbicide to be effective.
Translocated herbicides
Translocated (systemic) herbicides move from the point where the
herbicide comes into contact with the plant to other plant parts. Systemic
herbicides may be applied to stems and leaves or to the soil ( those applied to
soil are known as residual herbicides).
Some systemic herbicides are effective only on leaves and stems but not
in soil application ( e.g. Glyphosate). Translocated herbicides may be either
selective or nonselective.
HERBICIDE MOVEMENT IN PLANTS

Herbicide must enter the plant before their toxic effect can be induced.
Herbicides applied to leaf surfaces and buds penetrate the plant by diffusion.
Higher temperatures increase the rate of penetration. Herbicide absorption
takes place in the guard cells of the stomata and through the cuticle.
In the soil, herbicide move in the soil solution to the seed and roots, or
intercepted by the root tips.
HERBICIDE FORMULATIONS
Herbicide are not sold as 100% active ingredient. Powders, solvents,
stickers, or wetting agents usually are added to help disperse the active
ingredient throughout a carrier. The final product is a formulated herbicide
that may have a number of names and may contain different proportions of
active ingredient.
93
Some types of formulations
1. Water-soluble concentrate (S). The active ingredient dissolves readily in

water.
2. Wettable powder (WP or W). The formulation consist of the dry herbicide
plus another inert solid such as clay, together with agents that allow
dispersal and suspension of fine particles in liquid.
3. Emulsifiable concentrate (EC or E). An emulsifiable concentrate is used
for herbicides that are not water soluble but are soluble in organic solvents.
An emulsifier is added to form a stable oil0inwater emulsion when the
herbicide is mixed with water.
4. Flowables (F).In aflowable herbicides, the active ingredient is not readily
soluble in water or an organic solvent. The flowable consists of a finely
ground wettable powder suspended in a small amount of liquid and mixed
with emulsifiers.
5. Granules (G or g). Granules are a ready- to- use, dry formulated product
with a carrier, usually clay. Granules which may contain 2-20% active
ingredient, can be broadcast on flood-water to control weeds growing in the
water (submerged weeds).
6. Adjuvant. Adjuvants are materials that facilitate the action of herbicides or
modify characteristics of the herbicide formulation.
94
Self-check 3.1-3
1. Plant pathology is the study of the living entities and the environmental
condition that cause disease in plants.
2. Plant pathologist is a person who study diseases caused by fungi,
bacteria, mycoplasmas, parasitic higher plants, viruses, viriods,
nematodes, and protozoa.
3. Weeds are plants growing where they are not wanted.
4. Manual weed control includes burning, hand pulling, and mechanical
hand weeding.
5. Flowables (F) are materials that facilitate the action of herbicides or
modify characteristics of the herbicide formulation.
95
1. True
2. True
3. True
4. True
5. False
96
UC 4 – CARRYOUT HARVEST AND POSTHARVEST OPERATIONS
97
PRE-HARVEST AND POST HARVEST OPERATIONS OF FRUITS
Learning Objective:
After reading this information sheet, you must be able to learn the
different pre-harvest operation of fruits.
In determining the different pre-harvest operations of fruits, the trainees
must be developing skills on this.
The following are among the activities to be considered before the

conduct of fruit harvesting.
1. The field must be prepared before harvesting the crop.

In the preparation of field, the overseer/farm supervisor must go around
the farm and should take a look /check on the fruit to be harvested through
ocular or visual inspection if it is really capable for harvest and make sure
that the quality is not affected.jcl
2. Remove any obstruction from the field

Obstruction present on the field before harvest must be removed to avoid
hindrances and inconvenience during harvest. jcl
Examples of obstruction are:
Fallen plant debris stakes and wedges shrubs/ weeds
3. Ready all harvesting tools and materials

All harvesting tools and materials must be prepared a day before the
harvest so that harvest operation should be convenient. Together with the tools
it is better also to check your temporary shed. Below are among the things to
be prepared before harvest.jcl
98
Picking tools for harvest
Harvesting of fruits
Basket and crates with liner
Temporary shed
99
4. Farm record book must be checked before harvest
Checking of farm record books is necessary prior to harvest to ensure
that the harvest schedule is really on time. Without the farm record a certain
farm will be prone to failure since its operation activity has no actual basis.
5. Drained field if necessary

Draining of excess water on the field must be done prior to harvest to
avoid higher incidence of infection and physiological damage due to moisture. jcl
6. Test fruits for maturity indices

The most common method of testing maturity of fruits especially in
mango and papayas is floatation.
In this method you need to prepare a container with measured volume of
water and salt. You have to dissolve 10g of salt for every liter of water. Get a
sample of fruits to be harvested, those fruits that sink are ready for harvest but
the otherwise are not.
When harvesting a fruits, a farm manager must see to it that the

harvesters are really skilled most especially if it is a manual harvesting. Even
in the case of mechanical harvester, be sure that the operator or the manual
harvesters are willing to apply the principles of tender loving care (TLC) on their
work.
Here are some considerations to bear in mind about principles of TLC:
 Fruits are living organism

Fruits has life since it contains several number of tissues and cells
that could be damaged whenever it is mishandled. thus it is needed to
handle it with tender treatment, to love and to care it.
 Fruits should be handle with extra care

Since fruits are living it should be handled with an extra care to
avoid mechanical damage.
 Fruits can prolonged shelf life

Shelf life of the fruits can be prolonged if the harvester is a skilled
person on fruit production for he knows how to conduct activity with
extra care to avoid damage and the quality of fruits will be maintained. jcl
100
Maturity Indices, Harvesting Method and Tools and Materials
Maturity of fruit reached when it attains its full development. This is

measured based on some indicators.
Maturity indices of fruits

1. Desirable size of the fruits attained
The desirable size of fruits can be measured through tools or
instrument. In the case of banana, some company are using
vernier caliper to check the size of fruit. (jcl)
2. Change in color
Several species of fruits exhibited color changes when it
attains maturity. Some of these are: papaya, mango and
rambutan.(jcl)
3. Physical appearance
Some fruits do not show changes in color or depends on
their size but through its physical appearance. Like full
development of check or increase in the distance between thornlike
parts as in sour sop.
4. Odor
There are few fruits that emits odor or aroma when it
reaches maturity. Best example is durian and jackfruits.
Harvesting Methods of Fruits
Harvesting is the process of gathering matured fruits. This can be done

either manual or mechanical.
Manual harvesting needs more skilled labor in gathering fruits. The

harvested fruit usually put into boxes and hand loaded to a cart pulled by a
tractor.
101
Apple harvest in Wenatchee, Washington
Harvesting fruit with 10-box metal bins.
Mechanical harvesting is done using machines called mechanical

harvester. This method need less labor compared to manual harvesting. This
method had develop recently cut cost on labor. (jcl)
Coe-Collier trunk shaker. Coe-Collier trunk shaker and receiver.
OXBO tractor drawn canopy shaker. OXBO self-propelled shake and catch harvester.
102
There are factors and characteristics of fruits that affect their
postharvest life:
1. Energy requiring
Even after harvest, a fruit is alive, metabolism is continues until
the crop deteriorates. In other words the greater the energy source, the longer
the postharvest life.
2. Continual state of change
Being live tissues, fruits continuously change until completely
deteriorated. Therefore the slower the undesirable changes are, the longer the
postharvest life of commodity.
3. High in water content
Fresh fruits, consist mainly of water. It could be as high as 98% by
weight in fully turgid state. Loss of water can dry up commodity. A 10% loss in
weight may result in 100% commercial loss. Therefore the faster water is lost
(transpiration) from the commodity the faster it loses its freshness.
4. Subject to attack by pathogens and insects
Fresh fruits are not only food for human beings but also for
microorganisms and insects. The more favorable the conditions for their spread
and growth are, the faster the deterioration.
POSTHARVEST TREATMENTS
Postharvest treatments are very important in fruits to avoid pathogenic
damage caused by harmful microorganisms.
1. Hot Water Treatment
In this treatment the fruits are put in a fruit trays and dip in a hot water
with controlled temperature. In mango, newly harvested fruit dip in hot water
with a temperature ranging from 520C to 550C for 10 minutes then undergo hydro
cooling and air dry.
This can also done by dipping at 600C for 1 minute but no hydro cooling.
Hot Water Treatment
3. Vapor Heat Treatment

103
This treatment require a vapor saturated air heated at 46 0C for 10
minutes. This could reduce fruit fly infestation.
Vapor Heat Treatment (HVT)
Other Postharvest Activities

 Trimming
The activity is done by cutting excess pedicel/stem or crown and
other unnecessary part of the fruit that could affect its quality.
 Washing
Washing of fruits is done to remove latex and other foreign
materials like dirt.
Trimming and washing of banana
 Sorting/Sizing
104
The activity is necessary and done in accordance with the
requirement of the buyer.
Fruit sizing and sorting before packing
 Packing
Packing of fruit is done in accordance to the destination. The
materials for packing differed to each other. Recycled cartoon are used
for local market while cell-type cartoon for export market.
Domestic market Export market
Self-check 4.1-2
105
1. The field must be prepared before harvesting the crop is the first thing
to do before harvest.
2. Fruits are living organism is one among considerations in TLC.
3. Hot water Treatment is dipping of fruit with a temperature ranging from
520C to 550C for 10 minutes.
4. Packing of fruit is done in accordance to the destination.
5. VHT can be done by dipping the fruit at 600C for 1 minute but no hydro
cooling.
106
1. True
2. True
3. True
4. True
5. False
LEARNING OUTCOME Harvest Fruits
107
CONTENT:
1. Maturity Indices
2.Harvesting Methods
Harvesting Tools and Materials
1. Maturity indicators are precisely identified as described in Horticultural

manual
2. Different harvesting methods are identified
3.Appropriate harvesting tools and materials are prepared Basal fertilizer
is applied.
CONDITIONS:
1. Tools/ machines:
a. bolo
b. pruning saw
a. portable chain saw
b. digging tools
2. supplies:
a. paint / tar
b. fertilizer/ chemicals
c. seedlings
d. chemicals
ASSESSMENT METHODS:
1. Direct observation and questions
2. Third party report

108
PRE-HARVEST AND POST HARVEST OPERATIONS OF VEGETABLES
Learning Objective:
After reading this information sheet, you must be able to learn the
different pre-harvest and postharvest operations of vegetables.
In determining the different pre-harvest and postharvest operations of
vegetables, the trainees must be developing skills on this.
Field obstruction will greatly affects the efficiency of harvesting operation

of vegetables. This will result to losses if this problem will not be given
attention.
FIELD OBSTRUCTIONS
2. WEEDS
When the garden has numerous species of weeds, it will hamper
the harvesting operation because this might mixed to the vegetables
to be harvested hence there is a difficulty in having a pure vegetable
harvest.
3. BUSHES
Bushes may cause inconvenience in harvesting particularly in
transporting harvest from the point of harvest to the main road.
Bushes having thorns can really cause annoyance during the
operation.
Bushes
109
COMMON TOOLS, MATERIALS AND FACILITIES DURING HARVEST
1. Picking tools
Vegetable harvesting tools can be a knife, sickle or shears
depending on the availability and convenience of use.
Below are some samples of picking tools.
From left to right: Lettuce, broccoli and celery knife Cabbage picking knife
2. Basket and crates

Basket and crates are badly needed during harvesting of vegetables
because this will be use for collection of vegetable harvest.
Here are samples of basket and crates for you to familiarize.
Typical wooden crate holding fresh tomatoes. Plastic field boxes with nest/stack design.
.
Basket with liner
110
3. Temporary shed
Shed is very important in a certain farm most especially during harvest
so that there is a temporary stacking area for the harvest. Temporary shed can
be appreciated most probably during the inclement weather.
Temporary shed
RECORD BOOK
Record book is necessary in running a vegetable farm. Without a record
book a particular farm might be at risk for failure because there is no basis for
doing any activities more especially in harvesting. Record books may include
crop history, harvest calendar and farm record.
MATURITY INDICES
The principles dictating at which stage of maturity a vegetable should be
harvested are crucial to its subsequent storage and marketable life and quality.
Post-harvest physiologists distinguish three stages in the life span of
vegetables: maturation, ripening, and senescence. Maturation is indicative of
the fruit being ready for harvest. Ripening follows or overlaps maturation,
rendering the produce edible, as indicated by taste. Senescence is the last
stage, characterized by natural degradation of vegetable, as in loss of texture,
flavour, etc.
Maturity indices may include the following:
1. age/days after planting/seeding.
2. visual measures such as color, size and change in appearance.
3. physical measures like feel, form, good
Postharvest operation
Doing the different postharvest activities, it should always put in mind
that the standard operating procedure must be follow. The most common
principle that most industries are applied is HACCP.
111
Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) is a tool that
can be useful in the prevention of food safety hazards. While extremely
important, HACCP is only one part of a multi-component food safety
system. HACCP is not a stand alone program. Other parts must
include: good manufacturing practices, sanitation standard operating
procedures, and a personal hygiene program.
The general principles of HACCP are as follows:
Principle #1 Hazard Analysis
Hazards (biological, chemical, and physical) are conditions which may

pose an unacceptable health risk to the consumer. A flow diagram of the
complete process is important in conducting the hazard analysis. The
significant hazards associated with each specific step of the manufacturing
process are listed. Preventive measures (temperature, pH, moisture level, etc.)
to control the hazards are also listed.
Principle #2 Identify Critical Control Points
Critical Control Points (CCP) are steps at which control can be applied
and a food safety hazard can be prevented, eliminated or reduced to acceptable
levels. Examples would be cooking, acidification or drying steps in a food
process..
Principle #3 Establish Critical Limits
All CCP's must have preventive measures which are measurable! Critical
limits are the operational boundaries of the CCPs which control the food safety
hazard(s). The criteria for the critical limits are determined ahead of time in
consultation with competent authorities. If the critical limit criteria are not
met, the process is "out of control", thus the food safety hazard(s) are not being
prevented, eliminated, or reduced to acceptable levels.
Principle #4 Monitor the CCP's
Monitoring is a planned sequence of measurements or observations to

ensure the product or process is in control (critical limits are being met). It
allows processors to assess trends before a loss of control occurs. Adjustments
can be made while continuing the process. The monitoring interval must be
adequate to ensure reliable control of the process.
112
Principle #5 Establish Corrective Action
HACCP is intended to prevent product or process deviations. However,

should loss of control occur, there must be definite steps in place for
disposition of the product and for correction of the process. These must be pre-
planned and written. If, for instance, a cooking step must result in a product
center temperature between 165oF and 175oF, and the temperature is 163oF,
the corrective action could require a second pass through the cooking step with
an increase in the temperature of the cooker..
Principle #6 Record keeping
The HACCP system requires the preparation and maintenance of a

written HACCP plan together with other documentation. This must include all
records generated during the monitoring of each CCP and notations of
corrective actions taken. Usually, the simplest record keeping system possible
to ensure effectiveness is the most desirable.
Principle #7 Verification
Verification has several steps. The scientific or technical validity of the

hazard analysis and the adequacy of the CCP's should be documented.
Verification of the effectiveness of the HACCP plan is also necessary. The
system should be subject to periodic revalidation using independent audits or
other verification procedures.
HACCP offers continuous and systematic approaches to assure food

safety. In light of recent food safety related incidents, there is a renewed
interest in HACCP from a regulatory point of view. Both FDA and USDA are
proposing umbrella regulations which will require HACCP plans of industry.
The industry will do well to adopt HACCP approaches to food safety whether or
not it is required.
HACCP is a Tool
HACCP is merely a tool and is not designed to be a stand-alone program.

To be effective other tools must include adherence to Good Manufacturing
Practices, use of Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures, and Personal
Hygiene Programs.
113
Self-check 4.1-3
1. Weeds is one among the field obstruction of a vegetable garden.

2. Sickle can also be used as picking tool for vegetables.
3. Harvest calendar is an example of vegetable record book.
4. Maturity indices of vegetable can be determined through the number of
days from seeding.
5. HACCP is merely a tool and is designed to be a stand-alone program.
114
1. True
2. True
3. True
4. True
5. False
115
References:
Postharvest Technology For Southeast Asian Perishable Crops. Ofelia K.
Bautista. UP Los Baños, Laguna.
Guide in Crop Protection 1. Joebert C. Legreso. SUNAS, Dajay, Surallah,
South Cotabato.
www. Google.com.ph, HACCP principles.J.E. Rushing and D.R. Ward
Horticulture NC II TR. TESDA, Taguig, Manila.
http://www.uky.edu/Ag/Horticulture/masabni/Publications/
siterating.pdf10:57 pm- 5/9/13
http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/horticulture/horti_orchard
%20management.html
http://agriinfo.in/?page=topic&superid=2&topicid=982
http://mrbrownthumb.blogspot.com/2011/05/seed-scarification-seed-
stratification.html
http://www.garden.ie/gardeningskills.aspx?id=555
http://www.google.com.ph/search?
hl=en&site=imghp&tbm=isch&source=hp&biw=1366&bih=594&q=t+budding+i
n+citrus&oq=t+bud&gs_l=img.1.1.0l5j0i5j0i24l4.3604.7551.0.14255.5.5.0.0.0.
0.776.2148.0j2j5-2j1.5.0...0.0...1ac.1.17.img.j9K9ttFMB-c
hl=en&site=imghp&tbm=isch&source=hp&biw=1366&bih=594&q=packing+ma
ngo+fruit+using+liner&oq=packing+mango+fruit+using+liner&gs_l=img.3...390
0.19279.0.20178.33.13.0.20.0.1.947.4002.4j0j2j2j4j0j1.13.0...0.0...1ac.1.17.i
mg.PRH_UGyHA0U
http://blog.hooksandlattice.com/2013/05/16/soilless-potting-mix/
hl=en&site=imghp&tbm=isch&source=hp&biw=1366&bih=594&q=compost&oq
=compost&gs_l=img.1.0.0l10.6051.8253.0.13788.7.7.0.0.0.0.507.2108.0j2j2j0j
2j1.7.0...0.0...1ac.1.17.img.XH36ZAgnT5s
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coir
116
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UC 1- PERFORM NURSERY OPERATIONS

Different kinds of tools, farm implements and simple equipment

Basic Gardening Tools

There are many different types of gardening tools available, both

 Long-handled tools usually offer greater leverage

 Short-handled tools are lighter in weight,

 Handles are commonly constructed of wood (requires some additional

 Spading Fork. These have heavy, flat tines and

 Hoe. A hoe is used for weeding and scraping

Pitchfork/Manure Fork. Pitchforks and manure

 Round-nosed Shovel. Used for heavy digging

 Square-nosed Shovel. The flat blade allows it to be

Mattock/Pickaxe. The mattock is a heavy,

 Bow or Garden Rake. This is a heavy rake

 Leaf Rake. A light rake with long, thin,

Cultivator. A tool with heavy

 Hand Pruner. Used for removing

Pruning Saw. These are hand saws

Garden Knife. Useful for cutting

 Axe/Hatchet. Axes and hatchets are

 Clipper/Shears. These are used to remove a

 Sickles. A curved, hand-held agricultural tool

Wheelbarrow/Garden Cart. These are not

 Watering Can. No home or garden would be complete

 Lawn Mower. These are used to

 Either self-propelled or riding mowers. Power mowers often can be

 Tiller/Cultivator. These are used to

 String Trimmer. These devices use a heavy

 Leaf Blower. Gasoline or electric, these

 Electric Clipper/Trimmer/Shears. These

 Be aware of your surroundings when using tools. Remember that

 Purchase and use appropriate personal protective equipment, such

 Disinfect tools and equipment after working with diseased plants.

1. A cultivator is a tool with heavy curved or bent tines, or sometimes

Be Good to Your Garden Tools and They’ll Be Good to You

Proper Tool Storage

Clean and Dry Tools

While proper storing, cleaning and drying are important to the

General Tool Maintenance

Third, remove rust that has already formed. Because many of

Keep Your Tools Sharp

Another key to garden tool maintenance is keeping your tools sharp.

1. Garden tools are probably the most neglected tools.

Information Sheet 1.1-2

Factors to consider in nursery site selection

1. Area should be flat

5. Nursery should be near to platation or production area

Distance between the nursery and the plantation or

Materials needed for the construction of Nursery shed

2. smaller wooden or steel materials for beams

3. coconut leaves for temporary shade

4. fish nets for more improved shade

5. plastic sheets for green house

6. strings for lay-outs

7. steel or wooden benches to hold the seeding trays.

Information Sheet 1.1-3

Seed Propagation is an easy and cheap method of multiplying plants.

A seed is a mature ovule. It consists of an embryo, its food reserves

Factors to be considered in seed selection:

1. high yielding for economic onsideration;

2. Recalcitrant – seeds which cannot withstand drying and should not be

Characteristics of a Good Seeds

Why are seeds certified?