ZXD]DADCD MN CKHDXK]DXLD
A^XQD BLAXDHLDCDGÂK
Añmlgd ;>;::9
 
Zktrlalk Bkerlqun Hustds

Aìmuck0 ;:=88;8:;9

 
Ackumlk Zktrlalk @lbìenz Idrnrd
Mlrnatdrk mn aursd

^ELYNXQLMKM EKALDEKC KHLNX]K \ K MLQ]KEALK

NQA^NCK MN ALNEALKQ MN CK QKC^M
Hkrrkeakhnrbn`k ;7 mn edvlnbhrn mnc 8:8:

;
 

Adetnelmd

Zëg.

Letrdmuaalñe >
Katl
Ka tlvl
vlmk
mkm
m prëa
prëatl
tlak
ak ; K. Bn
Bnml
mlds
ds mn auct
auctlv
lvd,
d, bìtdbìtdmd
mdss mn slnb
slnbhr
hrkk y
akrkatnrâstlaks bkardsañplaks mn auctlvds hkatnrlkeds 7
Katlvlmkm prëatlak ; H. Qlnbhrk mn Blardhldtk edrbkc. ;6
Katlv
atlvlm
lmkm
km prprëa
ëatl
tlak
ak 8. Akr krkkat
atnr
nrlz
lzka
kalñ
lñe
e blar lardsañ
dsañpl
plak
ak mn auct auctlv
lvds
ds
hkatnrlkeds0 Adcdrkalñe mn Grkb 88
Katl
Ka tlvlm
vlmkm
km prëa
prëatl
tlak
ak 1. Zr
Zrun
unhk
hk mn susan
susanpt
ptlh
lhlclclmk
lmkm
m k ketl
ketlbl
blar
ardh
dhlk
lked
eds0s0
mliuslñe ne mlsad. 89
Katlvlmkm prëatlak =. Akrkatnrlzkalñe bkardsañplak y blardsañplak mn
fdegds. 1:

Katlvlmkm prëatlak >. Zkrësltds mn lbpdrtkealk ne skcum. 1>

Hlhcldgrkiâk =:

8
 

Clstk mn tkhcks

Zëg.

]khck ; Ackslilakalñe mn cds blarddrgkelsbds sngðe kcgueks ademlaldens

mnc bnmld kbhlnetn 7
]khck 8 Bìtdmds pkrk nc auctlvd mn blarddrgkelsbds ne bnmlds sñclmds;:
]khc
]khckk 1 Akrk
Akrkat
atnr
nrâst
âstlak
lakss bkar
bkards
dsañ
añpl
plak
akss mn adcd
adcdel
elks
ks hkat
hkatnr
nrlk
lkek
ekss ne
auctlvds sñclmds. ;;

1
 

Clstk mn ilgurks

Zëg.

Ilgurk ; Ackslilakalñe mn cds bnmlds mn auctlvd. <

Ilgurk 8 Ërhdc ilcdgneìtlad mn ck vlmk ;6
Ilgurk 1 Akrkatnrâstlaks blardsañplaks dhsnrvkhcns ne ck adcdrkalñe mn
Grkb. 88
Ilgurk = Mlinrnealk lkss bdridcñglaks
aks y mn tkbkûd netrn fdegds
ilckbnetdsds, cnvkmurlidrbns y hkatnrlks 1:

=
 

Letrdmuaalñe
 

Ck Blardhldcdgâk ns ck alnealk qun nstumlk kqunccds drgkelsbds vlvds

auyd
auyd tkbk
tkbkûdûd sn neau
neaune
netr
trkk pdr
pdr mn
mnhk`
hk`dd mnc
mnc pdmn
pdmnrr rn
rnsdc
sdcut
utlvd
lvd mnc
mnc d`
d`d
d
fubked, mnsmn cungd, alnealk prnanmlmk pdr ck levn levneealñe mnc
blar
bl ards
dsad
adpl
pld,
d, ad
ade
e sus
sus pr
prle
leal
alpl
plds
ds nstr
nstrua
uatu
turk
rkcn
cnss tk
tkcc adbd
adbd kfdr
kfdrkk sn cn
adedane, kcrnmnmdr mnc kûd ;98:. ^e slgcd mnspuìs, ck nxpnrlbnetkalñe
ne kelbkcns, nc mnsauhrlblnetd mn cds auctlvds hkatnrlkeds, ck rnckalñe
nettrn pk
ne pktñ
tñgn
gned
ed y pktd
pktdcd
cdgâ
gâk,
k, nc pnpnri
rinnaald
aalde
ekbln
kblnetetd
d mn tì tìae
aellak
akss
blardhldcñglaks, netrn dtrds, khrlñ cds akekcns pkrk adestltulr nc aunrpd
mn adedalblnetds mn nstk alnealk.

Iun ksâ adbd rnsuctkmd mn ck dhsnrvkalñe y keëclsls, kqunc dtrd rnled

mlbleutd y ketns lenxlstnetn pdr mnsauhrlr, trk`d adeslgd eunvks alnealks
adbd ck lebuedcdgâk y ck vlrdcdgâk, kilkezkemd ck rnckalñe nstrnafk ade
ck Bnmlalek. Fnafd qun ed qunmñ kccâ punstd qun nstumlds pdstnrldrns
sdhrn blardhldtk mnc suncd fke rnskctkmd ck grke mlvnrslmkm ilsldcñglak mn
cds blarddrgkelsbds y su uhlaulmkm, gnenrkemd ck enanslmkm mn qun
dtrks alnealks hldcñglaks netrkrke k kpdykr nc nstumld mn
blarddrgkelsbds, tkcns adbd ck gneìtlak y ck hldquâblak, mkemd ksâ pksd
k ck hldcdgâk ancuckr y bdcnauckr.
Zdr cks ktrlhualdens mn nstk alnealk, nc kbpcld akbpd mn kaalñe y nc
prd
prdpñsltd
ltd mn ck adbprbprneslñe akhkhkcc pdr pkrtn mn mncc nstu
stumlk
mlketn,
nspnalkcbnetn mnsmn nc puetd mn vlstk prëatlad, mn cd qun sn mnhlnsn
fkanr y añbd sn mnhlnsn fkanr, nc aursd mn Blardhldcdgâk mn ck Nsaunck
mn Alnealks
^EKM, nstë mn ck skcumpkrk
mlsnûkmd mn ck ^elvnrslmkm
qun Ekaldekc
cds nstumlketns, Khlnrtkmny katlvlmkmns
k trkvìs k Mlstkealk
prëatlaks, ccnvne k akhd prdansds pkrk adbprnemnr, kpclakr y mnskrrdcckr
eunvd adedalblnetd ne nc nstumld mn ck Blardhldcdgâk.
Nc dh`ntlvd prdpunstd kquâ sn mlvlmn hëslakbnetn ne auktrd pkrtns, uek
qun levdcuark kpclakr adeanptds ne ck rnsdcualñe mn prdhcnbks pdr pkrtn
mncc nstu
mn nstuml
mlke
ketn
tn,, bnml
bnmlke
ketn
tn nc keëc
keëcls
lsls
ls mn ck leid
leidrb
rbka
kalñ
lñe?
e? dt
dtrk
rk qun
qun
mnskrrdcck
mnskrrdcck ue pneskblnetd
pneskblnetd arâtlad
arâtlad y mn keëclsls k trkvìs
trkvìs mn ck mlsauslñe?
mlsauslñe?
uek bës, nxpclakemd cds adeanptds mn blardhldcdgâk ade nc cneguk`n
tìaelad kprdplkmd ne cds n`nralalds kakmìblads y, dtrk qun adetlnen cds
ncnbnetds gnenrkcns pkrk mnskrrdcckr fkhlclmkmns ne nc nstumlketn, cks

>
 

aukcns cns pnrbltke ck lmnetlilakalñe mn pdslhcn akuskclmkm, ikatdrns mn

rlnsgd y bnmlmks prnvnetlvks ne cds nvnetds leinaaldsds ne skcum.
Zdr ðctlbd, ns huned rnskctkr qun nstk guâk ed tlnen ck prntneslñe mn snr
ue prdiuemd nstumld tnñrlad, el uek guâk nxfkustlvk pkrk nc mnskrrdccd mn
prëatlaks, sled qun prlealpkcbnetn sn anetrk ne letnrprntkr cd bn`dr
pdslh
slhcn k tìrbleled
ds prëatlads kcguegueds kspnatdatds prdplds mn ck
Blardhldcdgâk, mn bdmd qun sn ikalcltn su bken`d pdr pkrtn mn cds
letnrnskmds.

9
 

Katlvlmkm prëatlak ; K. Bnmlds mn auctlvd,

a uctlvd, bìtdmds mn slnbhrk y
akrkatnrâstlaks bkardsañplaks mn auctlvds hkatnrlkeds

Letrdmuaalñe
Cds bnmlds mn auctlvd sde uek prnpkrkalñe adbpunstk mn hldbdcìaucks
adei
adeidr
drbk
bkmkmkss pdr
pdr bkar
bkarde
deut
utrl
rlne
netn
tnss tk
tkcn
cnss adbd
adbd akrh
akrhde
ded,
d, dxâg
dxâgnened,
d,
flmrdgned, eltrñgned, iñsidrd y kzuirn, y mn blardeutrlnetns adbd nc
bkge
bk gens
nsld
ld,, adhk
adhkct
ctd,
d, netr
netrnn dt
dtrd
rds?
s? auyd
auyd ile
ile ns cdgr
cdgrkr
kr nc arna
arnalblbln
lnet
etd,
d,
trkesp
trkespdrt
drtnn d bketne
bketnelbl
lblnet
netd
d mn bla blardd
rddrgk
rgkels
elsbds
bds.. Qu ackslil
ackslilaka
akalñe
lñe sn
punmn dhsnrvkr ne ck Ilgurk ;.

Qle nbhkrgd, cds bnmlds mn auctlvd ed sde cds ðelads enanskrlds pkrk
gnen
gnenrk
rkrr buct
buctlp
lpcla
claka
kalñ
lñe
e y mnskr
mnskrrd
rdccccd
d mn blar
blardd
ddrg
rgke
kels
lsbd
bds,
s, sn fkan
fkane
e
enan
enanskr
skrlks
lks adem
ademlalald
lden
enss iâsl
iâslaks
aks tk
tkcn
cnss adbd
adbd nc pF,
pF, tn
tnbpn
bpnrk
rktu
turk
rk,, cuz,
cuz,
prnslñe, netrn dtrks, su adedalblnetd pnrbltn nc mlsnûd mn bìtdmds pkrk
adetrdc d mnstruaalñe mn pdhckaldens mn nstds drgkelsbds. Qngðe snke
nstks ademlaldens, sn mnskrrdcckrëe kcgueds blarddrgkelsbds y dtrds ed,
pdr nccd sn fke nstkhcnalmd ackslilakaldens pkrk akmk ademlalñe (]khck ;).

]khck ; Acks
]khck Ackslil
lilak
akal
alñe
ñe mn cd
cdss blar
blardd
ddrg
rgke
kels
lsbd
bdss sn
sngð
gðe
e kcgu
kcguek
ekss
ademlaldens mnc bnmld kbhlnetn
Acksliakalñe mn cds
Acksliakalñe
Ademlalñe Mnielalñe Qlgeliakmd
blarddrgkelsbds
Arnane netrn pF :
Lemlak ck adeanetrkalñe Kalmñicks
y >.: pF
mn F+ ne uek sdcualñe n
pF letnrinrn ne nc Enutrñicks Arnane netrn pF
>.: y 6.:
uealdekblnetd mn
Arnane netrn pF
hldbdcìaucks Kcakcñicks
6.> k ;;.>
Zunmne arnanr k
Bkgeltum qun blmn nc :ºA, pnrd su
Zslarñicks
akcdr mn ue dh`ntd n tnbpnrkturk
]nbpnrkturk
leuyn ne ck vncdalmkm dpbk ns ;>ºA
mn cks rnkaaldens Qn mnskrrdccke 8>-
Bnsñicks
quâblaks ne cds =:ºA
blarddrgkelsbds Qn mnskrrdccke =>-
]nrbñicks
9:ºA
Adeanetrkalñe mn Nc dxâgned ns ue gks Qn mnskrrdccke ne
Knrdhlks
Dxâgned leadcdrd n ledmdrd qun 8:% mn D8
letnrvlnen ne prdansds Kekn
Keknrd
rdhl
hlks
ks kau
kauct
ctk
kvk
vkss Qn mnsk
mnskrr
rrdc
dcck
cke
e ne
ne

7
 

prnsnealk d
kusnealk mn D8
mn arnalblnetd Qn mnskrrdccke ne
Keknrdhlks
hkatnrlked 38% mn D8
Qn nxprnsk adbd Ylvne ne bnmlds
kavlmkm mn kguk (kw) flpnrtñelads y sn
Mlspdelhlclmkm mn
qun ns uek bnmlmk mnc Dsbñicds suhmlvlmne ne
kguk
kguk mlspdelhcn pkrk nc fkcñicds y
blarddrgkelsbd skakrñicds.
Iunetn0 Adestruaalñe prdplk nqulpd mn mdanetns (8:;7)

Ade`uetd k ck arnkalñe mn bnmlds mn auctlvd y kc mnsauhrlblnetd mn cks

ademla
ademlalde
ldens
ns mn arnalbl
arnalblnet
netdd mn cds blardd
blarddrgk
rgkels
elsbds
bds,, sn fke arn
arnkmd
kmd
bìtdmds mn slnbhrk pkrk auctlvkr y snpkrkr cks mlvnrsks pdhckaldens mn
blarddrgkelsbds prdvnelnetns mn cks bunstrks k nstumlkr. Ck kaalñe mn
snbhrkr (d ledauckr) lbpclak pdenr uek pdralñe mn ck bunstrk (n`. Kguk,
kc
kcllemla
ad
adembnet
bnlald
etds
ds,
, s skeg
lden
ens skegr
km rukmks
kmna n, mks.
nauk nta)
nta)
. Qnngðe
e euesn
Qngð snkkbnml
bnncmld
dbn
mn
bnmld auct
mld auctlv
mn lvd
d ctlvd
auct
au nlvd,leau
le
, auhk
snhkrc
rcd
pudnmne
punm ne
ne
nbpcnkr lestrubnetds tkcns adbd0 ksks hkatnrldcñglaks, flsdpds, plpntk
d ksk
ksk mn Mrlgkcsoy , tnelnemd ne aunetk qun tdmds nccds mnhne nstkr
nstìrlcns k ck fdrk mn fkanr usd mn nccds.

6
 

Ilgurk ; Ackslilakalñe mn cds bnmlds mn auctlvd.

Iunetn0 Xd`ks (8:;;). Adeanptds y prëatlak mn Blardhldcdgâk gnenrkc.

Bkeukc.

Ne ue bnmld câqulmd, nc bìtdmd mn auctlvd ns rncktlvkbnetn snealccd,

adeslstn ne kgrngkr pkrtn mn ck bunstrk kc rnalplnetn ne mñemn sn
neaunetrk nc bnmld? nsk bunstrk punmn kgrngkrsn ade uek plpntk d ue
ksk nstìrlc. Blnetrks qun, pkrk cds bnmlds mn auctlvd sñclmds, sn fke
gnenrkmd mlvnrsds bìtdmds (]khck 8).

<
 

]khck 8 Bìtdmds pkrk nc auctlvd mn blarddrgkelsbds ne bnmlds

sñclmds
Bìtdmd Zrdansd

;. Nstnr
Nstnrlclzkr
lclzkr ksk hk
neirlkr. hkatnrldc
atnrldcñglak
ñglak rnatk y mn`k mn`krr
8. ]db
]dbkrkr ck b bunst
unstrk
rk ade
ade nc ksk nsnstìr
tìrlc.
lc.
Qlnbhrk ne plakmurk d
1. Letrd
Letrdmualr
mualr nc ksk ‑ade nncc ledaledaucd-
ucd- m
mnn idr
idrbk
bk
puealñe
vnrtlakc y ne nc anetrd mnc tuhd ade bnmld mn
auctlvd.
=. Qkqun nc ksk rëpl rëplmkbnet
mkbnetnn y nvltn
nvltn td
tdakr
akr ccks
ks
pkrnmns mnc tuhd.
>. Ns
Nstn
tnrl
rlclz
clzkr
kr ksksk.
k.
;. Nstnr
Nstnrlclzkr
lclzkr ksk hkhkatnrldc
atnrldcñglak
ñglak rnatk y mn`k mn`krr
neirlkr.
8. ]db
]dbkrkr ck b bunst
unstrk
rk ade
ade nc ksk nsnstìr
tìrlc.
lc.
1. Letrd
Letrdmualr
mualr nc ksk ‑ade nncc ledaledaucd-
ucd- m
mnn idr
idrbk
bk
Qlnbhrk ne nstrâk vnrtlakc, ne nc hdrmn leinrldr mnc tuhd ade bnmld
mn auctlvd leaclekmd.
=. Qkakr
Qkakr,, cnetkbnet
cnetkbnetnn nc ksk, n lebnmlktk
lebnmlktkbnetnbnetn
rnkclzkr nstrâks (câenks ne zlgzkg) ne ck
supnrilaln mnc bnmld, fkstk su hdrmn supnrldr.
>. Ns
Nstn
tnrl
rlclz
clzkr
kr ksksk.
k.
;. Nstnr
Nstnrlclzkr
lclzkr ksk hkhkatnrldc
atnrldcñglak
ñglak aurvk y mn`k mn`krr
neirlkr.
8. ]db
]dbkrkr ck b bunst
unstrk
rk ade
ade nc ksk nsnstìr
tìrlc.
lc.
1. Quspn
Quspnemnremnr cckk bun
bunstrk
strk ne ue nxtrn
nxtrnbd
bd mn ck ak ak`k`k
ade bnmld mn auctlvd, rnkclzkemd nstrâks ‑ed
supnrpunstks- sdhrn uek tnranrk pkrtn mn ck
Qlnbhrk pdr ak`k.
kgdtkblnetd =. Nstnr
Nstnrlclzkr
lclzkr ksk hkhkatnrldc
atnrldcñglak
ñglak aurvk y mn`k mn`krr
neirlkr.
>. Xnkclz
Xnkclzkrkr nstrâks
nstrâks nne
e mlrn
mlrnaalñe
aalñe p pnrpne
nrpnemlauck
mlauckrr k ck ckss
nstrâks ketns fnafks, adbnezkemd ne ck ðctlbk
nstrâk.
9. Xn
Xnpnt
pntlrlr nncc pk
pksd
sd = y >.
7. Ns
Nstn
tnrl
rlclz
clzkr
kr ksksk.
k.
Qlnbhrk ne aukmrlauck ;. Nstnr
Nstnrlclzkr
lclzkr ksk hkhkatnrldc
atnrldcñglak
ñglak aurvk y mn`k mn`krr
neirlkr.
8. Zdenr vdcubn
vdcubne e mn bunstr
bunstrkk ne ak`k ade bn bnmldmld
mn auctlvd, uskemd plpntk kutdbëtlak.
1. Mlstr
Mlstrlhulr
lhulr ck buns
bunstrk
trk ad
adee nc ks
ksk,
k, ne ididrbk
rbk m mnn
câenk rnatk pdr nc anetrd mnc bnmld mn auctlvd.
=. Fkanr nstrâk
nstrâkss mn ckmd k ckmckmdd mnc bnmld mn

;:
 

auctlvd y ne snetlmd adetrkrld k ck câenk rnatk

ketns fnafk.
>. Glrkr nc bnmld
bnmld mn auctlvd
auctlvd < <:ºgrk
:ºgrkmds
mds y ffkanr
kanr
nstrâks mn ckmd k ckmd mnc bnmld y ne snetlmd
adetrkrld k cks nstrâks fnafks ketns.
9. Ns
Nstn
tnrl
rlclz
clzkr
kr ks
ksk.
k.
;. Mns
Mnstkp
tkpkrkr nncc flsdp
flsdpdd ns
nstìr
tìrlc.
lc.
8. Let
Letrdm
rdmual
ualrr nc flsdpd
flsdpd nnee ck bun
bunstr
strk.
k.
1. Qkakr nc flsdp
flsdpd d y nsaur
nsaurrlrcd
rlrcd nne
e cks p
pkrnm
krnmns
ns mnc
rnalplnetn mñemn nstë ck bunstrk.
=. Fkanr nstrâk
nstrâkss nstrnafks
nstrnafks m mnn ckmd k ckm
ckmd
d mn ck
Qlnbhrk ade flsdpd
ak`k ade bnmld mn auctlvd, mnsmn nc hdrmn
supnrldr fkstk nc hdrmn leinrldr.
>. Glrkr nc bnmld
bnmld mn auctlvd
auctlvd < <:ºgrk
:ºgrkmds
mds y ffkanr
kanr
nstrâks nstrnafks mn ckmd k ckmd mnc bnmld y ne
snetlmd adetrkrld k cks nstrâks fnafks ketns.
9. Xnp
Xnpntlr
ntlr nc pkpksd
sd >, ttrns
rns vvnans
nans b bës.
ës.
7. Krrd`
Krrd`kr
kr nc flsdpd ne Guk Gukrmlë
rmlëee mn mnsnafd
mnsnafds.s.
Iunetn0 Adestruaalñe prdplk nqulpd mn mdanetns (8:;7)

Fnafd
Fnaf d ns
nstd
td,, pdst
pdstnr
nrld
ldrr k ck sl
slnb
nbhr
hrkk mn blar
blardd
ddrg
rgke
kels
lsbd
bds,
s, sn nspn
nspnrk
rk
dhtne
htnennr arn
arnal
albl
blne
nettd mn blarblard
ddrgke
rgkels
lsb
bds
ds,, nc aukc
aukc tnemr
nemrëë uek
ueks
akrkatnrâstlaks bkardsañplaks y blardsañplaks.

Cks akrkat
akrkatnrâ
nrâstla
stlaks
ks bkards
bkardsañp
añplak
lakss mn ue blardd
blarddrgk
rgkels
elsbd
bd sde tdmds
tdmds
kqunccds mntkccns dhsnrvkhcns k slbpcn vlstk ne cds bnmlds mn auctlvd
snb
sn bhrkmds?
mds? ne bnmlds mn auctlv ctlvd
d câq
câqulmd
mdss sn punmn dhsnr snrvkr
netu
ne turh
rhlk
lkbln
blnetetd
d u dpka
dpkalmk
lmkm
m (c
(clg
lgnr
nrk,
k, bnbnml
mlkk d euck
euck),
), pr
prna
nalp
lplt
ltkm
kmds
ds d
snmlbnetds (adbpkatd, pdcvdrlnetd, grkeucdsd, vlsadsd) d idrbkalñe mn
pnccâauck. Ne cd
pn cdss bnmlds sñclmds sn punmne dhsnr snrvkr mlvnr
vnrsks
akrkatnrâst
akrkat nrâstlaks
laks mn ck bdridcdgâk
bdridcdgâk mn cks adcdelks, netrn nccks ck fnbñclsls,
fnbñclsls,
ck prdmuaalñe mn plgbnetds y cks qun sn nxpdene ne ck tkhck 1.

]khck 1 Akrkatnrâstlaks bkardsañplaks mn adcdelks hkatnrlkeks ne

auctlvds sñclmds.
Akrkatnrâstlaks
;;
 

]kbkûd Grkemn 5;bb

Bnmlked ; bb
Znqunûd 3;bb
Idrbk Zuetlidrbn

Alrauckr

Ilckbnetdsk

Lrrnguckr

Xlzdlmn

Ckeandckmk

Hdrmn Adetleud

Demuckmd

Cdhuckmd

Nspledsd, mnetkmd d
ckanrkmd

Ilckbnetdsd

Ncnvkalñe Zckek d kpckstkmk

Adevnxk

;8
 

Bkbncdekmk
Zucvlekmk

^bhlclakmk

Qupnrilaln Clsk
Xugdsk
Adeslstnealk Hckemk
Murk
Buadlmn
Kspnatd Hrlccketn
Dpkad
Iunetn0 Adestruaalñe prdplk nqulpd mn mdanetns (8:;7). Bdmlilakmd mn
Xd`ks 8:;;.

Dh`ntlvds

◄ Ackslilakr cds mlinrnetns tlpds mn bnmlds mn auctlvd qun sn bken`ke ne

nc ckhdrktdrld mn blardhldcdgâk.
◄ Zrkatlakr cds bìtdmds mn slnbhrk mn blarddrgkelsbds ne mlinrnetns
bnmlds mn auctlvd.

Bktnrlkcns

Bktnrlkcns mn ck prëatlak mn ckhdrktdrld slbuckmd

 
◄ Kaansd k letnrent
◄ Zrdtdadcd mn ckhdrktdrld
◄ Gnck
Gn cktl tlek
ek mn aukc
aukcqu
quln
lnrr adcd
adcdrr (s
(slb
lbuc
uckr
krëë nc bn
bnml
mld
d mn auct
auctlvd
lvd),
),
pkclclccccds
pk ds ckckrg
rgds
ds (s
(slbu
lbuckr
ckrëë nc kskskk hkat
hkatnr
nrld
ldcñ
cñgla
glak)
k),, rn
rnalp
alpln
lnet
etns
ns
rnmdemds (slbuckrë ak`ks mn Zntrl) y ue vksd kegdstd d tuhd mn
vlmrld (slbuckrë tuhd mn auctlvd leaclekmd).
◄ Ynrr vâmnd
Yn vâmnd leletr
trdm
dmua
uatd
tdrl
rld
d ne0
ne0 fttps0//www.ydutuhn.adb/wktaf4
v21:ftM69]WzN

Zrdanmlblnetd-N`nralald trkzd mn slnbhrk

;. Zrn
Zrnpkr
pkrkal
kalñe
ñe mn ue bnmld mn auctlv
auctlvd
d slb
slbuck
uckmd
md (ne gncktl
gncktlek)
ek)00 Zrn
Zrnpkr
pkrnn
ne aksk gncktlek mn aukcqulnr adcdr, pñegkck ne 1 bdcmns rnmdemds
;1
 

mnc tkbkûd mn su bked, prninrlhcnbnetn trkespkrnetns y mn uek

prdiuemlmkm kprdxlbkmk mn 1 k = anetâbntrds. Zdegk gncktlek ne ue
tuhd
tuhd d vksdvksd ad
ade e tktkpk
pk,, mì`n
mì`ncd
cd ne ck en envn
vnrk
rk ade
ade uek
uek leac
leacle
leka
kalñ
lñee
kprdxlbkmk mn =>º mn tkc bkenrk qun ck gncktlek adkgucn fkalnemd
uek supnrilaln leaclekmk rnspnatd kc tuhd.
8. Ne ued mn sus auctlv
auctlvdsds rnmd
rnmdemd
emds,
s, pksn ued mn cds pkclcc
pkclccds
ds fkalnem
fkalnemd d
uek slnbhr
slnbhrkk slbuck
slbuckmk mk pdr bìtbìtdmd
dmd mn kgdtkb
kgdtkblne
lnetd.
td. Xnaunr
Xnaunrmn mn ed
rdbpnr ck gncktlek sñcd nvlmnealkr nc trkzd.
1. Ne dtr
dtrdd mn sus bnm
bnmldslds mn auctlvd
auctlvd rnmdem
rnmdemd,d, pksn ued mn cds pkclpkclccd
ccdss
fkalnemd uek slnbhrk slbuckmk pdr bìtdmd mn nstrâk.
=. Nc qun cn q qunmk
unmk fkgk
fkgk nc blsbd n`nrala
n`nralaldld y slnbhrn
slnbhrn ne rn`lcck.
rn`lcck.
>. Ne nc bnmld mn au auctlvd
ctlvd sl
slbuckmd
buckmd ade
ade leaclekalñe,
leaclekalñe, sln
slnbhrn
bhrn pdr nstrâk.
nstrâk.
9. ]dbn idtdgrki kiâk
âkss mn ck n`na `naual
alñ
ñe mn akmk ued mn cds pue puetds
ketn
ke tnrl
rld
drns
rns y keì
keìxkck
xkckss adbd
adbd nvl vlmn
mnea
ealk
lk ne ck pr prng
ngue
uettk 8 mnc mnc
aunstldekrld.

Aunstldekrld y rnsuctkmds
;. Adbpcntn
Adbpcntn ck slgulnetn
slgulnetn tkhck
tkhck ade mktds
mktds adesuctkmds
adesuctkmds ne let
letnren
nrent0
t0

]khck =.
Bnmlds mn auctlvd

Edbhrn mnc bnmld mn Adbpdenetns mn

mnc kg
kgkr ^tlclm
clmkm (pkr
pkrk qu
quì
auctlvd slrvn, qun grupd mn
hkatnrlks kyumk k
lmnetlilakr d arnane

Kgkr BkaAdeony  ne ìc)

Znptdek pkearnëtlak mn Kgkr Bkaadeony sn
gncktlek ;7,: g utlclzk pkrk nc
]rlptdek ;,> g klsckblnetd sncnatlvd
Znptdek mn akren ;,> g y ck lmnetlilakalñe mn
Ckatdsk ;:,: g Netnrdhkatnrlkankn
Qkcns hlclkrns ;,> g mn cks fnans, ck
Acdrurd sñmlad >,: g drlek, kguks
Xd`d enutrd 1:,: bg rnslmukcns y
Arlstkc vldcntk ;,: bg kclbnetds. ]kbhlìe
Kgkr kgkr ;1,> g ns ue bnmld sncnatlvd
y mlinrnealkc pkrk nc
klsckblnetd
hkatnrlks mn
Grkb-
;=
 

engktlvks netìrlaks.

Kgkr Eutrltlvd Nstë adbpunstd Zrlealpkcbnetn slrvn

prlealpkcbnetn mn pkrk nc suhauctlvd mn
nxtrkatd mn akren d nspnalns,
nxtrkatd mn cnvkmurk, bketnelblnetd mn
pnptdeks d mlgnstd anpks, adetk`n mn
pkearnëtlad mn adcdelks, adbd hksn
gncktlek, kgkr-kgkr, pkrk prnpkrkr kgkr
acdrurd mn sdmld y kguk skegrn, netrn dtrks.
mnstlckmk. Ksâ blsbd, pdr su
adcdr hnlgn ackrd
punmne mlstlegulrsn
mn bkenrk
nxanpaldekc ck
prdmuaalñe mn
plgbnetds gnenrkmds
pdr kcgueks anpks
hkatnrlkeks, tkcns
adbd nc plgbnetd
vnrmdsd
mn Zsnumdbdeks
knrugledsk, nc
plgbnetd rd`d ckmrlccd
prdmualmd
pdr Qnrrktlk
bkransanes k
tnbpnrkturk
kbhlnetn, nc
plgbnetd kbkrlccd
mdrkmd
mn Qtkpfycdadaaus
kurnus, netrn dtrds.
Kgkr QLB Nstë adbpunstd pdr nspnalkcbnetn
trlptnâek, pnptdek, mlsnûkmd pkrk kyumkr
suciktd mn flnrrd, k ck lmnetlilakalñe mn
suciktd mn kbdeld, kcgueks hkatnrlks,
hkatnrlks,
tldsuciktd mn sdmld y prlealpkcbnetn mn ck
kgkr. ikblclk
Netnrdhkatnrlkankn.
;>
 

Nstn bnmld pnrbltn

ck n`naualñe mn trns
lbpdrtketns prunhks0
ck prdmuaalñe mn
suciurd mn flmrñgned
(F8Q), ck idrbkalñe
mn lemdc y ck
bdtlclmkm, mn kccâ 
prdvlnen nc karñelbd
QLB. Zdr su grke
utlclmkm ed punmn
ikctkr ne ue
ckhdrktdrld mn
hkatnrldcdgâk.
Nc bnmld QLB pnrbltn
mlstlegulr
alnrtks prdplnmkmns
nspnaâilaks qun
akrkatnrlzke k
kcgueks hkatnrlks ne
rnckalñe ade dtrks.
Zdr
n`nbpcd, Nsafnrlaflk
adcl  sn mlstlegun pdr
snr F8Q (-), Lemdc (+)
y bdtlclmkm (+),
blnetrks qun Zrdtnus
blrkhlcls ns F8Q (+),
lemdc (-), bdtlclmkm
(+).

Blardolt0 bnmlds mn auctlvd. (8:;>). ]dbkmd mn0

fttps0//www.bnmldsauctlvd.adb/bka-adeony-kgkr/

Kgkr Bkaadeony. (8:;<). ]dbkmd mn0

ilcn0///A0/^snrs/kmble/Mdwecdkms/:<::TnsT;.pmi 

Glc, B. (8:;1). Kgkr eutrltlvd0 iuemkbnetd, prnpkrkalñe y usds. ]dbkmd

mn0 fttps0//www.clinmnr.adb/kgkr-eutrlnetn/

;9
 

Glc, B. (s. i). bnmld QLB0 iuemkbntds,

iuemkb ntds, prnpkrkalñe y usds. ]dkbmd mn0
fttps0//www.clinmnr.adb/bnmld-slb/#0~0tnxt2Nc%8:bnmld%8:QLB
%8:ns%8:ue,tldsuciktd%8:mn%8:sdmld%8:y%8:kgkr..
%8:ns%8:ue,tldsuciktd%8:mn%8:sdmld%8:y%8:kgkr

8. Adbpcntn
Adbpcntn ck slgulnetn
slgulnetn tkhck
tkhck ade cds bnmlds
bnmlds mn auctlvd
auctlvd nbpcnkmds
nbpcnkmds y
nc nsqunbk mnc tlpd mn slnbhrk qun rnkclzñ.

]khck =.
Zrdanmlblnetd mn slnbhrk prëatlak.

Bnmld mn auctlvd ]lpd mn Qlnbhrk Nsqunbk d

(prnpkrkmd ne idtdgrkiâk mn ck
gncktlek) slnbhrk qun
rnkclzñ
Nstrâk

Kgdtkblnetd

Xn`lcck

;7
 

Nstrâk

1. Kvn
Kvnrlg
rlgón
ón 1 blarddr
blarddrgke
gkelsb
lsbds
ds mlin
mlinrne
rnetns
tns qun punmke
punmke auctlvkrs
auctlvkrsnn ne
kc bneds 8 mn cds bnmlds mn auctlvds trktkmds ne ck prnguetk ; n
lemlqun0 Ne quì ademlaldens mn tnbpnrkturk y tlnbpd sn rnkclzk ck
leauhkalñe.

]khck >.
Blarddrgkelsbds auctlvkmds ne kgkr eutrltlvd, Bkaadeony y slb.
Bnmld Blarddrgkelsb Ademlaldens ]lnbpd sn
d mn rnkclzk ck
tnbpnrkturk leauhkalñe
Kgkr eutrltlvd Qtkpfycdadaaus netrn 1=-  K cks ;6-8=
kurnus 17°A _ AL]K]LD fdrks sn
E ]rl;> Sc dhsnrvke
<889 R. adcdelks mn ;-1
bb_ AL]K]LDE
]rl;> Sc <889 R.
Kgkr Ocnhslncck Leauhkr cks Nxkblekr cks
Bkaadeony  penubdelkn pckaks k 1> » 8 pckaks mnspuìs
ºA ne uek mn ;6 ‑ 8=
ktbñsinrk f_ AL]K]LDE
knrdhlk_ AL]K]L Mla;= Sc <889 R.
DE Mla;= Sc
<889 R.
Kgkr slb Nsafnrlaflk adcl  Leauhkr cds ;6 ‑ 8= f ne
tuhds k 1> » 8 uek ktbdsinrk
ºA_AL]K]LDE knrdhlk_ AL]K]L
HHC Sc <889 R. DE HHC Sc <889
R.

;6
 

=. Mns
nsar
arlh
lhkk ck
ckss ak
akrrkat
katnr
nrâs
âstl
tlak
akss bkar
bkard
dsañ
sañplak
plakss mn cks
cks adcd
adcdel
elks
ks
rnsuctketns mn ck slnbhrk ne cds bnmlds mn auctlvd uskmds ne nc
slgulnetn vlmnd mn ck ^elvnrslmkm mn Qkckbkeak.
fttps0//www.ydutuhn.adb/wktaf4v29fiQ;VhZi[o

Xnaunrmn0 ;. Ynr nc vlmnd, lemlakr ck anpk snbhr

Xnaunrmn0 snbhrkmk
kmk ne akmk ued mn cds
Kgkr
gkrns nxpun
xpunst
stds
ds.. 8. Mnsa
Mnsarrlh
lhlr
lr ck
ckss akr
akrkat
katnr
nrâs
âsttlaks
laks mn ck anpk
anpk d
blarddrgkelsbd ne nc aukmrd rnspnatlvd y tdbkr ck idtdgrkiâk mnc vâmnd d
mlhu`kr cd qun vn. 1. Ql mnsnk kbpclkr su dhsnrvkalñe punmn husakr ne
cd
cdss slgu
slguln
lnet
etns
ns Ktck
Ktckss blar
blardh
dhld
ldcñ
cñgl
glad
adss ck anpk
anpk snbh
snbhrk rkmk
mk ne nc kgkr
kgkr
adrrnspdemlnetn.

Ktcks mlspdelhcns pkrk kbpclkr vlsukclzkalñe0

Ktcks mn Qdakcnbl0 fttp0//www.sdakcnbl.ns/lemnx.pfp/ktcks-mn-

blardhldcdglk (ne
blardhldcdglk  (ne nstn ktcks punmn rnvlskr cds blarddrgkelsbds pdr su
ackslilakalñe)
Ktcks mn blardhldcdgâk Declen0
fttps0//www.blardhldcdgyleplaturns.adb/ktcks%8:mn
%8:hkatnrldcdglk.ftbc (ne
%8:hkatnrldcdglk.ftbc  (ne nstn ktcks mnhn fkanr aclao sdhrn cks idtds mnc
neakhnzkmd mn ck pëglek pkrk vnr tdmds cds rnaursds, fkanr ck hðsqunmk
y kbpclkr ck vlsukclzkalñe).

]khck 9.
 Kgkr BkaAdeony snbhrkmd ade Nsafnrlaflk adcl.

Bnmld mn auctlvd Kgkr BkaAdeony anpk snbhrkmk0 Nsafnrlaflk

adcl  
Akrkatnrâstlaks Mnsarlpalñe mn ck Mlhu`d d idtdgrkiâk
bkardsañplaks anpk tdbkmk mnc vâmnd
]kbkûd Grkemn

;<
 

Idrbk Alrauckr

Qupnrilaln clsk

Adeslstnealk Hckemk

Kspnatd Hrlccketn

Adcdr Bkgnetk dsaurd

Lbëgnens tdbkmks mn Ktcks mn blardhldcdgâk Declen0

fttps0//www.blardhldcdgyleplaturns.adb/ktcks%8:mn%8:hkatnrldcdglk.ftbc .

]khck 7.
 Kgkr Eutrltlvd snbhrkmd ade Nsafnrlaflk adcl.

Bnmld mn aucvd Kgkr eutrlvd

8:
 

anpk snbhrkmk0 Nsafnrlaflk adcl  

Akrkatnrâsaks Mnsarlpalñe mn ck anpk Mlhu`d d dtdgrkk tdbkmk mnc
bkardsañplaks vâmnd
]kbkûd Bnmlked

Idrbk Zuedrbn

Qupnrialn clsk

Adeslstnealk Hckemk, buadlmn

Kspnatd Hrlccketn

Adcdr hnlgn
Lbëgnens tdbkmks mn Ktcks mn blardhldcdgâk Declen0
fttps0//www.blardhldcdgyleplaturns.adb/ktcks%8:mn%8:hkatnrldcdglk.ftbc .

]khck 6.
 Kgkr NBH snbhrkmd ade Nsafnrlaflk adcl.

8;
 

Bnmld mn aucvd Kgkr NBH anpk snbhrkmk0  Nsafnrlaflk adcl  

Akrkatnrâsaks Mnsarlpalñe mn ck anpk Mlhu`d d dtdgrkk tdbkmk mnc
bkardsañplaks vâmnd

]kbkûd Grkemn

Idrbk Alrauckr

Qupnrialn Clsk

Adeslstnealk Hckemk

88
 

Kspnatd snad

Adcdr Xd`d Dsaurd, fkcd vnrmdsd

Lbëgnens tdbkmks mn Ktcks mn blardhldcdgâk Declen0

fttps0//www.blardhldcdgyleplaturns.adb/ktcks%8:mn%8:hkatnrldcdglk.ftbc .

>. Xnvlsn nc slgulnetn slbuckmdr mn slnbhrk mn auctlvds

fttps0//adetnel8.nmuakrnx.ns/bkts/;=16:/adetnelmd/ 
fttps0//adetnel8.nmuakrnx.ns/bkts/;=16:/adetnelmd/  (Xnaunrmn
katlvkr kmdhn icksf).

Ilgurk 8. Qlbuckmdr mn auctlvds.

Dhsnrvn cks vkrlkhcns

blarddrgkelsbd ne ue enanskrlks pkrk prdmualr
bnmd mn auctlvd nc arnalblnetd
y añbd daurrn mn ue
nc arnalblnetd,
81
 

prnsnetn ck nvkcukalñe mnc slbuckmdr y tdbn pketkcckzd mn ck akclilakalñe

dhtnelmk.

Ilgurk 1. Qlbuckmdr mn auctlvds, rnspunstks.

Katlvlmkm prëatlak ; H. Qlnbhrk mn Blardhldtk edrbkc.

edrbkc .

Letrdmuaalñe

Nc ër
ërhd
hdcc il
ilcd
cdgn
gneì
eìtl
tlad
ad mn ck vl
vlmk
mk ad
ades
estk
tk mn trtrns
ns md
mdbl
blel
elds
ds00 Hkatnrlk,
 Krafknk y Nuokryk, slnemd ue mdbleld nc rkegd tkxdeñblad bës kctd mn
cdss dr
cd drgk
gkel
elsb
sbds
ds.. Bu
Buafafds
ds bl
blnb
nbhr
hrds
ds mn cdcdss md
mdss pr
prlb
lbnr
nrds
ds md
mdbl
blel
elds
ds
bnealdekmds vlvne uek vlmk slbhlñtlak mnetrd
m netrd mn edsdtrds.

8=
 

Ilgurk = Ërhdc ilcdgneìtlad mn ck vlmk

Iunetn0 Adestruaalñe prdplk nqulpd mn mdanetns (8:;7). Bdmlilakmd mn

Wdnsn, ;<<9.

Nc au
aunr
nrpd
pd fu
fubk
bkeded kc
kcd`
d`kk ad
adbubuel
elmk
mkmn
mnss bl
blar
ardh
dhlk
lkek
ekss ad
adbp
bpcn
cn`k
`kss au
auyk
yk
pdhckalñe supnrk k eunstrks prdplks aìcucks ne kc bneds ue ikatdr mn
;:.. Ad
;: Ade
e nc il
ile
e mn akakrk
rkat
atnnrl
rlzk
zkrr ck nanadc
dcd
dgâ
gâkk mn ckckss adb
dbue
uelmlmkm
kmnns
blardhlkeks ksdalkmks ade nc fdbhrn, cds Lestltutds Ekaldekcns mn Qkcum
ckezkrde ne 8::7 nc Zrdynatd Blardhldbk Fubked y ne nc 8:;8 sn
puhclakrde cds slgulnetns rnsuctkmds0 =.766 bunstrks kekclzkmks mn 11
fëhltkts,
ërnk
ërnkss pr
prletketd
leal
alpk
pkcninbneleds
cns
s mn
mncc au
aunr adbd
nrpd
pd (a bksaucleds,
(akvl
kvlmk
mkm
m dr kc yqun
drkc rnprnsnetkhke
drdi
drdikr
krle
legn
gn,, pl
plnc alead
nc,, id
idsk
skss
ekskcns, trkatd gkstrdletnstlekc y vkglek) mn 8=8 kmuctds skeds. Cks
adbu
ad buel
elmkm
mkmns
ns ne
nead
adet
etrk
rkmk
mkss ne ak
akmk
mk ue
ued
d mn cdcdss fë
fëhl
hltk
tkts
ts mn
mncc aun
aunrp
rpd
d
pdsnâke uek iunrtn nspnalkclzkalñe ne su sltld, tketd mnetrd mn nstn adbd
netrn lemlvlmuds. Ksâ blsbd, sn dhsnrvñ qun, mnetrd mn cds fëhltkts, ck
vkrlkhlclmkm letnrpnrsdekc ns kctk, blnetrks qun cds lemlvlmuds prnsnetke
uek vkrlkhlclmkm tnbpdrkc bâelbk.

Cds keëclsls mn ck mlvnrslmkm tkxdeñblak ksdalkmk ade ck blardhldtk

fubkek -adcnaalñe mn blarddrgkelsbds qun nstëe prnsnetns ne uek
adbuelmkm mn ue fëhltkt adrpdrkc mnilelmd- sn fke adevnrtlmd ne tnbk
mn grke
gr
adbp
ad ke
bpkr
krtl
tlmdlbpd
lb
s, pdrt
mds, rtke
ne keal
alk,
k, krkal
adbp
adbpkr yk qunad
kalñe
ñe nstu
ns
e tuml
ade mlkr
s krbn
cds
cd cds
cds s tk
bned
eds tkxd
xden
ens
prnv
pr s etns
nvkcn adbð
ad
kcnet bðeb
ns, ebne
, pn net
pnrb
rblttnn
ltn
8>
 

nstk
nstkhc
hcna
nanr
nr ue nc
ncnb
nbne
netd
td mn hk
hksn
sn pk
pkrk
rk ad
adbpk
bpkrk
rkrr pn
pnrs
rsde
deks
ks sk
skek
ekss d
neinrbks.

Ck bl
blarardh
dhld
ldcd
cdgâ
gâkk bì
bìml
mlak
ak bd
bdmn
mnre
rekk sn an
anet
etrñ
rñ ne bl
blar
ardd
ddrg
rgke
kels
lsbd
bdss
pktñgneds, adeslmnrkemd k ck blardhldtk edrbkc adbd uek pdhckalñe mn
blar
blardh
dhld
ldss vk
vkst
stkk y mn
mnsa
sade
deda
dalm
lmk.
k. Ql
Qle
e nb
nbhk
hkrg
rgd,
d, ns
nstk
tk vl
vlsl
slñe
ñe fk lmlmd
d
akbhlkemd, nc nstumld mn nstk fk nbnrglmd adbd ue lbpdrtketn ikatdr
ne ck ilsldcdgâk y ck neinrbnmkm ne fubkeds.

Cks rnckaldens netrn cds anrak mn ;:: trlccdens mn slbhldetns blardhlkeds

y nc aunrpd fubked eds fke ikalcltkmd ck nxtrkaalñe mn nenrgâk mn cds
kclb
kc lbne
netd
tds,
s, pr
prdp
dpdr
dral
alde
dekm
kmd d ik
ikat
atdr
drns
ns mn ar arna
nalb
lbln
lnet
etd,
d, prprdb
dbdvdvlm
lmd
d ck
mlinrnealkalñe y iuealñe mn ck buadsk, nstlbuckmd nc slstnbk lebuen y
prdp
pr dpdr
dral
alde
dekm
kmdd rnrnsl
slst
stne
neal
alkk k ck ad adcd
cdel
elzk
zkalalñe
ñe pdpdrr pkpktñ
tñgn
gnededs.
s. Ql ck
blardhldtk kinatk ck ilsldcdgâk fubkek, cds akbhlds mn su adbpdslalñe
punmne kctnrkr ck fdbndstkslk mnc fuìspnm y, pdr tketd, learnbnetkr nc
rlns
rlnsgd
gd k ne nein
inrb
rbkrkr.. Mn fn fnafd
afd,, ne ne nein
inrb
rbnmnmkm
kmnsns adadbd
bd nc ks ksbk
bk,, ck
dhnslmkm, ck vkgledsls hkatnrlkek y ck neinrbnmkm leickbktdrlk letnstlekc
sn fke nea neadet
detrkm
rkmdd adb
adbuel
uelmkm
mkmnsns bla
blardh
rdhlke
lkeks
ks kct
kctnrk
nrkmks
mks.. Cd ketketnrl
nrldr,
dr,
tkbhlìe suglnrn qun sn sl sn adedan ck adbpdslalñe mn ck blardhldtk
edrbkc, sn punmne gnenrkr letnrvnealdens pkrk su rnstkhcnalblnetd y,
pdrr cd tk
pd tket
etd
d, sn pun unmn
mn susupn
pnrk
rkrr ck slsltu
tuka
kalñ
lñe
e mn ne neininrrbn
bnmk
mkm.m.

Dh`ntlvd

◄ Nvlmne
Nvlm nealk
alkrr ck ml
mlvn
vnrs
rslm
lmkm
km mn blar
blardd
ddrg
rgke
kels
lsbd
bdss nxls
nxlstn
tnet
etns
ns ne cks
cks
mlinrnetns zdeks mnc aunrpd fubked ne nstkmd mn skcum.

Bktnrlkcns

Bktnrlkcns mn ck prëatlak mn ckhdrktdrld bnmlkmd

 
◄ Kaansd k letnrent
◄ Zrdtdadcd mn ckhdrktdrld
◄ Ynr vâmnd mn blardhldtk fubkek mn ck ^elvnrslmkm mn Qnvlcck
ne0 fttps0//www.ydutuhn.adb/wktaf4v2]YYiKNmp`7L

89
 

Aunstldekrld y rnsuctkmds

;. Adbpc
Adbpcntn
ntn ´quì gìenrds
gìenrds mn blarddr
blarddrgkelsb
gkelsbds
ds punmne neadetrkr
neadetrkrsn
sn ne
cks slgulnetns zdeks kektñblaks4

]khck <.
Gìenrds
Gìenrd s mn bla
blardd
rddrgk
rgkels
elsbds
bds nea
neadet
detrkm
rkmds
ds ne mlin
mlinrne
rnetns
tns pkr
pkrtns
tns mnc 
aunrpd.
Pdek Blarddrgkelsbds Bdridcdgâk y kilelmkm
tletdrlkc
Zlnc Qtkpfycdadaaus spp. Adad-Grkb pdsltlvd y
Hrnvlhkatnrlub spp., hkalcds Grkb pdsltlvds
Mnrbktdhkatnr spp.,
Zrdpldelhkatnrlub spp,
Adryenhkatnrlub xnrdsls
y Adryenhkatnrlub
bleutlsslbub_ AL]K]LDE
Keg;1 Sc <889 R.
Hdak Qtrnptdadaaus Adad-Grkb pdsltlvd,
bltls, Qtrnptdadaaus hkalcds Grkb pdsltlvds y
skclvkrlus, Grkeuclaktncck hkalcds grkb engktlvds.
kmlkanes, Enlssnrlk
ickvnsanes, Xdtflk
bualckgledsk y Zrnvdtncck
bnckeledgnelak,
Iusdhkatnrlub
euacnktub ne ck pckak
mnetkc?
pnrldmdetdpktñgneds
adbd Zdrpfyrdbdeks
gleglvkcls, ]keenrncck
idrsytflk, Zrnvdtncck
letnrbnmlk, ]rnpdenbk
mnetladck y Ilclikatdr 
kcdals_ AL]K]LDE
Qke;7 Sc <889 R
]rkatd Zsnumdbdeks, Adad-Grkb pdsltlvd y

87
 

rnsplrktdrld Qtrnptdadaaus, Zrnvdtncck hkalcds grkb engktlvds.

supnrldr y 
Fknbdpflcus_ AL]K]LDE

Nmu;7 Sc <889 R
]rkatd Nsafnrlaflk adcl, Ckatdhkalccus hkalcds grkb engktlvds.
gkstrdletnstlek sp , Hkatnrdlmns sp , Acdstrlmlk
c sp , Nuhkatnrlk
sp y Hlilmdhkatnrlk
sp_ AL]K]LDE Guk:1 Sc
<889 R.
]rkatd gneltkc Ckatdhkalccus arlspktus, C. hkalcds grkbpdsltlvds
 `nesnell y C. gkssnrl, keknrdhlds
Adryenhkatnrlub, knrdtdcnrketns, hkalcds
Gkrmenrncck, grkbpdsltlvds keknrdhlds
Qtkpfycdadaaus ikauctktlvds, Hkalcds y
(iuemkbnetkcbnetn Q. adads grkbpdsltlvds
nplmnrblmls), Nsafnrlaflk, keknrdhlds nstrlatds.
Ocnhslncck, Zrdtnus
 Ktdpdhlub, Znptdadaaus,
Znptdstrnptdadaaus,
Acdstrlmlub,
Hlilmdhkatnrlub,
Zrdpldelhkatnrlub,
Nuhkatnrlub_ AL]K]LDE
Xnh:6 Sc <889 R.

8. Xnpd
Xnpdrt
rtnn ne ck slgu
slguln
lnet
etnn tkhc
tkhck,
k, 1 blar
blardd
ddrg
rgke
kels
lsbd
bdss mlin
mlinrn
rnet
etns
ns net
netrn
rn
sâ, qun pnrtnenzake k eunstrk blardhldtk fubkek y qun fkyk clstkmd ne
ck tkhck ketnrldr. Nxpclqun ne quì bnmld mn auctlvd cds pdemrâk arnanr y
pdrquì.

]khck ;:.
Blarddrgkelsbds mnc aunrpd snbhrkmds ne kgkr eutrltlvd, BkaAdeony y 
Qkhurdum.

86
 

Bnmld mn auctlvd Edbhrn mnc

Blarddrgkelsbd Zdrqun nsadgn
nstn bnmld mn

Kgkr eutrltlvd Qtkpfycdadaaus kurnus.

auctlvd
Ns ue bnmld mn
nerlqunalblnetd
gnenrkc pkrk
drgkelsbds
knrdhlds, slnemd
Qtkpfycdadaaus ue
drgkelsbd mn iëalc
arnalblnetd y
auctlvd.
Kgkr BkaAdeony Zrdtnus sp. Nstk iñrbuck iun
mlsnûkmk skhlnemd
qun cks skcns
prnalpltke pdrhlclkrns
kaalñe
mn ëalmds y
mntnrblekmds
blarddrgkelsbds
netìrlads
inrbnetke ck
ckatdsk, blnetrks
qun dtrds ed
prnsnetke mlafk
akpkalmkm_ AL]K]LD
E Mla;= Sc <889 R.
Qlnemd Zrdtnusmn
ue drgkelsbd sp
nstks
akrkatnrâstlaks.
Kgkr Qkhdurkum Akemlmk sp. Nc klsckblnetd mn
fdegds mn bunstrks
hldcñglaks qun ed
adetlnene icdrk
hkatnrlkek ksdalkmk.
Cks bunstrks qun
prnsnetke
uek icdrk blxtk
(iðeglak y
hkatnrlkek)
8<
 

_ AL]K]LDE Hld;< Sc
<889 R

1. Xnglstrn
Xnglstrn cks rrninr
ninrnealks
nealks altkmk
altkmks,
s, uskemd
uskemd edrbk KZK
Hld
Hld-Xk
-Xkm. (8: 8:; ;<). QKHD HD^^XK
XK^^M KGKX. Dhtnelmd mn fttps0// 0//www
ww..hld-
rkm.adb/wnhrddt/wnh/pmi/lesnrts/AMG/ns/>9>8=T8:;<T:7TNQ.pmi 
Mlaolesde, H. (8::6). HHC Qlb Bnmlub.
mdl0fttps0//cngkay.hm.adb/nurdpn/rngucktdry/Kssnts/LI^/^Q/C::7>:1(:6)
(:=:6)TNQ.pmi 
Mlaolesde, H. (8:;=). HM BkaAdeony LL Kgkr.  Dhtnelmd mn
fttps0//www.hm.adb/rnsduran.kspx4LMV2677:
Gukrenrk, & Bkckgnckmkk. (8::1). Ck icdrk hkatnrlkek mnc trkatd mlgnstlvd.
Bkrtâek
Bkrt âek,, X., Qdh
Qdhnrñ
nrñek,
ek, E., Yëzqun
Yëzqunzk,
zk, I., & Quë
Quërnzk
rnzk,, N. (8:
(8::6)
:6).. Ck bla
blardh
rdhldt
ldtkk
vkglek
vkg lekc0
c0 adb
adbpds
pdslal
lalñe,
ñe, pkp
pkpnc
nc prd
prdtna
tnatdr
tdr,, pkt
pktdcd
dcdgâk
gâk ksd
ksdalkm
alkmkk y pnrs
pnrspna
pnatlv
tlvks
ks
tnrkpìutlaks. Nc snvlnr, Ydc. 89. Eðb. 1. 
Bdesñ, N. (8:;7). Nc blardhldbk rnsplrktdrld0 bës kcck mnc auctlvd. Hrdeadenubdelk
Ydc. >1. Eðb. <. 
Zktlûd, Ksda
K., &Adcdbh
Bdrkcns, K. (8:;1). Blardhldtk mn ck plnc0 nc nadslstnbk autëend. Xnv 
Mnrbktdc .
Mnrbktdc 
Qkhkcntn, ]. (8:;>). Iuem Iuemka
kalñe ld. Dh
lñe Dhtn
tnel
elmd
md mn QtkpQtkpfy
fycd
cdad
adaa
aaus
us kurn
kurnus
us00
fttp0//iuemkaldeld.drg/lbg/hkatnrldcdgy/adet/QtkpfycdadaausTkurnus.ftbc
Q`dstrdb, Q. B., Krlks, M., & Bkzñe, G. (8:;7). Blardhldtk mn cds nadslstnbks mn ck
akvlmkm huakc. Xnvlstk Auhkek mn Nstdbktdcdgâk.

Katlvlmkm prëatlak 8. Akrkatnrlzkalñe blardsañplak mn auctlvds

hkatnrlkeds0 Adcdrkalñe mn Grkb

Letrdmuaalñe

Mnetrd
Mnet rd mn ckckss tìae
tìaela
laks
ks mn ml
mlkg
kgeñ
eñst
stla
lad
d mlrn
mlrnat
atd
d ne nein
neinrb
rbnm
nmkm
kmns
ns
leinaaldsks sn nbpcnk irnaunetnbnetn nc nxkbne blardsañplad, ade nc
prdpñsltd mn dhsnrvkr cks akrkatnrâstlaks mn cds blarddrgkelsbds mn ck
bu
buns
nstr
trkk k mn
rnkclzkalñe ns
nstu
tuml
mlkr
uekkr.prnpkrkalñe
. Mlaf
Mlafd
d nxkb
nxkbne
neneirnsad
pu
punm
nmnnmnfkan
fk
ckanrs
rsnn k tr
bunstrk trkv
dkvìs
ìs punmn
sn mn ck

1:
 

rnkclzkr adcdrnkemd ck blsbk. Mnetrd mn cks adcdrkaldens bës nbpcnkmks

ne ck Blardhldcdgâk sn neaunetrk ck adcdrkalñe mn Grkb, ck aukc iun irutd
mn ck aurldslmkm mnc bìmlad Mkeìs Fkes Afrlstlke @dkaflb Grkb, ne
;66=, aukemd
ikccnalmd nstn nxkblekhk
pdr enubdeâk, tn`lmd pucbdekr
dhsnrvkemd dhtnelmdprnsnetns
dhtnelmd
qun cks hkatnrlks mn ue pkalnetn
ne ck
buns
bu nstr
trkk tdbk
tdbkhk
hkee ml
mlin
inrn
rnetn
etnss ad
adcd
cdrk
rkal
alde
dens
ns auke
aukemd
md sn cn
cnss adcd
adcdak
akhk
hkee
mlstletds adcdrketns.

Znrd ´pkrk quì fkanr adcdrkalñe4 Cds blarddrgkelsbds ed sdcd sde

levlslhcns pkrk nc d`d fubked, sled qun tkbhlìe sde snbltrkespkrnetns?
nstd fkan qun su vlsukclzkalñe k trkvìs mnc blardsadpld snk kðe bës
mliâalc
mliâalc.. Zdr cd ketnrl
ketnrldr,
dr, ck adcdrk
adcdrkalñ
alñe
e mn Grkb pnrbltn rnvnckr tkbkûd,
idrbk, kgrupkalñe y kilelmkm tletdrlkc (Ilgurk ;), akrkatnrâstlaks qun
fkane pdslhcn ck ackslilakalñe mn blarddrgkelsbds.

Il
Ilgu
gurk
rk > Akrk
Akrkat
atnr
nrâs
âstl
tlak
akss blar
blards
dsañ
añpl
plak
akss dh
dhsn
snrv
rvkh
khcn
cnss ne ck
adcdrkalñe mn Grkb.

Iunetn0 Adestruaalñe prdplk nqulpd mn mdanetns (8:;7)

Ade ck adcdrkalñe mn Grkb sn punmne nstkhcnanr mds grkemns grupds mn
hkat
hk atnr
nrlk
lks0
s0 Gr
Grkb
kb pdsl
pdsltltlvk
vkss y Gr Grkb
kb engk
engktl
tlvk
vks.
s. Cks
Cks hkat
hkatnr
nrlk
lkss Grkb
pdsltlvks sn dhsnrvkrëe bdrkmks, mnhlmd k qun rntlnene nc adbpcn`d
arlstkc vldcntk-cugdc, k pnskr mn ck nxpdslalñe k ck sdcualñe mn kcadfdc-
kantde
kan tdek?
k? blnetr
blnetrks
ks qun cks hkatnrl
hkatnrlksks Grkb
Grkb engktl
engktlvks
vks sn dhsnrv
dhsnrvkrk
krkee
rd`ks, mnhlmd k qun ed rntlnene nc adbpcn`d arlstkc vldcntk-cugdc y pdr cd
tketd mn`ke nc nspkald kc adcdrketn mn adetrkstn0 ck skirkelek. Nstk
ml
mlin
inrn
rnea
ealk
lk ne ck ki kile
lelm
lmkm
km tltlet
etdr
drlk
lkcc nstë
nstë mk
mkmk
mk pdr
pdr ck pk
pkrn
rnmm ancu
ancuck
ckrr
hkat
hkatnr
nrlke
lkek,
k, adbp
adbpun
unst
stkk mn pnpt
pnptlm
lmdg
dgclclak
aked
ed d burn
burnâek
âek,, qun
qun pkrk
pkrk cks
cks

1;
 

hkatnrlks Grkb pdsltlvks ns bës grunsk y idrbk bës netrnaruzkblnetds

qun ne cks hkatnrlks Grkb engktlvks.

Neinrb
ne
neinadeacuslñe,
rbnmnmkm
kmns
ns lenstk
lein
inaaadcdrkalñe
aald
ldsk
sks?
s? tìae ns
lakk uesnea
tìaela sngrke ck,,kpdrtn
ealclcck rë
rëplmkkc ynstumld
plmk qun mn
qun cks
kpdr
kpdrtk
tk
leidrbkalñe vkcldsk k ck fdrk mn kpdykr ue mlkgeñstlad, yk qun ed sñcd
pnrb
pn rblt
ltnn lm
lmne
netl
tlila
ilakr
kr nc blar
blardd
ddrg
rgke
kels
lsbd
bd sled
sled qun qun nstk
nstk punm
punmnn sugn
sugnrl
rlrr
ketlblardhlkeds ninatlvds pkrk trktkr nc blsbd.

Dh`ntlvds

◄ Adedanr ck adcdrkalñe mn Grkb ne cks bunstrks k nstumlkr.

◄ Ac
Acksl
kslil
ilakr
akr ck
ckss hkat
hkatnr
nrlks
lks pdr
pdr su ki
kile
lelmk
lmkm
m tlet
tletdr
drlkc
lkc,, su bd
bdri
ridc
dcdg
dgâk
âk y
kgrupkalñe.

Bktnrlkcns
Bktnrlkcns mn ck prëatlak mn ckhdrktdrld bnmlkmd
 
◄ Kaansd k letnrent
◄ Zrdtdadcd mn ckhdrktdrld
◄ Fd`ks hckeaks y adcdrns, d usd mn Wdrm ade fnrrkblnetks pkrk
grëilads ade adcdrns.
◄ Ynr vâmnd mn adcdrkalñe mn Grkb mn ck ^elvnrslmkm mn Ekvkrrk
ne0 fttps0//www.ydutuhn.adb/wktaf4v2eqzMzuwDvVd
◄ Xnvlsn ck ackslilakalñe mn cks hkatnrlks ade tlealñe mn Grkb ne nc
slbuckmdr mn tlealñe mn hkatnrlks ne
fttp0//gcneadn.bfnmuaktlde.adb/sltns/mc/irnn/::766:86=</161
<=;/HCT:9.ftbc (Xnaunrmn
<=;/HCT:9.ftbc  (Xnaunrmn fkhlcltkr ne su adbputkmdrk kmdhn
icksf pkrk vlsukclzkr nc slbuckmdr)

Aunstldekrld y rnsuctkmds

;. Mnsar
Mnsarlhk
lhk nc pksd k pksd mn ck rnkclzkalñ
rnkclzkalñe
e mn uek tlealñe
tlealñe mn Grkb
Grkb,, pdr
bnmld mn ue nsqunbk grëilad (d icu`dgrkbk) qun leacuyk mlhu`ds y
adcdrns kadrmn ade mlafd prdanmlblnetd. Zunmn rnkclzkrcd k bked d ne
Wdrm.

Ilgurk 9. Mlkgrkbk mn ]lealñe Grkb.

18
 

8. Qlgk cds pk
pksds
sds mnc slbuckmdr
slbuckmdr (;.
(;. Cnk nc clhrd, 8. Krrkstrn
Krrkstrn nc gd
gdtnrd
tnrd mn
ck tlealñe mn Grkb k akmk cëblek. 1. Zdegk akmk cëblek ne nc
blardsadpld. =. Ylsukclan ne ck pketkcck nc blarddrgkelsbd) Ade akmk
cëblek tdbn pketkcckzd mn cd qun vlsukclzk
vlsukcl zk y rnglstrn cds rnsuctkmds
mn cks 1 bunstrks ne ck ]khck mn mktds qun mnhn mlclgnealkr (Mktk
]khcn). Zkrk ilekclzkr nc n`nralald, tdbn pketkcckzd mn su tkhck mn
mktds ade cds rnsuctkmds mn cks 1 cëbleks.
11
 

Ilgurk 7. Qlbuckmdr tlealñe Grkb.

=
 

1
 

Iunetn0 Idtdgrkiâk tdbkmk mnc Qlbuckmdr Ylrtukc ckh. (8:8:).

Ilgurk 6. Qlbuckmdr tlealñe Grkb Nsafnrlaflk adcl .

1=
 

Iunetn0 Idtdgrkiâk tdbkmk mnc Qlbuckmdr Ylrtukc ckh. (8:8:).

Ilgurk <. Qlbuckmdr tlealñe Grkb Ylhrld afdcnrkn.

1>
 

Iunetn0 Idtdgrkiâk tdbkmk mnc Qlbuckmdr Ylrtukc ckh. (8:8:).

Ilgurk ;:. Qlbuckmdr tlealñe Grkb Qkralek sp.

19
 

Iunetn0 Idtdgrkiâk tdbkmk mnc Qlbuckmdr Ylrtukc ckh. (8:8:).

]khck ;;.
Blarddrgkelsbds neadetrkmds ne nc slbuckmdr.

1. Nxpclq
Nxpclqun
aukemdunsn´Zdr
´Zdr
cns quì cks ck
kgrngk hkatnr
hkatnrlks
lks Grkb
sdcualñe  pdsltlvks ed sn mnadcdrke
mn kcadfdc-kantdek4
17
 

Zdrqun tlnene uek grke akpk mn pnptlmdgclaked qun lbpdslhlcltk ck pnrmlmk mn

adcdr qun qunmk il`kmk, grkalks kc bdrmlnetn d Cugdc qun arnk uek akpk
lbpnrbnkhlclzkmdrk ne ck bnbhrk qun nvltk ck skclmk mnc adcdrketn, qun
qunmk il`kmd ne nc pnptlmdgclaked, k mlinrnealk mn cks engktlvks qun tlnene
pdad pnptlmdgclaked ne ck bnbhrkek sl sn mnadcdrke ade nc kcadfdc qun cns
mnsflmrktk ck bnbhrkek.

=. Qngðe nc vl
vlmnd
mnd mn
mn ck adcdrkalñe
adcdrkalñe mn Grkb, mlclgnealn ck slgulnetn tkhck.

]khck ;8.
]lealñe Grkb.
Akrkatnrâstlaks Grkb pdsltlvks Grkb engktlvks
blardsañplaks
Bdridcdgâk Adads Hkalcds
Kilelmkm tletdrlkc Arlstkc vldcntk Qkirkelek
Kgrupkalñe Mlpcdadads Hkalcds
Mlhu`d d idtdgrkiâk mn
cks hkatnrlks y nc adcdr
qun tdbke ade ck
tlealñe mn Grkb
ilekclzkmk

Iunetn0 _ AL]K]LDE ^el;; Sc <889 R.

>. Xnglstrn
Xnglstrn cks rrninr
ninrnealks
nealks altkmk
altkmks,
s, uskemd
uskemd edrbk KZK
Qlbuckmdr mn ealñe mn hkatnrlks (8:8:) tdbkmd mn 0
fp0//gcneadn.bfnmuakde.adb/sltns/mc/rnn/::766:86=</161<=;/HCT:9.ftbc

^elvnrslmkm mn Ekvkrrk. (7 mn bkrzd mn 8:;;). Mnbdstrkalñe mn uek

tlea
tlealñ
lñe
e mn Gr
Grkb
kb pd
pdrr ue md
mdat
atdr
drke
kemd
md mn ck ^e
^elv
lvnr
nrsl
slmk
mkm
m mn
Ekvkrrk.bpg. Dhtnelmd mn \du]uhn0
fttps0//www.ydutuhn.adb/wktaf4v2eqzMzuwDvVd

16
 

Katlvlmkm prëatlak 1. Zrunhk mn susanptlhlclmkm k

ketlblardhlkeds0 mliuslñe ne mlsad.
 

Letrdmuaalñe

Cds ketl
Cds ketlbl
blar
ardh
dhlk
lked
edss sde
sde adadbp
bpununst
stds
ds qun
qun fnbd
fnbdss nbpc
nbpcnk
nkmd
md pk
pkrkrk
adbhktlr cds blarddrgkelsbds akusketns mn leinaaldens. Netrn nstds sn
neaune
nea unetrk
trkee cds ketlpr
ketlprdtd
dtdzdkr
zdkrlds
lds,, cds ketlvlr
ketlvlrkcn
kcns,
s, cds ketlbl
ketlblañt
añtlad
ladss d
ketlið
ketliðegl
eglads
ads y cds ketlhk
ketlhkatn
atnrlk
rlkeds
eds.. Znrd
Znrd ne nstn
nstn pnrpnt
pnrpntud
ud adb
adbhkt
hktn,
n,
kcgueds blarddrgkelsbds fke mnskrrdcckmd kmkptkaldens qun cds fkane
rnsl
rnslst
stne
netn
tnss k ck ka
kaal
alñe
ñe mn nstd
nstdss adbp
adbpununst
stds
ds,, blne
blnetr
trks
ks qun
qun dtdtrd
rdss
pnrbkenane slnemd sneslhcns, nstk bkelinstkalñe mntnrblekrë nc ninatd
tnrkpìutlad mn ue ketlblardhlked.

Cks prun
Cks prunhkhkss mn susasusanp
nptl
tlhl
hlclclmk
mkm
m k ketl
ketlvl
vlrk
rkcn
cns,
s, ke
ketl
tlpr
prdt
dtdz
dzdk
dkrl
rlds
ds y
ketl
ke tlfn
fncb
cblet
letds
ds sdsdee adbp
adbpcn
cn`k
`ks,
s, ad adst
stds
dsks
ks y ed sunc
suncne
ne rn
rnkc
kclzk
lzkrs
rsnn ne nc
ckhd
ckhdrk
rktd
tdrl
rld
d acacâe
âela
lad?
d? blne
blnetr
trks
ks qu qunn cks pr
prun
unhkhkss mn susan
susanptptlh
lhlcl
lclmkm
mkm k
ketlhkatnrlkeds ‑mnedblekmks tkbhlìe ketlhldgrkbks- sde cks bn`drns
nstkemkrlzkmks y cks bës nbpcnkmks. Zdr su pkrtn, cks prunhks qun sn
fkane pkrk ketlblañtlads kðe nstëe ne nstkemkrlzkalñe.

K pnskr mn cd nxpunstd, cks prunhks mn susanptlhlclmkm k ketlblardhlkeds

tlne
tlnene
ne pd
pdrr dh
dh`n
`ntl
tlvd
vd tr
trkt
ktkr
kr mn pr
prnm
nmna
nalr
lr nc ni
nina
natd
td tn
tnrk
rkpì
pìut
utlad
lad mn ue
ketlblardhlked y kuequn fke slmd rnkclzkmks tketd le-vltrd adbd le-vlvd,
ne cds ckhdrktdrlds acâelads sn ccnvk k akhd ck prlbnrk bdmkclmkm, hk`d
rnadbnemkaldens nbltlmks pdr netlmkmns letnrekaldekcns d ekaldekcns.
Qle nbhkrgd, nstks prunhks le-vltrd sñcd adetnbpcke nc ketlblardhlked y
nc blarddrgkelsbd, bks ed cks vkrlkhcns ne snr fubked (n`. letnrkaalñe
ade prdtnâeks, vkrlkalñe mn adeanetrkalñe ade nc tlnbpd, mlstrlhualñe mnc
ketlblardhlked ne cds tn`lmds), qun ns ne mñemn sn mk ck neinrbnmkm
leinaaldsk.

1<
 

Ck su
susa
sanp
nptl
tlhl
hlclclmk
mkm
m k cd cdss ketl
ketlhk
hkat
atnr
nrlk
lked
edss nstk
nstk ak
aktn
tngd
gdrl
rlzkm
zkmkk ne trtrns
ns
grupds0
grupds0 sneslhcn,
sneslhcn, letnrbnmld
letnrbnmld,, rnslstnetn.
rnslstnetn. ^ek hkatnrlk
hkatnrlk ns sneslhcn
sneslhcn sl
nstk nsk leflhlmk
ksdalk uek kctk pdr uek adeanetrkalñe
prdhkhlclmkm mn ue ketlblardhlked
mn ìxltd tnrkpìutlad. Zdr dtrd ckmd, qunuek
sn
hkat
hk atnr
nrlk
lk ns rnsl
rnslst
stne
netn
tn sl ns lelefl
flhl
hlmk
mk pd
pdrr uek
uek adea
adeane netr
trka
kalñ
lñe
e mn ue
ketl
ke tlbl
blar
ardh
dhlk
lked
ed qu
qunn sn ksksda
dalk
lk k uek
uek kctk
kctk pr
prdh
dhkh
khlclclm
lmkm
km mn ir irka
kaks
ksd
d
tnrkpìutlad. Blnetrks qun, ne ck aktngdrâk mn susanptlhlclmkm letnrbnmlk,
sn neaunetrk ck hkatnrlk qun ns leflhlmk le vltrd pdr uek adeanetrkalñe
mn ue ketlblardhlked qun sn ksdalk k ue ninatd tnrkpìutlad lealnrtd.

Nxlstne mlvnrsds bìtdmds pkrk nvkcukr ck susanptlhlclmkm k

ketlhkatnrlkeds, pnrd mnetrd mn cds bës uskmds sn neaunetrk nc bìtdmd
mn Olrhy-Hkunr  d
  d mliuslñe ne mlsad. Nstn adeslstn ne qun sn slnbhrk nc
blarddrgkelsbd ne nstumld, mn bkenrk bkslvk, ne ue kgkr
nstkemkrlzkmd
ad
adee uek
uek adadeaynetr
eane pdstnrldrbnetn
trka
kalñ
lñe
e mkmk
mkmk mn sn adcdake
ke
ketl
tlhka mlsads
hkatn
tnrl
rlked,mnqun
ked, qupkpnc
adlbprngekmds
n adrrrrns
nspd
pdem
emnn k
el
elvn
vncn
cnss qun
qun pu
punmnmne
ne dhdhtn
tnen
enrs
rsnn sl nc keketl
tlbl
blar
ardh
dhlk
lked
ed sn kmblkmblel
elst
strk
rk
slstìblakbnetn. K bnmlmk qun cds ketlhkatnrlkeds sn mliuemne ne nc
bnmld vke bktkemd nc blarddrgkelsbd ne nstumld-sl nstn ns sneslhcn-, y
mn nstk
nstk bkbken
enrk
rk sn vke vke gne
gnenrnrke
kemd
md uek
ueks zdek
zdekss sle
sle arn
arnalb
albln
lnet
etd
d
blar
bl ard
dhl
hlke
ked
d, auyd
auyd ml mlëb
ëbnntr
trd
d sn ad adrr
rrns
nspd
pdem
emnn ade ck akt aktng
ngd
drâk
râk mn
susanptlhlclmkm mnc blarddrgkelsbd.

Dh`ntlvds

Adedanr ck prunhk mn mntnrblekmds.

pkrk blarddrgkelsbds susanptlhlclmkm k ketlhkatnrlkeds pdr mliuslñe
◄ Letn
Letnrp
rprn
rntk
tkrr ck zdek
zdek mn lelefl
flhl
hlal
alñe
ñe pk
pkrk
rk cds
cds blar
blardd
ddrg
rgke
kels
lsbd
bdss ne
nstumld.

Bktnrlkcns

Bktnrlkcns mn ck prëatlak mn ckhdrktdrld slbuckmd

◄ Kaansd k letnrent
◄ Zrdtdadcd mn ckhdrktdrld
◄ Ynr vâmnd Hkatnrlks, Ketlhlñtlads y Xnslstnealk mn Bnmclenpcus

 ne0 fttps0//www.ydutuhn.adb/wktaf4v2DMgmLYu;xka

=:
 

Aunstldekrld y rnsuctkmds

;. kLegr
Leegrns
tlhnsn
lñntladks Nm
Nmua
uakp
kckpck
d`kcky,
my,
d y nrnkc
rn
e0kcla
lann fttps0//ns.nmuakpcky.adb/rnaursds-
nc arua
arualg
lgrk
rkbk
bk Xnsl
Xnslst
stne
neal
alkk k cds
cds
nmuaktlvds/=<<8=>=-rnslstnealkTkTketlhldtlads.ftbc  
nmuaktlvds/=<<8=>=-rnslstnealkTkTketlhldtlads.ftbc mn nstn
arualgrkbk, tdbn akpturk mn pketkcck aukemd cd fkyk adbpcntkmd.

Ilgurk ;;. Arualgrkbk rnslstnealk ketlhlñtlads.

8. Levn
Levnst
stlg
lgun
un y mnil
mnilek
ek cd
cdss sl
slgu
guln
lnet
etns
ns adea
adeanp
nptd
tds0
s0 Hntk
Hntkck
ckat
atëb
ëbla
lads
ds,,
Xnslstnealk blardhlkek, Ketlhlñtlads, kbpcld nspnatrd.

 Hntkckatëblads0 Ad
Hntkckatëblads0 Ades
estl
tltu
tuyn
yne
e ck ik ikbl
blclclkk bës eubnr ubnrdsdskk mn
ketlblardhlkeds y ck bës utlclzkmk ne ck prëatlak acâelak. Qn trktk
mn ketl
ketlhl
hlñ
ñtl
tlad
adss mn kaal
kaalñeñe hk
hkat
atnnrlal
rlalmk
mk cn cnet
etk,
k, ade
ade kakatl
tlvl
vlmk
mkm
m
mnpnemlnetn mnc tlnbpd, qun ne gnenrkc tlnene hunek mlstrlhualñe
y nsaksk tdxlalmkm (Quërnz, A. & Gumldc, I., 8::<)
 Xnslstnealk
Xnsls tnealk blardhlk
blardhlkek0
ek0 Ck rnslstnealk blardhlkek sn prdmuan
aukem
aukemdd cd
cdss blar
blardd
ddrg
rgke
kels
lsbd
bds,
s, snke
snke hkat
hkatnr nrlks
lks,, vlrus
vlrus,, fdeg
fdegdsds d
pkrësl
pkrësltd
tds,
s, su
suir
irne
ne ak
akbh
bhld
ldss qun
qun fkan
fkane
e qun
qun cds
cds bnml
bnmlak
akbn
bnet
etds
ds

=;
 

utlclzkmds pkrk aurkr cks leinaaldens akuskmks pdr nccds mn`ne mn

snr nilakans (Ykcmìs, Q., 8:;7)
  Ketl
Ke tlhl
hlñt
ñtla
lads
ds00 Ns uek
uek sustke
sustkealk
alk quâbla
quâblakk pr
prdm
dmua
ualm
lmkk pdr
pdr ue snr
vlvd
vlvd d
sust
su  d
stke
kealmnrlvkmd
alks
ks ad e sletìtlad,
ade ml
mlin
inrn etnn adestltuyne
rnet ad
adbpd
bpdrtrtkb
kblnue
lnetgrupd
etd
d ikikrbfntnrdgìend
rbka
kada
dale
leìt
ìtlad mny
lad
ikrbka
ikrbkadmle
dmleëbl
ëblad,
ad, n`nran
n`nrane e uek kaalñe
kaalñe nsp nspnaâ
naâila
ilakk sdhrn
sdhrn kcguek
kcguek
nstruaturk d iuealñe mnc blarddrgkelsbd, tlnene ncnvkmk pdtnealk
hldcñ
hld cñgl
glak
ak katu
katukekemd
md k hk`k hk`kss adea
adeane
netrtrka
kald
lden
enss y ck td tdxl
xlal
almk
mkmm ns
sncnatlvk, ade uek bâelbk tdxlalmkm pkrk cks aìcucks mn eunstrd
drgkelsbd (Qnl`k, Y., & Ylgedcl, X., 8::9).
 Kbpcld nspnatrd0 Nc kbpcld nspnatrd sn rnilnrn k ck aketlmkm mn
blar
bl ardd
ddrg
rgke
kels
lsbd
bdss qu
qunn sd sdee snes
sneslh
lhcn
cnss d ed k ck kaal kaalñe
ñe mn ue
ketl
ke tlhlñ
hlñtl
tlad
ad.. Nstd
Nstd quln
qulnrn rn mnal
mnalrr qun,
qun, cds cds ketl
ketlhl
hlñt
ñtla
lads
ds mn kbpc
kbpcld
ld
nspn
nspnatatrd
rd sdsdee kqunc
kqunccdcdss qun
qun katð
katðke
ke adet
adetrk rk uek
uek kbpc
kbpclklk gkbk
gkbk mn
blarddrgkelsbds (Bkgulûk-Ykrgks, A., 8::9).

1. Dhsnr
Dhsnrvn
vn cks slgulnetns
slgulnetns idtdgrkiâks
idtdgrkiâks y rnglstrn
rnglstrn nc rnsuctkmd
rnsuctkmd dhtnelmd
dhtnelmd y
su letnrprntkalñe ne nc slgulnetn aukmrd, rnaunrmn qun ck eubnrkalñe
mn cds sneslmlsads ns lgukc ne tdmks cks
c ks idtdgrkiâks.
]khck ;1.
Letnrprntkalñe sneslmlsads.
Xnsuctkmd n Letnrprntkalñe
Letnrprntkalñe
Xnsuctkmd (Qneslhcn d (Mnsarlhk pdrqun ns
Idtdgrkiâk Xnslstnetn k akmk sneslhcn d rnslstnetn
ketlhlñtlad) sngðe cd qun punmn
dhsnrvkr)
;. Xnslstnetn Ne nstk idtdgrkiâk sn
8. Qneslhcn punmn dhsnrvkr qun ck
1. Xnslstnealk hkatnrlk ns sneslhcn kc
=. Xnslstnealk ketlhlñtlad 8 punstd qun
su fkcd mn leflhlalñe ns
mn kprdxlbkmkbnetn
;9 bb. Zdr nc
adetrkrld, cds
ketlhlñtlads ;,1 y = ed
prdmuane uek rnkaalñe
adeslmnrkhcn
hkatnrlk. ketn nstk
Qle nbhkrgd,
=8
 

nc ketlhlñtlad ; prnsnetk
ue pnqunûd fkcd qun
pdmrâk bnmlr bës mn ;;
bbadbd
ackslilaëemdsn,
letnrbnmld ksâ 
(Aketñe, X., 8:;:).
Ne nstk idtdgrkiâk nc
ðelad ketlhlñtlad qun
prdmuan leflhlalñe ne ck
hkatnrlk ledauckmk ns nc
;, mnhlmd k ck prnsnealk
mn ue grke fkcd qun eds
lemlak ck bunrtn mn
nstds blarddrgkelsbds
anrakeds kc mlsad. Nc
ketlhlñtlad
bunstrke 8y1
uek bkrakmk
;. Qneslhcn
rnslstnealk yk qun ed sn
8. Xnslstnetn
punmn dhsnrvkr ue fkcd
1. Xnslstnetn slgelilaktlvd y kuequn nc
=. Xnslstnetn
= bunstrk mn lgukc
=.
bkenrk uek bkrakmk
rnslstnealk, sn punmn
dhsnrvkr ck prnsnealk
mn ue pnqunûd fkcd cd
qun pdmrâk lemlakr qun k
bkydrns
adeanetrkaldens
ketlhlñtlad qulzësmnnstk
nstn
hkatnrlk punmk snr
sneslhcn (Krnek, I. nt
kc. 8:;>).
;. Xnslstnetn Qn punmn dhsnrvkr qun
8. Qneslhcn nc ketlhlñtlad ;, kuequn
1. Xnslstnetn sn ackslilak adbd
=. Xnslstnetn rnslstnetn kðe pdsnn ue
pnqunûd fkcd mn
leflhlalñe bdstrëemdeds
qun ck hkatnrlk punmn
snr sneslhcn k ueks
adeanetrkaldens bës
=1
 

kctks mn nstn d k
bnmlmk qun fk pkskmd
nc tlnbpd fk lmd
mnskrrdcckemd
rnslstnealk y nsnstk
akmk
vnz bës iunrtn. Adbd
sn altñ lelalkcbnetn ue
fkcd bkydr k ;9 bb
eds mk k netnemnr qun
ck hkatnrlk ns sneslhcn,
ksâ adbd eds bunstrk nc
ketlhlñtlad 8 kc
mnskrrdcckr ue fkcd ade
uek bnmlmk
adeslmnrkhcn.
Ilekcbnetn,
ketlhlñtlad 1 ync=
prnsnetke buy pdad
ninatd sdhrn ck hkatnrlk
ledauckmk yk qun ed
nxlstn elegðe tlpd mn
fkcd (Aketñe, X.,
8:;:).
;. Qneslhcn Ne nstk idtdgrkiâk sn
8. Xnslstnetn punmn dhsnrvkr adbd ck
1. Qneslhcn hkatnrlk ns sneslhcn k
=. Qneslhcn cds ketlhlñtlads ;,1 y =
mnhlmd
ue fkcdkmnqun prnsnetke
leflhlalñe mn
;9 bb d bës,
mëemdeds k netnemnr
qun nstn lbplmn nc
arnalblnetd mn nstk
kcrnmnmdr mn ìc.
]kbhlìe sn punmn vnr
adbd nc ketlhlñtlad 8 ed
ns tke ninatlvd irnetn k
ck hkatnrlk, pnrd
mnskrrdcck ue fkcd qun
ed ns mnbkslkmd
grkemn pkrk qun ck
==
 

hkatnrlk snk sneslhcn

pnrd tkbpdad
mnbkslkmd pnqunûd
pkrk qun rnslstnetn,
tdtkcbnetn nstk snk
cd qun cd uhlakrâk ne
uek pdslalñe letnrbnmld
yk qun su alraueinrnealk
blmn bneds mn ;9 bb
pnrd bës mn ;; (Krnek,
I. nt kc. 8:;>).
Iunetn idtdg
Iunetn idtdgrkiâks0
rkiâks0 I. Hnekok
Hnekoksfkel
sfkel nt kc., (8:;9). Hldsyetfns
Hldsyetfnsls
ls di slcvnr ekedp
ekedpkrtlac
krtlacns
ns
usle
usleg
g Akp
Akppk
pkrls
rls sple
spleds
dskk C. cn
cnki
ki nx
nxtr
trkat
kat ke
kem
m tfnl
tfnlrr ke
ketl
tlhka
hkatn
tnrlk
rlkcc katl
katlvl
vlty
ty,, Ok
Okrh
rhkck
kck
Letnrektldekc. @durekc di Bdmnre Qalnean
fttp0//mx.mdl.drg/;:.;:;9/`.ol`dbs.8:;9.:6.::=

=. ^stn
^stnm
m tlnen qun sncnaaldek
sncnaaldekrr = ketlhkatnrlke
ketlhkatnrlkeds
ds pkrk fkanr ck prunhk
prunhk mn
susanptlhlclmkm k ketlblardhlkeds mn uek anpk mn Q. kurnus ( Lemlqun
Lemlqun
sus edbhrns ). Ne ck slgulnetn tkhck bnealden 1 kspnatds qun tnemrâk
ne aunetk pkrk fkanr nstk sncnaalñe, nxpcâquncds hrnvnbnetn y ade
sus pkckhrks.

 Ykeadblalek
 Gnetkblalek
 Dxkalclek
 Aclemkblalek

]khck ;=.pkrk tnenr ne aunetk pkrk ketlblardhlkeds.

 Kspnatds

Kspnatds Nxpclakalñe
Qn husak qun ue ketlhlñtlad ktkqun ck pkrnm
ancuckr mn uek hkatnrlk pkrk mnstrulr
Leflhlalñe mn ck tdtkcbnetn su adbpdslalñe, kc rnkclzkr nc
sâetnsls mn ck pkrnm ketlhldgrkbk sn pdmrâk vnr sl nsk hkatnrlk ns
ancuckr susanptlhcn k nstk acksn mn bnmlakbnetds.
Mnhlmd k nstd, sn nsadglñ ck vkeadblalek y ck
gnetkblalek pkrk ck prunhk mn susanptlhlclmkm.

Kbpcld nspnatrd Adbd hlne

mnskrrdcckmd grkesnrnslstnealk
skhn nc Q.kKurnus
buafdsfkmn cds

=>
 

ketlhlñtlads adbnralkclzkmds ne cds ðctlbds

kûds. Zdr tkc rkzñe, snrë utlclzkmk ck
Aclemkblalek ck aukc ns ue ketlhlñtlad
mn kbpcldgrkbpdsltlvds
knrdhlds nspnatrd ade ykatlvlmkm adetrk
uek nxtnesk cds
gkbk
mn hkatnrlks keknrdhlks, netrn nccks cds
pktñgneds prdmuatdrns mn hntkckatkbksk
adbd cd ns nc Q. Kurnus.
Zkrk rnkclzkr prunhks sn susanptlhlclmkm sn
husak utlclzkr ketlhlñtlads nspnaâilads pkrk nc
tlpd mn hkatnrlk k trktkr, pdr nstd, sn nsadglñ
ck Dxkalclek ue ketlhlñtlad hntkckatëblad, mn
nspnatrd rnmualmd mnc grupd mn cks pnelalcleks,
Nspnalilalmkm
pdr cd qun sn lemlak ne nc trktkblnetd mn
leinaaldens akuskmks pdr hkatnrlks Grkb
pdsltlvks, nequn
nstkilcdadads pkrtlauckr
suncne cks
snr nspnalns mn k
rnslstnetns
dtrks pnelalcleks adbd nc Q. Kurnus.

>. Xnglstrn
Xnglstrn cks rrninr
ninrnealks
nealks altkmk
altkmks,
s, uskemd
uskemd edrbk KZK
Krnek, I., Ylkggl, H., Gkccl, C., & Xdssdclel, G. B. (8:;>). Ketlhldtla
susa
su sannptlh
ptlhlclclt
ltyy tnst
tnstle
leg0
g0 pr prnnsne
snet kem
kem iuiutturn
urn. ]f
]fn
n Zn
Znml
mlkt
ktrl
rla 
a 
leinatldus mlsnksn `durekc , 1=(;:), ;;86-;;1:.
Aket
Aketñe
ñe,, X. (8(8:;
:;:)
:).. Cnat
Cnatur
urkk le
letn
tnrp
rprn
rntk
tkmk
mk mnc
mnc ketl
ketlhl
hldg
dgrk
rkbk0
bk0 ue uekk
enansl
ena nslmkm
mkm acâelak
acâelak.. Nei
Neinrb
nrbnmk
nmkmns
mns Lei
Leinaa
naalds
ldsks
ks y blablardh
rdhldc
ldcdgâ
dgâk
k
acâelak, 86(9), 17>-16>.
Bkgu
Bkgulû
lûk-
k-Yk
Ykrg
rgks
ks,, A.
A.,, ^g
^gkr
krtn
tn-G
-Glc,
lc, A. K.
K.,, & Bdet
Bdetln
lnc,
c, B. (8::
(8::9)
9).. ^sd
^sd
kmnaukmd y rkaldekc mn cds ketlhlñtlads. Katk Bìmlak
Znrukek, 81(;), ;>-8:.
Qnl`k, Y., & Ylgedcl, X. (8::9). Zrlealpkcns grupds mn
ketlhlñtlads. ]nbks mn hkatnrldcdgâk y vlrdcdgâk bìmlak , 8, 91;-
911.
Qnrrk Ykcmìs, Blgunc Ëegnc. (8:;7). Ck rnslstnealk blardhlkek ne nc
adetnxtd katukc y ck lbpdrtkealk mnc adedalblnetd y kpclakalñe ne
ck pdcâ
pdcâtl
tlak
ak ke
ketl
tlbl
blar
ardh
dhlk
lkek
ek.. Xnvlst
vlstk
k Fk
Fkhk
hken
enrk
rk mn Aln Alnea
ealk
lks
s
Bìmlaks, ;9(1), =:8-=;<.

=9
 

Quërnz, A., & Gumldc, I. (8::<). Ketlhlñtlads

hntkckatëblads. NeNein
inrb
rbnm
nmkm
kmns
ns le
lein
inaa
aald
ldsk
sks
s y bl
blar
ardh
dhld
ldcd
cdgâ
gâk
k
acâelak, 87 (8),
(8), ;;9-;8<.

=7
 

Katlvlmkm prëatlak =. Akrkatnrlzkalñe bkardsañplak y

blardsañplak mn fdegds.

Letrdmuaalñe

Cds fd
Cds fdeg
egdsds sde
sde drdrgk
gkel
elsb
sbds
ds adei
adeidr
drbk
bkmd
mdss pdr
pdr aìcu
aìcuck
ckss nuakr
nuakrld
ldtk
tkss y
kgru
kgrupk
pkmd
mdss mnet
mnetrd
rd mnc
mnc mdbl
mdblel
eld
d Nuokryk, sln
slnemd
emd mlin
mlinrrnetn
netnss mn cdscds
prdtdzdds, cds kelbkcns y cks pcketks. Mn nstds sn fke lmnetlilakmd
kprdxlbkmkbnetn 8::.::: nspnalns, y sñcd ;:: gnenrke leinaalñe ne nc
fubked
fub ked.. Cks leinaa
leinaalde
ldens
ns aku
akuskmk
skmkss pdr nstds
nstds fde
fdegds
gds sn mnemnedbl
dbleke
eke
bladsls, ns ck bladcdgâk bìmlak qulne sn neakrgk mn nstumlkrcks y k cds
fdegds rkâz mn ck akmnek akuskc.

Nstds drgkelsbds ed fkane idtdsâetnsls, sde fntnrñtrdids, skprdiltds y

punm
pu
nenmne
netd
tdreneds ccccng
reds ngkr
krs kad
tkcn
tkcns snr
snr ck
adbd
bd pkrësl
pkr
s ësltd
cks butds.
buads.sksKmlal
adsks Kmmn
lalde
dekc
kcbn
bk bnet
bkbâ etn,
bâin n,s, fkhl
inrd
rds, fk hltk
tlnrtke
rk,e, supn
tlnrrk mlin
mlpnri
su inrn
rnet
etns
rila nss
laln
lns
khlñ
khlñtl
tlak
aks,
s, ne netr
trnn dt
dtrd
rds.
s. Zdsn
Zdsnne
ne ueuekk pkrn
pkrnm
m ancu
ancuck
ckrr ades
adestl tltu
tulm
lmkk mn
pdclskaërlmds, qun ne su bkydrâk sde qultlek, bkekeds y λ gcuakeds.

Mn kaunrmd k sus akrkatnrâstlaks bdridcñglaks, cds fdegds punmne snr

bkar
bk ards
dsañ
añpl
plad
adss (n
(n`.
`. Afkb
Afkbplplûd
ûden
ens)
s) d blar
blards
dsañ
añpl
plad
ads.
s. Cds
Cds fdeg
fdegds
ds
blardsañplads punmne prnsnetkr mds nstruaturks iðeglaks hëslaks0 cks
Fliks (ilckbnetds) qun sde ilcks mn aìcucks qun arnane kplakcbnetn y
auyd ade`uetd sn mnedblek blancld? y cks cnvkmurks (hckstdadelmlks) qun
sde nstruaturks dvkckmks d nsiìrlaks uelancuckrns.

Ilgurk ;; Mlinrnealks bdridcñglaks y mn tkbkûd netrn fdegds

ilckbnetdsds, cnvkmurlidrbns y hkatnrlks

=6
 

Iunetn0 *Bdcm (Ilckbnetds), \nkst (cnvkmurk).  ]dbkmd mn Wdcin (8:;=).

Mn kaunrmd k cd ketnrldr, mnsmn uek pnrspnatlvk acâelak, cds fdegds sn

punmne kgrupkr
ueks nspnalns mn ne ilckbnetdsds
fdegds y cnvkmurlidrbns.
qun punmne Qlenenbhkrgd,
snr ilckbnetdsds fky
ck ekturkcnzk
d ne nc ckhdrktdrld (k bneds mn 1: ºA) y, ne akbhld, prnsnetkrsn adbd
cnvkmurlidrbns ne cds tn`lmds (k 17 ºA). Nstds sde cckbkmds fdegds
mlbñrilads y kcgueds mn nccds sde0 Akemlmk kchlakes, Qpdrdtfrlx safneoll,
Flstdpcksbk akpsucktub y Zkrkadaalmldlmns hrkslclnesls.

Cds auctlvds mn fdegds punmne prnsnetkr mnetrd mn sus akrkatnrâstlaks

bkar
bk ard
dsañ
sañplplak
aks,
s, ue
uekk kpkr
kpkrln
lnea
ealk
lk ar
arnnbdsk
bdsk ‑p
‑prd
rdpl
plkk mn cds
cds fdeg
fdegdds
cnvkmurlidr
cnvkmu rlidrbns-?
bns-? d kpkrlnealks0
kpkrlnealks0 adrrndsk,
adrrndsk, ktnraldpnc
ktnraldpnckmk,
kmk, kcgdmdedsk,
kcgdmdedsk,
pdcvdrlnetk y grkeucdsk ‑prdplks mn fdegds ilckbnetdsds-.

Dh`ntlvd

◄ Lmne
Lmnetl
tlil
ilak
akrr akrk
akrkat
atnr
nrâs
âstl
tlak
akss bkard
bkardsa
sañp
ñpla
laks
ks y bl
blar
ards
dsañ
añpl
plak
akss mn cds
cds
fdegds.

Bktnrlkcns

Bktnrlkcns mn ck prëatlak mn ckhdrktdrld slbuckmd

◄ Guketns y tkpkhdaks
◄ Kaansd k letnrent
◄

◄
Zrdtdadcd
N xpcdrkr mn
nc ckhdrktdrld
Ktcks Qdakcnbl, snaalñe mn bladcdgâk ne
fttp0//www.sdakcnbl.ns/lemnx.pfp/ktcks-mn-blardhldcdglk
◄ Ynr vâmnd Cnvkmurks y Fdegds ne0
fttps0//www.ydutuhn.adb/wktaf4v2r]>aIE:iD\\
 

Zrdanmlblnetd

;. Mn`n k ck letn
letnbpnrln
bpnrln uek
uek irutk d pke pdr
pdr kc bneds
bneds > mâks d husqun ne
ne
su fdgkr uek irutk, vnrmurk d pke qun tnegk kpkrlnealk mn nstkr
adetkblekmk ade fdegds. Xnaunrmn kc tdbkrck y bkelpuckrck pdenrsn
guketns y tkpkhdaks ade ketnrldrlmkm.

=<
 

8. ]ñbn
]ñbncncn idtds, dhsìrvn
dhsìrvnck
ck mn anrak, mnsarlhk
mnsarlhk cd qun dhsnrvk.
dhsnrvk. rnaun
rnaunrmn
rmn
murketn
murke tn ck dhsnrvkalñe
dhsnrvkalñe ed tdakrck mlrnatkbnetn,
mlrnatkbnetn, ed rnsplrkr
rnsplrkr u dcnr ck
irutk, vnrmurk d pke sncnaaldekmd, ed nstdreumn, ed sdpcn d qultn nc
ekmk;>.
]khck mn kccâ.
Dhsnrvkalñe arnalblnetd mnc fdegd.

Ck irutk sn Mnspuìs mn ue ^eds mâks Ilekcbnetn, ck

neaune
nea unetrk
trk mn tln
lnbp
bpdd ck irut
irutkk mnspuìs nc fdegd irutk akbhlk
hune
hun e kspnat
kspnatd
d adblnezk k adblnezk k tdtkcbnetn su
y idrbk. pnrmnr ck tnxturk nspk
ns pkra
ralr
lrsn
sn pdr
pdr ck idrbk y ns
mn ck aksakrk, su irut
irutk.
k. Ck tn tnxt
xtur
urkk levkmlmk
adcdr y k mn ck irutk slgun td
tdtk
tkcb
cbne
netn
tn pdrpdr
mnskrrdcckr ue akbhlkelkemd y yk nc fdegd nc aukc
fdegd
degd mn adadcd
cdrr sn tdrek mn ue yk prprns
nsnnetk
etk ue
akiì ne su pkrtn adcdr
adcdr bës dsaurd
dsaurd adcdr akiì ackrd,
supnrldr. mnhlmd k ck uek tnxturk
levkslñe mnc kt
ktnr
nrald
aldpn
pnckckmd
md y
fdegd qun mn bkc dcdr.
prnsnetk ueks
tdekcl
tde kclmkmn
mkmnss akiìs
akiìs
y hckeaks.
1. Mn
Mnsn
snaf
afnn aulm
aulmkm
kmds
dskb
kbne
netn
tn cd
cdss guke
guketn
tns,
s, tk
tkpk
pkhd
hdak
aks,
s, y nc
ncnb
nbne
netd
tdss
adetkblekmds y pdstnrldrbnetn cëvnsn cks bkeds kmnaukmkbnetn.

>:
 

;. Zksd 8. Zksd
1. Zksd
Mntnatn akbhld ne ^tlclan tdmds cds
ncnbnetds mn Mnsnafn cd
kpkrlnealk
Adcdrns hckead, akiì hldsngurlmkm adetkblekmd
Dhsnrvn y mnsarlhk Adetleuì ade nc
d engrd aunstldekrld

Iunetn0 Adestruaalñe prdplk nqulpd mn mdanetns (8:8:)

Aunstldekrld y rnsuctkmds

;. ´A
´Auë
uëcn
cnss sde
sde cd
cdss kgk
kgkrn
rnss b
bës
ës us
uskm
kmds
ds pkrk
pkrk fdeg
fdegds
ds44

]khck ;9.
 Kgkrns bës uskmds pkrk fdegds.
Edbhrn mnc kgkr Lbkgne

Kgkr gcuadskmd mn Qkhdurkum

>;
 

Kgkr Leiuslñe Anrnhrd Adrkzñe

Kgkr pkpk mnxtrdsk

Kgkr nxtrkatd mn bkctk

>8
 

DG\N

Xdsk hnegkck acdrkeineladc

Iunetn0 Bkmlgke, B] (8::6).

8. Mn kaunr
kaunrmd
md kc auctlvd
auctlvd blañtlad
blañtlad mn ck irutk
irutk vnrmurk d pke
pke adbpcntn
adbpcntn nc
slgulnetn aukmrd.
]khck ;7.
Mnsarlpalñe auctlvd blañtlad.
Idtdgrkiâk mn Mnsarlhk Levnstlgun qun Mnsarlhk cks
ck Irutk, cks tlpds mn Akrkatnrâstlaks
Ynrmurk d Akrkatnrâ fdegds blardsañplaks mnc
Zke stlaks punmne fkhnr fdegd qun supden
adetkblekmd bkardsañ ktkakmd ck arnan ne ìc
plaks Irutk vnrmurk
d pke

>1
 

-]nxturk0 Cds tlpds mn Znelalcclub0

ktnraldpnck fdegds qun prnsnetk fliks
mk pumlnrde ktkakr flkcleks snptkmks.
-Adcdr0 ck irutk sde Cds adelmlñidrds
Kspnrglccus d tlnene rkbks
Akiì
Znelalcclub, snauemkrlks,
-Kspnatd0 hksëemdsn ne mnedblekmks
Xugdsd cks bìtucks. Nstks sde
akrkatnrâstlaks mn idrbk alcâemrlak,
-
bkardsañplaks ade pkrnmns clsks y
Adeslstnea
qun prnsnetñ ck pdrtke mn 1 k 9
lk0 Hckemk
irutk murketn nc ilëclmns ne idrbk mn
Xnclnvn0 prdansd mn bktrkz? mn cks
Zcked arnalblnetd mn aukcns surgne ckrgks
(Kanvnmd, nstn. Kmnbës,
nstds sde akmneks sle rkblilakr
mn nspdrks d
M. 8:;>).
kcgueds mn cds adelmlds idrbkemd nc
fdegds bës pnekafd d pleanc
adbuens qun akrkatnrâstlad mnc
kinatke cks gìenrd (Ylskgln, AB,
irutks rnspnatd k nt kc., 8:;=)
su kspnatd
Kspnrglccus0 ]lnene
iâslad, vkcdr
fliks tkhlauckrns y
eutrlaldekc y
adelmldidrks auyk
akrkatnrâstlaks
akhnzk nstë
drgkedcìptlaks
(]rlgds, Ë. nt cdakclzkmk ne nc
nxtrnbd mn uek flik,
kc., 8::6).
adbpunstk pdr uek
vnsâauck rdmnkmk pdr
uek adrdek mn
ilëclmns ne idrbk mn
hdtncck mlrnatkbnetn
lesnrtkmks sdhrn ck
vnsâauck. Mn cks
ilëclmns sn
mnsprnemne cks
nspdrks d adelmlds
(Khkrak, B. C.
>=
 

8:::).
1. Cd
Cdss fdeg
fdegds
ds ilck
ilckbn
bnet
etds
dsds
ds punm
punmne
ne ak
akusk
uskrr lein
leinaa
aald
lden
enss ne fubke
fubkeds
ds
´[uì ademlaldens mnhn tnenr ue snr fubked pkrk snr leinatkmd pdr
nstds fdegds4
Nstks leinaaldens sde bës irnaunetns ne pnrsdeks deadfnbktdcñglaks
qunn aurs
qu aurske
ke ade
ade en
enut
utrdrdpn
pnel
elk,
k, ne nspn
nspnalk
alkcc kqu
kquncnccd
cdss ade
ade cncnuan
uanbl
blkk
blncdlmn kgumk? sle nbhkrgd, nxlstne dtrds grupds mn rlnsgd pkalnetns
sdbn
sd bntl
tlmd
mdss k tr trks
kspc
pcke
ketntn mn ñrgke rgked
ds sñcl
sñclmd
mdss d mn pr prnnaurs
aursdr
drnns
fnbktdpdyìtlads, neinrbnmkm le`nrtd adetrk fdspnmnrd, neinrbnmkm
grke
grkeuc
ucdb
dbktktds
dsk,
k, QLMLMK,
K, pkal
pkalnnetn
etns ade
ade leinleinaa
aald
lden
enss ksda
ksdalk
lkmk
mkss k
trku
trkubkt
bktlsb
lsbds
ds (n(nsp
spna
nalk
lkcbn
cbnet
etnn cd
cdss pnen
pnentr
trke
ketn
tnss y adet
adetkb
kble
lekm
kmds)
ds) d
lebuedsuprnslñe y pkalnetns ade enubdeâks y khsansds pucbdekrns d
anrn
anrnhr
hrkc
kcns
ns trtrks
ks ck le lebn
bnrs
rslñ
lñee kaal
kaalmn
mnet
etkc
kc ne kgukkgukss adet
adetkb
kblelekm
kmks
ks
(Nstrkmk Qkckzkr, G. L., & Xkbârnz Gkcnked, B. A. 8:;<).

=. Mn cks slgulnetns idtdgrkiâks kc blard

ardsa
sad
dpld,
ld, mnilek
lek pdr sus
akrkatnrâstlaks qun fdegd arnn vnr0

]khck ;6.
Akrkatnrâstlaks mn fdegds.
>>
 

Akrkatnrâstlak
Lbkgne Edbhrn
blardsañplak
]lnene fliks tkhlauckrns y
adelmldidrks auyk akhnzk
nstë cdakclzkmk ne nc
nxtrnbd mn uek flik,
adbpunstk pdr uek
vnsâauck rdmnkmk pdr uek
Kspnrglccus adrdek mn ilëclmns ne
idrbk mn hdtncck
mlrnatkbnetn lesnrtkmks
sdhrn ck vnsâauck. Mn cks
ilëclmns sn mnsprnemne cks
nspdrks d adelmlds
(Khkrak, B. C. 8:::).
Cks aìcucks mn
aìcucks mn cks
cnvkmurks sde rnmdemks u
dvkcns, blmne netrn 1 y 1:
blardens mn mlëbntrd. Ck
idrbk mn ck cnvkmurk
punmn snr mnsmn nsiìrlak k
dvdlmn, ne idrbk mn clbñe,
Cnvkmurks plrlidrbn, alcâemrlak,
trlkeguckr, n leacusd
kckrgkmk idrbkemd
vnrmkmnrd blancld d ue
ue
ikcsd blancld (Bnemdzk, B.
,8::>).

>9
 

Blancld ilckbnetdsd, fliks

ne idrbk mn rkquntk,
bkardelmlks iuslidrbns y
vnrrudgdsks,mn pkrnm
grunsk, ade tnemnealk k
qun sus nxtrnbds
puetlkgumds sn aurvne.
Blardspdrub
Blardelmlks ne idrbk mn
bkzk, sìslcns? ade
ackblmdsñrks, fliks
pnatlenks y aunrpds
edmuckrns (Nstrkmk
Qkckzkr, G. L., & Xkbârnz
Gkcnked, B. A. 8:;<).

Iunetn00 Idt
Iunetn Idtdgr
dgrkiâ
kiâks
ks tdbkmk
tdbkmkss mn Zlet
Zletnrn
nrnst
st n lbëgne
lbëgnens
ns mn gddgcn
gddgcn mn
kaansd clhrn.

>. Xnglstrn
Xnglstrn cks rrninr
ninrnealks
nealks altkmk
altkmks,
s, uskemd
uskemd edrbk KZK
Khkr
Khkrak
ak,, B. C. (8::(8:::)
:).. ]kxd
]kxded
edbâ
bâkk n lmnelmnetl
tlil
ilak
akal
alñe
ñe mn nspn
nspnal
alns
ns
lbpc
lb pcla
lakm
kmks
ks ne ck kspn kspnrg
rglclcd
dsl
slss edsd
edsdad
adblblkc
kc.. Xnv Lhnr
Lhnrdk
dkbb
Bladc , ;7 (1),
(1), Q7<-6=.

Kanvnmd, M. .(8:;>).
fdegds
fde gds. ^elvnr Bdridcdgâk
^elvnrslmk
slmkm
m Kutñedbkardsañplak
Kutñedbk
bk mn Bìxlady blardsañplak
Bìxlad,
, Ikauct
Ikauctkm mn lek.
km bnmlek
bnm cds.
Bìxlad M.I.
Nstrkmk Qkckzkr, G. L., & Xkbârnz Gkcnked, B. A. (8:;<). Bladcdgâk
gnen
gn enrk
rkc.
c. Bk
Bkel
elzkc
zkcns
ns,, Ad
Adcd
cdbh
bhlk
lk.. Anet
Anetrd
rd Nmlt
Nmltdr
drlk
lkcc ^elvn
^elvnrs
rslm
lmkm
km
Aktñclak mn Bkelzkcns
Bkmlgke, B], Bkrtleod, @B, Mueckp, ZY y Ackro, MZ (8::6). Hrdao
hldcdgâk mn blarddrgkelsbds ;8ª nm. Ne t. Blardhldc   ,, ;; , 9>-71.
Bnemdzk, B. (8::>). Lbpdrtkealk mn ck lmnetlilakalñe mn
cnvkmurks. Xnvlstk mn ck Qdalnmkm Ynenzdckek mn
Blardhldcdgâk, 8> (;),
(;), ;:1-;;7.

>7
 

]rlgds, Ë., Xkbârnz, O., & Qkcleks, K. (8::6). Zrnsnealk mn fdegds

iltdpktñgneds ne irutks y fdrtkclzks y su rnckalñe ne ck sngurlmkm
kclbnetkrlk. Xnvlstk bnxlakek mn bladcdgâk, 86(QZN), ;8>-;8<.
Ylskgln, AB, Fduhrkone, @., Irlsvkm, @A, Fdeg, QH, Ockkssne, AFW,
Znrrrden, G., ... y Qkbsde, XK (8:;=). Lmn
Zn Lmnetlilaka
akalñe
lñe y
edbneackturk mnc gìenrd Znelalcclub. Nstumlds ne
bladcdgâk , 76 , 1=1-17;.
 

>6
 

Katlvlmkm prëatlak >. Zkrësltds mn lbpdrtkealk ne skcum.

Letrdmuaalñe
Ck pkrksltdcdgâk ns ck mlvlslñe mn ck hldcdgâk qun tlnen pdr dh`ntd mn
nstu
ns tuml
mld
d nc pk
pkrk
rksl
sltl
tlsb
sbd
d gnen
gnenrk
rkmd
md pd
pdrr pr
prdt
dtd
dzdkr
zdkrld
lds,
s, fncb
fncble
letd
tdss y
krtrñpdmds? slnemd nc pkrksltlsbd ck rnckalñe slbhlñtlak ne ck aukc ue
drgkelsbd (pkrësltd) vlvn k nxpnesks mn dtrd (mnedblekmd fuìspnm) y
cn daksldek mkûd.

Cds prdtdzdkrlds sde drgkelsbds nuakrldtks, uelancuckrns, qun ed pdsnne

pkrnm ancuckr, fntnrñtrdids -ne su bkydrâk-, kcgueds bñvlcns sngðe nc
kpkrktd mn cdadbdalñe qun pdsnke, ade rnprdmuaalñe ksnxukc y snxukc.
Cds fncble
fncbletds
tds sde drgkelsbds
drgkelsbds nuakrldtks
nuakrldtks,, pcurlancuckr
pcurlancuckrns
ns qun adeidrbke
adeidrbke
guskeds qun sn punmne
y kaketdaìikcds? ackslilakrcds
sle nbhkrgd, nepkrësltds
trns ilcubmn
0 pcktncbletds,
lbpdrtkealk enbktdmds
bìmlak sn
neaunetrke ne cds mds prlbnrds ilcub bnealdekmds.

Cds pcktncbletds sde guskeds pckeds mn slbntrâk hlcktnrkc, qun punmne

snr mn vlmk clhrn d nemdpkrësltds, ed pdsnne slstnbk alraucktdrld, pnrd sl
ue slstnbk mlgnstlvd. Nstds guskeds sn ackslilake ne trns acksns, slnemd
cks acksns ]rnbktdmk (muncks) y Anstdmk (tnelks) ne mdemn sn cdakclzke
pkrë
pk rësl
sltd
tdss mn fubk
fubked
edss y kelb
kelbkc
kcns
ns.. Cds
Cds enbk
enbktd
tdmd
mdss sde
sde gusk
gusked
edss
alcâemrlads, ed sngbnetkmds qun bumke pnrlñmlakbnetn su autâauck y sn
rnpr
rnprdmdmua
uane
ne snxu
snxukc
kcbn
bnet
etn,
n, mnpd
mnpdslt
sltke
kemd
md kprd
kprdxl
xlbk
bkmkb
mkbne
netn
tn 8::.
8::.::
:::
:
funvds pdr mâk. Zdsnne slstnbk mlgnstlvd adbpcntd (hdak-ked) y su hdak
prnsnetk
Mnetrd mnnstruaturks
nstn grupdpkrtlauckrns kmkptkmks
sn neaunetrke nc dxlurdk (su nstlcd mn vnrblauckrls
Netnrdhlus kclbnetkalñe. ),
nc trla
trlafu
furd
rd (]rlafu
]rlafurls
rls trlaf lurk), ck
trlaflurk ckss ueal
uealek
ekrlrlks
ks ( Keaycdstdbk spp.  y
Enaktdr spp.), enbktdmd ( Ksakrls cubhrladlmns ) y ck trlqulek
trlqulek ( ]rlaflencck
splrkcls).

Zdr dtrk
Zdr dtrk pk pkrt
rtn,
n, cd
cdss kr
krtr
trñp
ñpdm
dmds
ds sde
sde kelb
kelbkc
kcns
ns levn
levnrt
rtnh
nhrk
rkmd
mdss auyk
auyk
akrkat
akrkatnrâ
nrâstl
stlak
ak prleal
prlealpkc
pkc ns ck prnsne
prnsnealk
alk mn kpìemla
kpìemlans
ns krtlau
krtlauckm
ckmds.
ds. Ksâ 
blsbd, pdsnne slbntrâk hlcktnrkc, d`ds adbpunstds, ue nxdnsquncntd
adeidrbkmd pdr qultlek y sngbnetkalñe vkrlkhcn ne mdemn sn punmne
neadetrkr cds kpìemlans krtlauckmds? pdr n`nbpcd, ne lesnatds sn punmne
lmnetlilakr trns sngbnetds0 akhnzk, tñrkx y khmdbne. Ne su bkydrâk sde
dvâpkrds, pnrd
vlvlpkrlmkm. ne kelbkcns
Nstds kcgueds grupds punmn
sn mlvlmne ne mkrsn
auktrd ckgrupds0
dvdvlvlpkrlmkm y ck
[unclanrkmds

><
 

(krkûks, ëakrds), Arustëands, Fnxëpdmds (lesnatds0 bdsaks, bdsqultds,

pucgks,, pld`ds), Blrlëp
pucgks Blrlëpdmds
dmds (alnbplìs
(alnbplìs y blcplìs). Qu lbpdrtk
lbpdrtkealk
ealk rkmlak
ne qun nstds punmne akuskr pktdcdgâks mlrnatks (pkrksltdsls, rnkaaldens
kcìrglaks) d pktdcdgâks
vnatdrns d fuìspnmns lemlrnatks, mnhlmd
letnrbnmlkrlds k qun punmnepktñgneds.
mn blarddrgkelsbds katukr adbd

Ilekcbnetn, pkrk qun cds prdtdzdkrlds, fncbletds y krtrñpdmds ccngune k

snr pkrësltds tlnene qun nxlstlr alnrtks ademlaldens tketd mnc pkrksltd
adbd mnc fuìspnm, netrn nccks sn neaunetrk ck aketlmkm mn pkrësltds
ledauckmds, ikatdrns mn vlrucnealk, iksn mnc pkrësltd y ck susanptlhlclmkm
mnc fuìspnm.

Dh`ntlvd

◄ Dhsnrvkr pkrësltds akusketns mn neinrbnmkmns mn lbpdrtkealk ne

skcum pðhclak.
Bktnrlkcns

Bktnrlkcns mn ck prëatlak mn ckhdrktdrld bnmlkmd

◄ Kaansd k letnrent
◄ Zrdtdadcd mn ckhdrktdrld
◄ Nxpc
Nxpcdr
drkr
kr nc Ktck
Ktckss Qd
Qdak
akcn
cnbl
bl,, sn
snaa
aalñ
lñe
e mn pkrk
pkrksl
sltd
tdcd
cdgâ
gâkk ne
fttp0//www.sdakcnbl.ns/lemnx.pfp/ktcks-mn-blardhldcdglk 
fttp0//www.sdakcnbl.ns/lemnx.pfp/ktcks-mn-blardhldcdglk 
◄ Ynr vâmnd Zkrësltds ne0 fttps0//www.ydutuhn.adb/wktaf4
v2X]L;MH=8HP=
 
Aunstldekrld y rnsuctkmds
;. ´[uì sde cks gnd
gndfncble
fncbletlksls
tlksls44 Bnealden
Bnealden > bnmlmks prnvnetlvks
prnvnetlvks pkrk
nstks pkrksltdsls.

Qn rnilnrn k ck leinaalñe akuskmk pdr legnstlñe mn kclbnetds d hnhlmks

adetkblekmks ade funvds mn guskeds prdanmnetns mnc suncd, d pdr
pnentrkalñe mn ckrvks d guskeds mn nstds pkrësltds k trkvìs mn ck plnc
aukemd nc suncd nstë adetkblekmd ade bktnrlk. 
bktnrlk.  Kinatk bës k cds elûds
y elûks? nc grupd mn netrn > y ;= kûds mn nmkm adeanetrk nc 6:% mn ck
akrgk pkrksltkrlk.
Ckss gndf
Ck gndfnc
ncbl
prdmualmks blet
pdretlks
lksls
ls mn
auktrd bkyd
bkydrr auyks
pkrësltds lbpd
lbpdrt
rtke
keal
alkk kmuctks
idrbks ne skcu
skcum
m kcd`ke
sn pð
pðhc
hcla
lakknesde
sdnce

9:
 

letnstled y sus funvds sn nclbleke pdr cks fnans? cds edbhrns ne cktâe,
sde0
 Ësakrls cubhrladlmns



]rlafurls trlaflurk
Keaycdstdbk mudmnekcn
 Enaktdr kbnrlakeus

BNMLMKQ ZXNYNE]LYKQ.

;. Mn
Mnsp
spkr
krkskslt
ltkr
kr bksl
bkslvkb
vkbnenetn
tn k alalnr
nrtd
tdss gr
grup
upds
ds mn pdhc
pdhcka
kalñ
lñe
e ne
rlnsgd
8. ]rk
]rkhk`
hk`kr
kr ne ck pkrtn nmuakt
nmuaktlvk
lvk mn cks pnrsde
pnrsdeks
ks pkrk prdb
prdbdvn
dvnrr
fëhltds flglìelads kmnaukmds
1. ^s
^sddmmnn aakcz
kczkm
kmdd
=. Zrdbdv
Zrdbdvnr nr nc kaansd
kaansd k snrvlalds
snrvlalds hëslads adbd
adbd kguk pdtkhcn
pdtkhcn
>. Mlspds
Mlspdslalñe
lalñe kmnaukmk
kmnaukmk mn nxarnt
nxarntks
ks y hks
hksurks.
urks.
8. Dhsnr
Dhsnrvn
vn cks slgulnetn
slgulnetnss idtdgrkiâks
idtdgrkiâks y adbpcnt
adbpcntnn ck tkhck0

K. H.

A. M.

9;
 

Iunetn00 Idt
Iunetn Idtdgr
dgrkiâ
kiâks
ks tdbkmk
tdbkmkss mn Zlet
Zletnrn
nrnst,
st, Wlolpn
Wlolpnmlk
mlk n lbëgnen
lbëgnenss mn
gddgcn mn kaansd clhrn.

]khck ;<.
Akrkatnrâstlaks mn pkrësltds adbuens.
]lpd mn
pkrksltd
Zktdcdgâ
Edbhr (prdtdzdkr
n mnc Edbhrn ld, Akrkatnrâstlaks k ade ck
mnc dhsnrvkmks pkrk qun sn
drgkels fncbletd
drgkelsbd su tlplilakalñe rnckalde
bd (funvd- k
kmuctd),
krtrñpdmd) Adcdr pkrmd, idrbk
]rladanikc
ncâptlak, blmn dsls
kprdxlbkmkbnetn
(Pkvkck,
]rlaflurls Fncbletd =>->> blarks mn
K. trlaflurk (Funvd) ckrgd y 8:-8> mn @. ]., & 
Yngk, @.
keafd y prnsnetk ue
]. Q.
tkpñe buadsd k 8::8)
akmk ckmd.
Ntkpk mn Gkbntdaltd
Bkckrlk d
ade idrbk mn cuek
pkcumlsb
arnalnetn d d
Zcksbdmlub Zrdtdzddkrl skcaflafk? ardbktlek (Yësqunz
mliusk
H. ikcalpkrub d (blardgkbntdaltd) d , Kek
Bkrâk y
ne uek sdck bksk
]dhñe,
(bkardgkbntdaltd). Kchnrtd.8
Bksk mn plgbnetd
:;8)
dsaurd.
A. Glkrmlk Zrdtdzddkrl ]rdidzdltd0 idrbk mn Glkrmlksl
d pnrk, ade ue ketnrldr s
keafd y ue pdstnrldr (Bdels,
buy ktneukmk. Blmn Z]., nt
;:-;8 ¾b mn ckrgd y kc.,
>-7 ¾b mn keafd,
slbìtrlad 8::1)

98
 

hlcktnrkcbnetn y
tlnen mds eðacnds.
]kbhlìe ns
rncktlvkbnetn
kpckekmd, ade ue
grke mlsad mn
suaalñe ne nc ckmd
vnetrkc ketnrldr
Eðacnd dvdlmn, Neinrbnm
uelickgnckmd, km mn
]rypkedsdbk Zrdtdzddkrl bnbhrkek Afkgks
M. aruzl  d demucketn y (Xdssl
bltdademrlks ade LY, nt kc.,
olentdpckstd 8:;<)

1. Mn kaun
kaunrmd
akrkat
akr rmd
katnrâ
nrâstl k cdfkane
stlaks
aks dhsn
dhsnrvk
fkane rvkmd
md ne
qun cds ncpkrësl
vâmnd
pkr y cdsnke
ësltds
tds qun
snk fk tdsds
adesu
adesuctk
e nxltds
nxl ds ctkmd
leimd
leinat´quì
natkem
kemd
d
pdhckaldens4 Nxpclqun, hrnvnbnetn, su rnpunstk.

Ck akrkatnrâstlak prlealpkc qun fkan qun cds pkrësltds punmke leinatkr

pdhckaldens ns su akpkalmkm kmkptktlvk murketn nc alacd mn vlmk qun
akmk ued mn nccds bken`k y ksâ blsbd ck utlclzkalñe mn vnatdrns
kelbkcns buy adbuens ne akmk cugkr. Cd ketnrldr, pnrbltn k cds
pkrësltds bketnenrsn vlvds pkrk ccngkr ksâ k sus fdspnmnrds, auhrlr
nxtn
nxtnes
esks
ks mlmlst
stke
keal
alks
ks pdr
pdr bnml
bnmld
d mn su
suss vnat
vnatdr
drns
ns y mnsk
mnskrr
rrdc
dcckr
ckr cks
cks
pktd
pktdccdg
dgâk
âkss qun
qun akmk
akmk ued
ued mn nccccd
ds pdsn
pdsnnn buaf
uafks vnvnan
anss sle
sle snr
snr
pnralhlmds fkstk qun yk ns mnbkslkmd tkrmn pdr cd qun ne buafks
daksldens nc fuìspnm bunrn y pdr bnmld mn ìc, tkbhlìe sn mlsnblek
bës ck neinrbnmkm.

=. Xngls
Xnglstrn
trn cks rninrne
rninrnealks
alks altkmks,
altkmks, uskemd
uskemd edrbk
edrbk KZK
Blelstnr
Blelstnrld
ld mn Qkc
Qkcum
um y Zrd
Zrdtna
tnaalñ
alñe
e Qda
Qdalkc
lkc ( ;; mn Edv
Edvlnb
lnbhrn
hrn 8:8
8:8:).
:). Gnd
Gndfnc
fncbl
blek
eksls
sls.. ]db
]dbkmd
kmd mn0
fps0//www.bleskcum.gdv.ad/sk
fps0//www.b leskcum.gdv.ad/skcum/puhclak/Z
cum/puhclak/ZN]/Zkgleks
N]/Zkgleks/gndfncbleksl
/gndfncbleksls.kspx
s.kspx

Bdels, Z], Kemrnws, XF, Bkyrfdinr, G. y Ny, ZC (8::1). Mlvnrslmkm

gneìtlak mnetrd mn ck nspnaln bdridcñglak Glkrmlk letnstlekcls y
su rnckalñe ade nc drlgne mnc fdspnmkmdr. Leinaalñe, gneìtlak y 
nvdcualñe , 1 (;), 8<-16.

91
 

Xdssl LY, Gkvlefd H, Xkblrnz BL. Lsdcktlde kem Afkrkatnrlzktlde di 

Nxtrkanccuckr Ynslacns Mnrlvnm irdb ]rypkedsdbk aruzl. Bntfdms
Bdc Hldc.
Hldc. 8:;<?;<>>06<-;
8:;<?;<>>06<-;:=.
:=. mdl0 ;:.;::7/<76-;-
;:.;::7/<76-;-=<1<-<
=<1<-<;=6-
;=6-
6T7. ZBLM0 1:696>8;.
Yësq
Yësqun
unz,z, Kek
Kek Bkrâ
Bkrâkk y ]dhñ
]dhñe,
e, Kc
Kchn
hnrt
rtd.
d. (8:;
(8:;8)
8).. Bnak
Bnakel
elsb
sbds
ds mn
pktdgnelk ne ck bkckrlk pdr Zcksbdmlub
ikcalpkrub. Hldbìmlak , 18 (Qupc. ;), ;:9-;8:.
Pkvkck, @. ]., & Yngk, @. ]. Q. (8::8). Akrkatnrâstlaks mn prdtdzdkrlds y
fncbletds akpkans mn akuskr mlkrrnk kgumk ne fubkeds. Xnvlstk
mn ck Ikauctkm mn Bnmlalek ^EKB , => (8),
(8), 9=-7:.

9=
 

Hlhcldgrkiâk
 

Hnan
Hn anrrrl
rlc,
Lec,B
tB
n.rkbn(8:;
(8
rl:;=)
ake=).Z
k.Zkr
. krkskslt
ltd
dAcd
cdgâ
ëpgâk
ltkucd bìml
bìmlak
ak.(
8..(=k
=k.. Xnnm.
m.)
au)pnrkB
mdaGrk
aGrkw-
w-Fl
Flcc
mncc
fttp0//hlhcldtnakvlrtukc.uekm.nmu.ad08:>1/4lc2=;9
Hdeli
Hd elikz
kz,K,K.. (8
(8:;
:;8)8).B
.Blad
ladcd
cdglk
glk bìmla
bìmlakk hësla
hëslak.
k.(=
(=k.
k. nm.)
nm.) BaGr
BaGrkw
kw-F
-Flcc
lcc
Letnrkbnrlakek. Zëglek 81. Xnaupnrkmd mn
fttp0//hlhcldtnakvlrtukc.uekm.nmu.ad08:>1/4lc2=;7
Hrdd
Hrddos
os,G,G.. (8:;
(8:;;);).B
.Bla
lard
rdhl
hldc
dcdg
dgâk
âk bìmlbìmlak
ak.(
.(8>
8>k.
k. nm.)
nm.) BaGr
BaGrkw
kw-F
-Flclccc
Letnrkbnrlakek. Aëpltucd >. Xnaupnrkmd mn
fttp0//hlhcldtnakvlrtukc.uekm.nmu.ad08:>1/4lc2=69

I. Hnekoksfkel nt kc., (8:;9). Hldsyetfnsls di slcvnr ekedpkrtlacns usleg

Akppkrls spledsk C. cnki nxtrkat kem tfnlr ketlhkatnrlkc katlvlty,
Okrhkck Letnrektldekc. @durekc di Bdmnre
fttp0//mx.mdl.drg/;:.;:;9/`.ol`dbs.8:;9.:6.::= Qalnean

Ccdym-Z
Ccdym-Zrla
rlan,
n, @., Khu
Khu-Kc
-Kcl,
l, G., & Futtne
Futtnefdw
fdwnr,
nr, A. (8:;9)
(8:;9).. ]fn fnkctfy
fnkctfy
fubke blardhldbn. Gnedbn Bnm, 6(;), >;. mdl0;:.;;69/s;1:71-
:;9-:1:7-y. Xnaupnrkmd mn
fttps0//www.eahl.ecb.elf.gdv/pba/krtlacns/ZBA=6=667:/
Bkeukc mn prëatlaks mn ckhdrktdrld mn blardhldcdgâk L y LL0 mlvnrslmkm y
nstrua
nstruatur
turkk mn cds blardd
blarddrgk
rgkels
elsbds
bds.. (8::<)
(8::<).. Bìxlad,
Bìxlad, M.I
M.I.,
., BV0
BV0
^elvnrslmkm Kutñedbk mn Gunrrnrd. Xnaupnrkmd mn
fttp0//hlhcldtnakvlrtukc.uekm.nmu.ad08:77/clh/uekmsp/mntklc.katlde4
mdaLM2;:867;99&p::2bkeukc+pr

Bnem
Bn %A1%K;atlaks+ckhdrktdrld+blardhldcdg%A1%KMk
emdz
dzk,
k, P. X. (8:;
(8:;:).
:). Ketl
Ketlbl
blar
ardh
dhlk lked
edss 8:
8::8
:8.. Bìxla
Bìxlad,
d, M.I.
M.I.,, BV0
BV0
Lestltutd Zdcltìaelad Ekaldekc. Xnaupnrkmd mn
fttp0//hlhcldtnakvlrtukc.uekm.nmu.ad08:77/clh/uekmsp/mntklc.katlde4
mdaLM2;:19>6:<&p::2ketlblardhlkeds+8::8
Zrnsadtt, C. B., Fkrcny, @. Z., & Ocnle, M. K. (8::=). Blardhldcdgâk.
Bìxlad,
Bìx lad, M.I
M.I.,
., BV0 BaGrkw
BaGrkw-Fl
-Flcccc Letnr
Letnrkbn
kbnrla
rlakek
kek.. Xnaupn
Xnaupnrkm
rkmdd mn
fttp0//hlhcldtnakvlrtukc.uekm.nmu.ad08:77/clh/uekmsp/mntklc.katlde4
mdaLM2;:>;>81>&p::2prnsadtt  
mdaLM2;:>;>81>&p::2prnsadtt
Xnyedsd, B., Bkgedcl, A., Hkrrds, G., Mnbd, B. (8:;>). Bkeukc mn
blardhldcdgâk gnenrkc (Zrlbnrk). Xâd aukrtd0 ^elXâd. Xnaupnrkmd
mn fttps0//dpneclhrk.adb/ns/hddo/mdwecdkm/bkeukc-mn-
blardhldcdglk-gnenrkc

9>
 

Xdmrâgunz, Z. N. G. (8:;1). Zkrksltdcdgâk bìmlak. Bìxlad, M.I., BV0

Nmltdrlkc Nc Bkeukc Bdmnred. Xnaupnrkmd mn
fttp0//hlhcldtnakvlrtukc.uekm.nmu.ad08:77/clh/uekmsp/mntklc.katlde4

Xd`ks mdaLM2;:6>1=7=
]rlvlûd, Kchnrtd. (8:;;). Adeanptds y prëatlak mn Blardhldcdgâk
gnenrkc.
gnenr kc. Bkeukc.
Bkeukc. ^elvnrslmkm
^elvnrslmkm Ekaldekc mn Adcdbhlk
Adcdbhlk Qnmn Zkcblrk.
Xnaupnrkmd mn0
fttp0//www.hmlgltkc.uekc.nmu.ad/=<<</;/kchnrtdrd`kstrlvled.8:;;.p
mi 
Qketlkgd, Kxnc Xdmdcid. (8::1). Fkes Afrlstlke @dkaflb Grkb. Xnvlstk
mn ck QdQdaln
alnmk
mkm
m Ynen
Ynenzd
zdcke
ckekk mn Blar
Blardh
dhld
ldcd
cdgâk
gâk,, 81(8
81(8),
), 8::-
8::-8:
8:;.
;.
Xnaupnrkmd ne 88 mn `ueld mn 8:;7, mn
fttp0//www.salncd.drg.vn/salncd.pfp4
sarlpt2salTkrttnxt&plm2Q;1;>-
8>>98::1:::8:::8:&ceg2ns&tceg2ns..
8>>98::1:::8:::8:&ceg2ns&tceg2ns
Wdnsn,
HldA.
c, X. (;<<9).
9(<), Wfltfnr;blardhldcdgy4
:9:-;:91. Zfycdgnentla
Xnaupnrkmtrnns.
d Aurr
mn
fttp0//www.salneanmlrnat.adb/salnean/krtlacn/pll/Q:<9:<688:87:
99=7
Wdcin, H. (8:;=, @ucld 8=). ]nafelquns0 ^sleg k blardsadpn td nxpcdrn
inrbnetnm iddms. Xnaupnrkmd mn fttp0//blardhlkciddms.drg/usleg-
blardsadpy-td-bdeltdr-krtlske-inrbnetktldes/

99