1.

MODULATION:

modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of a

periodic waveform, called the carrier signal, with a separate signal called
the modulation signal that typically contains information to be transmitted.

Need of Modulation in Communication Systems:

The message signals have a very low frequency due to which these signals cannot
be transmitted over long distances. Hence such low-frequency message signals
are modulated over the high-frequency carrier signal due to the following reasons:
1. Practical Length of Antenna:
For the effective transmission of a signal, the height h of the antenna should be
comparable to the wavelength λ of the signal at least the height of the
antenna h should be λ / 4 in length so that the antenna can sense the variations of
the signal properly.
The low-frequency message signal has a very high value of λ which will require a
very high antenna (practically not possible).
For example: If we have to transmit a signal of 20 kHz then λ = C / f and height of
the antenna h ≈ λ where C is the wave velocity, here C = 3 × 108 m/s.
h ≈ λ = (3 × 108) / (20 × 103)
h = 15 km.
Hence, we need to modulate the message signal over the high-frequency carrier
signal so that we can have a practical value for the height h of the antenna.
2. Narrow Banding of Signal
An audio signal usually has a frequency range (20 Hz to 20 kHz), if it is directly
transmitted then the ratio of highest to the lowest frequency becomes (20 kHz / 20
Hz) = 1000. But if this audio signal is modulated over a carrier signal of
frequency 1000 kHz then the ratio of highest to the lowest frequency becomes:
(1000 kHz + 20 kHz) / (1000 kHz + 20 Hz) ≅ 1.2
Hence, we need modulation to convert a wideband signal into a narrow band
signal.
3. Frequency Multiplexing
It is practically not possible to distinguish between the different audio signals when
transmitted simultaneously through a single antenna as all of them lie in the same
spectral range. Hence, each of these signals is translated to a low-frequency range
before transmission which makes it quite easier to recover them and distinguish
each of them from one another at the receiver’s end.
4. Effective Power Radiated By Antenna
Power radiated by an antenna ∝ (l / λ)2 where l is the length of the antenna
and λ is the wavelength of the signal which is to be transferred through the
antenna. This relation clearly shows that when signals having a low frequency and
high wavelength is transmitted directly the power radiated by the antenna is very
low and the signal will vanish after traveling some distance.
Hence, to transmit such signals over long distances, we superimpose these low-
frequency signals over the carrier signal having a high frequency and short
wavelength so that the power radiated by the antenna of the same length will be
very large.
2.COMMUNICATION:

The process of communication refers to the transmission or passage of information or

message from the sender through a selected channel to the receiver overcoming
barriers that affect its pace

The essential components of a communication system are information source, input

transducer, transmitter, communication channel, receiver and destination.

Now, we shall discuss the functioning of these blocks.

(i) Information Source

As we know, a communication system serves to communicate a message or

information. This information originates in the information source.

In general, there can be various messages in the form of words, group of words,
code, symbols, sound signal etc. However, out of these messages, only the desired
message is selected and communicated.

(ii) Input Transducer

A transducer is a device which converts one form of energy into another form.

The message from the information source may or may not be electrical in nature. In
a case when the message produced by the information source is not electrical in
nature, an input transducer is used to convert it into a time-varying electrical signal.

(iii) Transmitter

The function of the transmitter is to process the electrical signal from different
aspects.

In wire telephony, no real processing is needed. However, in long-distance radio

communication, signal amplification is necessary before modulation.

Modulation is the main function of the transmitter. In modulation, the message signal
is superimposed upon the high-frequency carrier signal.
 (iv) The Channel and The Noise

The term channel means the medium through which the message travels from the
transmitter to the receiver. In other words, we can say that the function of the
channel is to provide a physical connection between the transmitter and the receiver.

Noise is an unwanted signal which tend to interfere with the required signal. Noise
signal is always random in character. Noise may interfere with signal at any point in
a communication system. However, the noise has its greatest effect on the signal in
the channel.

(v) Receiver

The main function of the receiver is to reproduce the message signal in electrical
form from the distorted received signal. This reproduction of the original signal is
accomplished by a process known as the demodulation or detection. Demodulation
is the reverse process of modulation carried out in transmitter.

(vi) Destination

Destination is the final stage which is used to convert an electrical message signal
into its original form.

For example in radio broadcasting, the destination is a loudspeaker which works as

a transducer i.e. converts the electrical signal in the form of original sound signal.

3. AUTOCORRELATION FUNCTION
The autocorrelation function of a signal is defined as the measure of similarity or
coherence between a signal and its time delayed version. Thus, the autocorrelation
is the correlation of a signal with itself.

Properties of Autocorrelation Function

The properties of autocorrelation function for power signals are given as follows −
Property 1
The autocorrelation function of power or periodic signals exhibits complex conjugate
symmetry property, that is,

R(τ)=R∗(−τ)
Property 2
The value of the autocorrelation function for a power signal at origin (i.e., at τ = 0) is
equal to the average power (P) of that signal, i.e.,
R(0)=P
Property 3
When the delay parameter τ reduces, the autocorrelation R(τ) of the power signal
increases and it is maximum at the origin, i.e.,
|R(τ)|≤R(0)
Property 4
The autocorrelation function R(τ) be periodic with the same time period as the
power (or periodic) signal itself, i.e.,
R(τ)=R(τ±nT);where,n=1,2,3,⋅⋅⋅
Property 5
The autocorrelation function R(τ)R(τ) and the PSD (Power Spectral Density)
function S(ω) of a power signal form a Fourier transform pair, i.e.,
R(τ)↔S(ω)

4. CROSS CORRELATION FUNCTION:

The cross correlation function between two different signals is defined as the
measure of similarity or coherence between one signal and the time delayed version
of another signal.

Consider two power (or periodic) signals x1(t) and x2(t) having the same time period
(say T), then the cross correlation of these two power signals is defined as,
R21(τ)=1T∫(T╱2)−(T╱2)x1(t)x∗2(t−τ)dt
The cross correlation of two periodic functions is defined in another form as −

R21(τ)=1T∫(T/2)−(T/2)x2(t)x∗1(t−τ)dt

Where, the variable ττ is called the delay parameter.

Properties of Cross Correlation Function
Property 1
The cross correlation of two power signals exhibits complex conjugate symmetry,
i.e.,

R12(τ)=R∗21(−τ)
Property 2
The cross correlation of two power signals is not commutative, that is,

R12(τ)≠R21(−τ)
Property 3
The cross correlation function of two power signals is equivalent to the multiplication
of Fourier transform of one signal and the complex conjugate of Fourier transform of
the other signal, i.e.,

R12(τ)↔X1(ω).X∗2(ω)
Property 4
If,

R12(0)=limT→∞1T∫(T/2)−(T/2)x1(t)x∗2(t)dt=0

Then, the two power signals x1(t) and x2(t) are called the orthogonal signals over
the entire time interval.

5. RANDOM PROCESS:

A random process is also known as stochastic process.A random

process X(t) is used to explain the mapping of an experiment
which is random with a sample space S which contribute to
sample functions X(t,λi).For every point in time t1,X(t1) is a
random variable.

*******For classification of random processes please refer class notes…